Analisis Estructural

Richard Liew, J.Y.; Shanmugam, N.W. and Yu, C.H.
Structural Analysis
Structural Engineering Handbook
Ed. Chen Wai-Fah
Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 1999
Structural Anal ysi s
J.Y. Ri chard Li ew,
N.E. Shanmugam, and
C.H. Yu
Department of Civil Engineering
TheNational University of
Singapore, Singapore
2.1 Fundamental Principles
2.2 Flexural Members
2.3 Trusses
2.4 Frames
2.5 Plates
2.6 Shell
2.7 InuenceLines
2.8 Energy Methodsin Structural Analysis
2.9 Matrix Methods
2.10 TheFiniteElement Method
2.11 InelasticAnalysis
2.12 FrameStability
2.13 Structural Dynamic
2.14 DeningTerms
References
Further Reading
2.1 Fundamental Principles
Structural analysisisthedetermination of forcesand deformationsof thestructuredueto applied
loads. Structural designinvolvesthearrangement and proportioningof structuresand their compo-
nentsin such away that theassembled structureiscapableof supportingthedesigned loadswithin
theallowablelimit states. Ananalytical model isanidealizationof theactual structure. Thestructural
model should relatetheactual behavior to material properties, structural details, and loading and
boundary conditionsasaccurately asispracticable.
All structures that occur in practice are three-dimensional. For building structures that have
regular layout and are rectangular in shape, it is possible to idealize them into two-dimensional
framesarranged in orthogonal directions. Jointsin astructurearethosepointswheretwo or more
membersareconnected. A trussisastructural system consisting of membersthat aredesigned to
resist only axial forces. Axially loaded membersareassumed to bepin-connected at their ends. A
structural systemin whichjointsarecapableof transferringendmomentsiscalledaframe. Members
in thissystemareassumed to becapableof resistingbendingmoment axial forceand shear force. A
structureis said to betwo dimensional or planar if all themembers liein thesameplane. Beams
arethosemembersthat aresubjected to bending or exure. They areusually thought of as being
in horizontal positionsand loaded with vertical loads. Tiesaremembersthat aresubjected to axial
tension only, whilestruts(columnsor posts) arememberssubjected to axial compression only.
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
2.1.1 BoundaryConditions
A hingerepresents a pin connection to a structural assembly and it does not allow translational
movements (Figure2.1a). It is assumed to befrictionless and to allow rotation of a member with
FIGURE2.1: Variousboundary conditions.
respect to theothers. A roller representsakind of support that permitstheattached structural part
to rotatefreely with respect to thefoundation and to translatefreely in thedirection parallel to the
foundation surface(Figure 2.1b) No translational movement in any other direction is allowed. A
xedsupport(Figure2.1c) doesnot allowrotation or translation in anydirection. Arotational spring
representsasupport that providessomerotational restraint but doesnot provideany translational
restraint (Figure 2.1d). A translational springcan provide partial restraints along the direction of
deformation (Figure2.1e).
2.1.2 LoadsandReactions
Loads may bebroadly classied aspermanent loadsthat areof constant magnitudeand remain in
oneposition and variableloadsthat may changein position and magnitude. Permanent loadsare
also referred to as dead loadswhich may include the self weight of the structure and other loads
such as walls, oors, roof, plumbing, and xtures that are permanently attached to the structure.
Variableloadsarecommonly referred to asliveor imposed loadswhich may includethosecaused by
construction operations, wind, rain, earthquakes, snow, blasts, and temperaturechangesin addition
to thosethat aremovable, such asfurnitureand warehousematerials.
Pondingload isduetowater or snowon aat roof which accumulatesfaster than it runsoff. Wind
loadsact aspressureson windward surfacesand pressuresor suctionson leeward surfaces. Impact
loadsarecaused by suddenly applied loadsor by thevibration of moving or movableloads. They
are usually taken as a fraction of the live loads. Earthquakeloadsare those forces caused by the
acceleration of theground surfaceduringan earthquake.
