Chapter 9: Chromosomes, cell division and the cell cycle In normal tissues, cell reproduction (birth) is balanced by cell

loss (death). Normal cells sacrifice themselves for the greater good of the organism, an organism stays like it is when it grows up because of cell division and programmed cell death. Cell reproduction: Unicellular Organisms use cell division to reproduce, while multicellular organisms use cell division to grow and repair tissues. For cells to divide, this must happen: There must be a reproductive signal, which may come from in or out of cell, starts cell reproduction. Replication of DNA and other vital cell components so that each cell is complete and identical Cell must distribute replicated DNA to each of the cells (segregation) New material must be added to cell membrane and cell wall to separate two new cells (cytokinesis)

Prokaryotes- Cell division= reproduction of entire single-celled organism. Cell grows in size, replicates DNA and divides into 2 new cells (FISSION). External factors, like materials and nutrients in the environment control the initiation of cell division. CHROMOSOME= DNA molecule containing genetic info. When a cell divides, all its chromosomes must be replicated. Most prokaryotes have only 1 chromosome, the DNA, to fit into cell, must fold over itself. Circular chromosomes are characteristic of prokaryotes and found in chloroplasts and mitochondria of eukaryotes. Prokaryotic chromosome has 2 regions important for cell reproduction: - Site where replication of circle starts (origin of replication, designated ori) - Site where replication ends (terminus, ter) DNA Segregation: DNA replication drives segregation of replicated DNA to new cells, the first region that is replicated is ori (attached to plasma membrane) and these 2 regions separate as the new chromosome forms and new PM forms b/w them. Cytokinesis: Cell separation begins after chromosome replication ends, the PM pinches in and new cell wall materials are synthesized (it separates the two cells). Eukaryotes- They divide through mitosis or meiosis. Complex eukaryotes come from a single cell (fertilized egg). This cell comes from the union of 2 sex cells (gametes, sperm and egg) and contains genetic material from both these cells (parents), so it has one set of chromosomes from the male parent and one from the female parent. Development: formation of a multicellular organism from a fertilized egg (involves cell reproduction and cell specialization). Cell division in eukaryotes is more complex, cells fdont divide all the time when there are favorable conditions in the environment, specialized cells seldom divide. Signals for cell division are related to the needs of entire organism. Eukaryote usually have many chromosomes so replication and segregation are more complex, the nucleus has to divide into two new nuclei and cytokinesis is distinct from division of genetic material and is different in plant cells and animal cells b/c of cell wall. Newly replicated chromosomes remain associate with each other (sister chromatids) and mitosis is used to segregate them into the 2 new nuclei

Reproduction of eukaryotic cell consists of - Replication of DNA in the nucleus - Packaging and segregation of the replicated DNA into 2 new nuclei (nuclear division) - Division of cytoplasm (cytokinesis) Meiosis occurs in cells that produce gametes that contribute to reproduction of another organism. Meiosis shuffles genetic info and therefore its products are not identical to what came before, leads to diversity. INTERPHASE: it is the condition that most cells are in between divisions (for most of their cell lives). Most cells follow a cell cycle composed of mitosis and interphase. The Interphase is composed of 3 subphases: G1 (Gap 1, period between the end of mitosis and the onset of the S phase), S (synthesis, DNA replicates during this), and G2 (separates end of S phase and beginning of mitosis). Mitosis and cytokinesis= M phase of cell cycle. During G1, the chromosomes are single, unreplicated structures. During G2, the cell prepares for mitosis by, for example, synthesizing components of mictrotubules that will move chromosomes to opposite ends of dividing cell. Cyclindependent kinase (Cdk) activates the transitions from G1 to S and G2 to M. Eukaryotic chromosomes: They have more than one chromosome and during interphase these chromosomes reside within a membrane enclosed organelle (nucleus). Basic unit of chromosome is a gigantic, linear, double stranded DNA molecule complexed with many proteins to form chromatin. After replication, the 2 resulting DNA molecules are helt together by a protein (cohesin) and stay like this until mitosis, when the protein is removed everywhere except at the centromere (where chromatids are still held together). Mitosis is a series of events: prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Prophase: The appearance of the nucleus changes, individual chromatids become visible, still held together by centromere. Microtubules form between each pole and chromosomes to make a spindle, a structure to which the chromosomes will attach to and framework for keeping poles apart. Sister chromatids in each chromosome pair attach to microtubules in opposite halves of the spindle, which ensures that they will move to opposite poles. Prometaphase: nuclear envelope disappears. The material remains in the cytoplasm to be reassembled when daughter nuclei re-form. Chromosomes begin to move toward poles, but this is counteracted by a repulsive force that pushes chromosomes toward middle region and the fact that the chromatids are still held together at centromere. Centromeres, then, approach center of cell. Metaphase: All centromeres get to center of cell, chromosomes are maximally condensed, chromatids are connected to poles by microtuvules and all chromatid pairs separate at the end of this phase. Anaphase: Marked by separation of chromatids. 2 chromatids move to opposite ends of spindle and are now separated and called daughter chromosomes.

Telophase: There are now 2 sets of chromosomes at each end of spindle, spindle begins to break down and chromosomes begin to uncoil. Now there are 2 identical nuclei that need to be isolated in separate cells. Cytokinesis (division of cytoplasm): the division of the cells cytoplasm follows mitosis, is accomplished by cytokinesis. Animal cells divide by a furrowing of the PM, as if a threat were thightening between the poles (this thread is microfilaments of actin and myosin, proteins that produce a contraction, pinching in the cell in two). Plant cell cytoplasm- as the spindle breaks down after mitosis, vesicles derived from Golgi appear in the center, midway between the two nuclei. These vesicles fuse to form a new plasma membrane and contribute their contents to a cell plate (beginning of cell wall). Reproduction by mitosis results in genetic constancy. Asexual reproduction: vegetative reproduction, based on mitotic division of nucleus. It produces a clone of offspring that are genetically identical to parent, any variation is due to mutations in genetic material. Reproduction by meiosis results in genetic diversity. Sexual reproduction: involves meiosis, 2 parents contribute one cell (gamete) to their offspring, produces offspring that are genetically different to each parent and from one another, some may be better adapted than others to survive in a particular environment. There are 2 parents, each provides chromosomes to offspring in the form of a gamete produced by meiosis. Each gamete has a single set of chromosomes Both gametes fuse to produce a single cell (zygote) or fertilized egg. The zygote has 2 sets of chromosomes.

Somatic cells: cells that are not specialized. Each has 2 sets of chromosomes, one pair from each parent. The two chromosomes that make up a homologous pair have corresponding, but generally not identical, genetic info. Gametes have only a single set of chromosomes, one homolog from each pair. The number of chromosomes is n (haploid) and the zygote is 2n (diploid) Meiosis: Consists of 2 nuclear divisions that reduce the number of chromosomes to the haploid number. The nucleus divides twice during meiosis but the DNA is replicated only once. The products of meiosis are different from one another and from the parent cell. Its functions are to reduce the chromosome # from diploid to haploid, ensure that each of the haploid products has a complete set of chromosomes, and promote genetic diversity. Meiotic divisions Meiosis I: homologous chromosomes pair along their entire lengths. After Metaphase I, the homologous chromosomes separate. Individual chromosomes, each made up of 2 sister chromatids, remain intact until the end of metaphase II. It is preceded by an interphase with an S phase during which each chromosome is replicated. It begins with a long prophase I, during which the chromosomes change markedly, homologous chromosomes pair pby adhering along their lengths (synapsis), which lasts from prophase I to the end of metaphase I. The 4 chromatids of each pair of homologous chromosomes form a tetrad (consists of 2 chromatids). Prophase I is followed by

prometaphase I, nuclear envelope and nucleoli disaggregate. A spindle forms, microtubules become attached to chromosomes, both chromatids in each chromosome become attached to the same half-spindle, so the entire chromosome will move to one pole. By metaphase I, all chromosomes have moved to the center of the cell. In anaphase I, individual chromosomes are pulled to the poles, one homolog going to one pole and the other to the other pole. Meiosis II: 3 major differences between this and mitosis o DNA replicates before mitosis but not before meiosis II o In mitosis, sister chromatids that make up a chromosome are identical. In meiosis II, they may differ o The number of chromosomes on the equatorial plate in meiosis II is the number in mitotic nucleus. Meiosis= 4 nuclei, each of them haploid with a single set of unreplicated chromosomes that differ from each other in exact genetic composition.

Meiotic errors: Nondisjunction: when a pair of homologous chromosomes dont separate during meiosis I or sister chromatids dont separate during meiosis II or mitosis. Aneuploidy: condition in which one or more chromosomes are either lacking or present in excess. when homologous chromosomes fail to stay together, which results in aneuploid cells. A reason for this can be the lack of cohesins (which hold homologous chromosomes together into metaphase I and ensure that when chromosomes line up at the equatorial plate, one homolog will face one pole and the other will face the other pole but, without cohesion, they may line up randomly and there is a 50% chance that they will go to the same pole). A piece of a chromosome can break away and attach to another chromosome (results in Down syndrome). If these things happen to nearly any other chromosome other than chromosome 21, they can be lethal Cell death: an essential role of cell division is to replace cells that die (billions of cells die each day in humans). Ways for cell to die: Necrosis: occurs when cells either are damaged by poisons or are starved of essential nutrients. These cells swell up and burst, releasing their contents into the extracellular environment, results in inflammation Apoptosis: more typical, genetically programmed series of events that result in cell death. This happens because the cell is no longer needed by the organism or, the longer that cells live, the more prone they are to genetic damage that could lead to cancer, so they die.