A structurethat isinitially at rest and remainsat rest when acted upon by applied loadsissaid to
bein astateof equilibrium. Theresultant of theexternal loadson thebodyand thesupportingforces
or reactionsiszero. If astructureor part thereof isto bein equilibriumunder theaction of asystem
of loads, it must satisfy thesix staticequilibriumequations, such as
F
x
= 0,
F
y
= 0,
F
z
= 0
M
x
= 0,
M
y
= 0,
M
z
= 0 (2.1)
Thesummation in theseequationsisfor all thecomponentsof theforces(F) and of themoments
(M) about each of thethreeaxesx, y, and z. If astructureissubjected to forcesthat liein oneplane,
say x-y, theaboveequationsarereduced to:
F
x
= 0,
F
y
= 0,
M
z
= 0 (2.2)
Consider, for example, a beam shown in Figure 2.2a under theaction of theloads shown. The
FIGURE2.2: Beamin equilibrium.
reactionat support B must act perpendicular to thesurfaceon which therollersareconstrained to
roll upon. Thesupport reactionsand theapplied loads, which areresolved in vertical and horizontal
directions, areshown in Figure2.2b.
Fromgeometry, it can becalculated that B
y
=

3B
x
. Equation 2.2can beused to determinethe
magnitudeof thesupport reactions. Takingmoment about B gives
10A
y
346.4x5 = 0
fromwhich
A
y
= 173.2 kN.
Equatingthesumof vertical forces,
F
y
to zero gives
173.2 +B
y
346.4 = 0
and, hence, weget
B
y
= 173.2 kN.
Therefore,
B
x
= B
y
/
3 = 100 kN.
Equilibriumin thehorizontal direction,
F
x
= 0 gives,
A
x
200 100 = 0
and, hence,
A
x
= 300 kN.
Therearethreeunknown reaction componentsat axed end, two at ahinge, and oneat aroller.
If, for aparticular structure, thetotal number of unknown reaction componentsequalsthenumber
of equations available, the unknowns may be calculated from the equilibrium equations, and the
structure is then said to be staticallydeterminateexternally. Should the number of unknowns be
greater than thenumber of equationsavailable, thestructureisstaticallyindeterminateexternally; if
less, it isunstableexternally. Theability of astructureto support adequately theloadsapplied to it
isdependent not only on thenumber of reaction componentsbut also on thearrangement of those
components. It ispossiblefor astructureto haveasmany or morereaction componentsthan there
areequationsavailableand yet beunstable. Thiscondition isreferred to asgeometricinstability.
2.1.3 Principleof Superposition
Theprinciplestatesthat if thestructural behavior islinearly elastic, theforcesactingon astructure
may beseparated or divided into any convenient fashion and thestructureanalyzed for theseparate
cases. Then thenal resultscan beobtained by addingup theindividual results. Thisisapplicable
to thecomputation of structural responsessuch asmoment, shear, deection, etc.
However, therearetwo situations wheretheprincipleof superposition cannot beapplied. The
rst caseisassociatedwithinstanceswherethegeometryof thestructureisappreciablyalteredunder
load. Thesecond caseis in situationswherethestructureiscomposed of a material in which the
stressisnot linearly related to thestrain.
2.1.4 IdealizedModels
Any complex structurecan beconsidered to bebuilt up of simpler componentscalled membersor
elements. Engineeringjudgement must beusedtodeneanidealizedstructuresuchthat it represents
theactual structural behavior asaccurately asispractically possible.
Structurescan bebroadly classied into threecategories:
1. Skeletal structuresconsist of lineelementssuch asabar, beam, or column for which the
length ismuch larger than thebreadth and depth. A variety of skeletal structurescan be
obtained by connectinglineelementstogether usinghinged, rigid, or semi-rigid joints.
Dependingon whether theaxesof thesemembersliein oneplaneor in different planes,
thesestructuresaretermed asplanestructuresor spatial structures. Thelineelementsin
thesestructuresunder load may besubjected to onetypeof forcesuch asaxial forceor
acombination of forcessuch asshear, moment, torsion, and axial force. In therst case
thestructuresarereferred to asthetruss-typeand in thelatter asframe-type.
2. Platedstructuresconsist of elementsthat havelength and breadth of thesameorder but
aremuch larger than thethickness. Theseelementsmay beplaneor curved in plane, in
which casethey arecalled platesor shells, respectively. Theseelementsaregenerally used
in combination with beams and bars. Reinforced concrete slabs supported on beams,
box-girders, plate-girders, cylindrical shells, or water tanksaretypical examplesof plate
and shell structures.
3. Three-dimensional solid structureshaveall threedimensions, namely, length, breadth,
and depth, of thesameorder. Thick-walled hollowspheres, massiveraft foundation, and
damsaretypical examplesof solid structures.
Recent advancement in nite element methods of structural analysis and the advent of more
powerful computershaveenabled theeconomicanalysisof skeletal, plated, and solid structures.
2.2 Flexural Members
One of the most common structural elements is a beam; it bends when subjected to loads acting
transversely to itscentroidal axisor sometimesby loadsactingboth transversely and parallel to this
axis. Thediscussionsgiven in thefollowing subsectionsarelimited to straight beamsin which the
centroidal axisisastraight linewith shear center coincidingwith thecentroid of thecross-section. It
isalso assumed that all theloadsand reactionsliein asimpleplanethat also containsthecentroidal
axis of the exural member and the principal axis of every cross-section. If these conditions are
satised, thebeamwill simply bend in theplaneof loadingwithout twisting.
2.2.1 Axial Force, Shear Force, andBendingMoment
Axial forceat any transversecross-section of astraight beamisthealgebraicsumof thecomponents
actingparallel to theaxisof thebeam of all loadsand reactionsapplied to theportion of thebeam
on either sideof that cross-section. Shear forceat any transversecross-section of astraight beam is
thealgebraic sum of thecomponentsacting transverseto theaxisof thebeam of all theloadsand
reactionsapplied to theportion of thebeamon either sideof thecross-section. Bendingmoment at
any transversecross-section of astraight beam isthealgebraicsum of themoments, taken about an
axispassingthrough thecentroid of thecross-section. Theaxisabout which themomentsaretaken
is, of course, normal to theplaneof loading.
2.2.2 RelationBetweenLoad, Shear, andBendingMoment
When abeam issubjected to transverseloads, thereexist certain relationshipsbetween load, shear,
and bendingmoment. Let usconsider, for example, thebeamshown in Figure2.3subjected tosome
arbitrary loading, p.
FIGURE2.3: A beamunder arbitrary loading.
Let S and M betheshear and bending moment, respectively, for any point m at a distancex,
which is measured from A, being positive when measured to the right. Corresponding values of
shear and bendingmoment at point n at adifferential distancedx to theright of mareS +dS and
M +dM, respectively. It can beshown, neglectingthesecond order quantities, that
p =
dS
dx
(2.3)
and
S =
dM
dx
(2.4)
Equation 2.3 showsthat therateof changeof shear at any point isequal to theintensity of load
applied to thebeamat that point. Therefore, thedifferencein shear at two cross-sectionsCand D is
S
D
S
C
=
_
x
D
x
C
pdx (2.5)
Wecan writein thesameway for moment as
M
D
M
C
=
_
x
D
x
C
Sdx (2.6)
2.2.3 Shear andBendingMoment Diagrams
Inorder toplot theshear forceandbendingmoment diagramsit isnecessarytoadopt asignconvention
for theseresponses. Ashear forceisconsideredtobepositiveif it producesaclockwisemoment about
apoint in thefreebodyon whichit acts. Anegativeshear forceproducesacounterclockwisemoment
about the point. The bending moment is taken as positive if it causes compression in the upper
bersof thebeam and tension in thelower ber. In other words, saggingmoment ispositiveand
hoggingmoment isnegative. Theconstruction of thesediagramsisexplainedwithan examplegiven
in Figure2.4.
FIGURE2.4: Bendingmoment and shear forcediagrams.
Thesection at Eof thebeamisin equilibriumunder theaction of appliedloadsandinternal forces
acting at Eas shown in Figure2.5. Theremust bean internal vertical forceand internal bending
moment to maintain equilibrium at Section E. Thevertical forceor themoment can beobtained as
thealgebraicsumof all forcesor thealgebraicsumof themoment of all forcesthat lieon either side
of Section E.
FIGURE2.5: Internal forces.
Theshear onacross-sectionaninnitesimal distancetotheright of point Ais+55 kand, therefore,
theshear diagram risesabruptly from 0 to +55 at thispoint. In theportion AC, sincethereisno
additional load, theshear remains+55onanycross-sectionthroughout thisinterval, andthediagram
isahorizontal asshown in Figure2.4. An innitesimal distanceto theleft of Ctheshear is+55, but
an innitesimal distanceto theright of thispoint the30 k load hascaused theshear to bereduced
to +25. Therefore, at point Cthereisan abrupt changein theshear forcefrom+55 to +25. In the
samemanner, theshear forcediagram for theportion CD of thebeam remainsarectangle. In the
portion DE, theshear on any cross-section adistancex frompoint D is
S = 55 30 4x = 25 4x
which indicatesthat theshear diagram in thisportion isastraight linedecreasingfrom an ordinate
of +25 at D to +1 at E. Theremainder of theshear forcediagram can easily beveried in thesame
way. It should benoted that, in effect, aconcentrated load isassumed to beapplied at apoint and,
hence, at such apoint theordinateto theshear diagramchangesabruptly by an amount equal to the
load.
In theportion AC, thebendingmoment at across-section adistancex frompoint AisM = 55x.
Therefore, the bending moment diagram starts at 0 at A and increases along a straight line to an
ordinateof +165 k-ft at point C. In theportion CD, thebendingmoment at any point adistancex
from CisM = 55(x +3) 30x. Hence, thebendingmoment diagram in thisportion isastraight
lineincreasing from 165 at Cto 265 at D. In theportion DE, thebending moment at any point a
distancex from D isM = 55(x +7) 30(X +4) 4x
2
/2. Hence, thebendingmoment diagram
in thisportion isa curvewith an ordinateof 265 at D and 343 at E. In an analogousmanner, the
remainder of thebendingmoment diagramcan beeasily constructed.
Bendingmoment andshear forcediagramsfor beamswithsimpleboundaryconditionsandsubject
to somesimpleloadingaregiven in Figure2.6.
2.2.4 Fix-EndedBeams
When theendsof abeamareheldsormlythat theyarenot freetorotateunder theaction of applied
loads, the beam is known as a built-in or x-ended beam and it is statically indeterminate. The
bendingmoment diagramfor such abeamcan beconsidered toconsist of twoparts, namely thefree
bendingmoment diagramobtained by treatingthebeamasif theendsaresimply supported and the
xingmoment diagramresultingfromtherestraintsimposed at theendsof thebeam. Thesolution
of axed beamisgreatly simplied by consideringMohrsprincipleswhich statethat:
1. theareaof thexingbendingmoment diagramisequal tothat of thefreebendingmoment
diagram
2. thecentersof gravity of thetwo diagramsliein thesamevertical line, i.e., areequidistant
fromagiven end of thebeam
The construction of bending moment diagram for a xed beam is explained with an example
shown in Figure2.7. PQ U T isthefreebending moment diagram, M
s
, and PQ RSisthexing
FIGURE2.6: Shear forceandbendingmoment diagramsfor beamswithsimpleboundaryconditions
subjected to selected loadingcases.
FIGURE2.6: (Continued) Shear forceandbendingmoment diagramsfor beamswithsimplebound-
ary conditionssubjected to selected loadingcases.
FIGURE2.6: (Continued) Shear forceandbendingmoment diagramsfor beamswithsimplebound-
ary conditionssubjected to selected loadingcases.
FIGURE2.7: Fixed-ended beam.
moment diagram, M
i
. Thenet bendingmoment diagram, M, isshown shaded. If A
s
istheareaof
thefreebendingmoment diagramandA
i
theareaof thexingmoment diagram, then fromtherst
MohrsprinciplewehaveA
s
= A
i
and
1
2

Wab
L
L =
1
2
(M
A
+M
B
) L
M
A
+M
B
=
Wab
L
(2.7)
Fromthesecond principle, equatingthemoment about A of A
s
and A
i
, wehave,
M
A
+2M
B
=
Wab
L
3
_
2a
2
+3ab +b
2
_
(2.8)
SolvingEquations2.7and 2.8for M
A
and M
B
, weget
M
A
=
Wab
2
L
2
M
B
=
Wa
2
b
L
2
Shear forcecan bedetermined oncethebendingmoment isknown. Theshear forceat theendsof
thebeam, i.e., at A and Bare
S
A
=
M
A
M
B
L
+
Wb
L
S
B
=
M
B
M
A
L
+
Wa
L
Bendingmoment and shear forcediagramsfor sometypical loadingcasesareshown in Figure2.8.
2.2.5 ContinuousBeams
Continuousbeams, likex-ended beams, arestatically indeterminate. Bending momentsin these
beams are functions of the geometry, moments of inertia and modulus of elasticity of individual
members besides the load and span. They may be determined by Clapeyrons Theorem of three
moments, moment distribution method, or slopedeection method.
FIGURE 2.8: Shear force and bending moment diagrams for built-up beams subjected to typical
loadingcases.
FIGURE2.8: (Continued) Shear forceand bendingmoment diagramsfor built-up beamssubjected
to typical loadingcases.
An exampleof atwo-span continuousbeamissolved by ClapeyronsTheoremof threemoments.
The theorem is applied to two adjacent spans at a time and the resulting equations in terms of
unknown support momentsaresolved. Thetheoremstatesthat
M
A
L
1
+2M
B
(L
1
+L
2
) +M
C
L
2
= 6
_
A
1
x
1
L
1
+
A
2
x
2
L
2
_
(2.9)
in which M
A
, M
B
, and M
C
arethehoggingmoment at thesupportsA, B, and C, respectively, of two
adjacent spansof lengthL
1
andL
2
(Figure2.9); A
1
andA
2
aretheareaof bendingmoment diagrams
produced by thevertical loadson thesimplespansABand BC, respectively; x
1
isthecentroid of A
1
fromA, and x
2
isthedistanceof thecentroid of A
2
fromC. If thebeamsection isconstant within a
FIGURE2.9: Continuousbeams.
span but remainsdifferent for each of thespans, Equation 2.9can bewritten as
M
A
L
1
I
1
+2M
B
_
L
1
I
1
+
L
2
I
2
_
+M
C
L
2
I
2
= 6
_
A
1
x
1
L
1
I
1
+
A
2
x
2
L
2
I
2
_
(2.10)
in which I
1
and I
2
arethemomentsof inertiaof beamsection in span L
1
and L
2
, respectively.
EXAMPLE2.1:
Theexamplein Figure2.10showstheapplication of thistheorem. For spansACand BC
FIGURE2.10: Examplecontinuousbeam.
M
A
10 +2M
C
(10 +10) +M
B
10
= 6
_
1
2
500 10 5
10
+
2
3
250 10 5
10
_
Sincethesupport at A issimply supported, M
A
= 0. Therefore,
4M
C
+M
B
= 1250 (2.11)
Considering an imaginary span BD on theright sideof B, and applying thetheorem for spansCB
and BD
M
C
10 +2M
B
(10) +M
D
10 = 6
(2/3)105
10
2
M
C
+2M
B
= 500 (because M
C
= M
D
) (2.12)
SolvingEquations2.11and 2.12weget
M
B
= 107.2 kNm
M
C
= 285.7 kNm
Shear forceat A is
S
A
=
M
A
M
C
L
+100 = 28.6 +100 = 71.4 kN
Shear forceat Cis
S
C
=
_
M
C
M
A
L
+100
_
+
_
M
C
M
B
L
+100
_
= (28.6 +100) +(17.9 +100) = 246.5 kN
Shear forceat Bis
S
B
=
_
M
B
M
C
L
+100
_
= 17.9 +100 = 82.1 kN
Thebendingmoment and shear forcediagramsareshown in Figure2.10.
2.2.6 BeamDeection
Thereareseveral methodsfor determiningbeamdeections: (1) moment-areamethod, (2) conjugate-
beammethod, (3) virtual work, and (4) Castiglianossecond theorem, amongothers.
Theelasticcurveof amember istheshapetheneutral axistakeswhen themember deectsunder
load. Theinverseof theradiusof curvatureat any point of thiscurveisobtained as
1
R
=
M
EI
(2.13)
in which M isthebendingmoment at thepoint and EI istheexural rigidity of thebeam section.
Sincethedeection issmall,
1
R
isapproximately taken as
d
2
y
dx
2
, and Equation 2.13 may berewritten
as:
M = EI
d
2
y
dx
2
(2.14)
In Equation 2.14, y is the deection of the beam at distance x measured from the origin of
coordinate. Thechangein slopein adistancedx can beexpressed asMdx/EI and hencetheslope
in abeamisobtained as
B

A
=
_
B
A
M
EI
dx (2.15)
Equation 2.15 may bestated asthechangein slopebetween thetangentsto theelastic curveat two
pointsisequal to theareaof theM/EI diagrambetween thetwo points.
Oncethechangein slopebetween tangentsto theelastic curveisdetermined, thedeection can
beobtained by integrating further theslopeequation. In adistancedx theneutral axischangesin
direction by an amount d. Thedeection of onepoint on thebeam with respect to thetangent at
another point dueto thisanglechangeisequal to d = xd, wherex isthedistancefrom thepoint
at which deection isdesired to theparticular differential distance.
To determinethetotal deection from thetangent at onepoint A to thetangent at another point
Bon thebeam, it isnecessary to obtain asummation of theproductsof each d angle(fromAto B)
timesthedistanceto thepoint wheredeection isdesired, or
B

A
=
_
B
A
Mx dx
EI
(2.16)
Thedeection of atangent totheelasticcurveof abeamwith respect toatangent at another point
isequal to themoment of M/EI diagram between thetwo points, taken about thepoint at which
deection isdesired.
Moment AreaMethod
Moment area method is most conveniently used for determining slopes and deections for
beams in which the direction of the tangent to the elastic curve at one or more points is known,
such ascantilever beams, wherethetangent at thexed end doesnot changein slope. Themethod
is applied easily to beams loaded with concentrated loads because the moment diagrams consist
of straight lines. Thesediagramscan bebroken down into singletrianglesand rectangles. Beams
supportinguniform loadsor uniformly varyingloadsmay behandled by integration. Propertiesof
someof theshapesof
M
EI
diagramsdesignersusually comeacrossaregiven in Figure2.11.
FIGURE2.11: Typical M/EI diagram.
It should beunderstood that theslopesand deectionsthat areobtained usingthemoment area
theoremsarewithrespect totangentstotheelasticcurveat thepointsbeingconsidered. Thetheorems
do not directly givetheslopeor deection at apoint in thebeamascompared to thehorizontal axis
(except in one or two special cases); they give the change in slope of the elastic curve from one
point to another or thedeection of thetangent at onepoint with respect to thetangent at another
point. Therearesomespecial casesin which beamsaresubjected to several concentrated loadsor
thecombined action of concentrated and uniformly distributed loads. In such casesit isadvisable
to separatetheconcentrated loads and uniformly distributed loads and themoment area method
can beapplied separately to each of theseloads. Thenal responsesareobtained by theprincipleof
superposition.
For example, consider asimplysupportedbeamsubjectedtouniformlydistributedloadq asshown
in Figure2.12. Thetangent to theelasticcurveat each end of thebeamisinclined. Thedeection
1
of thetangent at theleft end from thetangent at theright end isfound asql
4
/24EI. Thedistance
from theoriginal chord between thesupportsand thetangent at right end,
2
, can becomputed as
ql
4
/48EI. Thedeection of atangent at thecenter fromatangent at right end,
3
, isdetermined in
thisstep as
ql
4
128EI
. Thedifferencebetween
2
and
3
givesthecenterlinedeection as
5
384
ql
4
EI
.
FIGURE2.12: Deection-simply supported beamunder UDL.
2.2.7 CurvedFlexural Members
Theexural formulaisbasedontheassumptionthat thebeamtowhichbendingmoment isappliedis
initially straight. Many members, however, arecurved beforeabendingmoment isapplied to them.
Such membersarecalled curved beams. It isimportant to determinetheeffect of initial curvature
of abeam on thestressesand deectionscaused by loadsapplied to thebeam in theplaneof initial
curvature. In thefollowing discussion, all theconditions applicableto straight-beam formula are
assumed valid except that thebeamisinitially curved.
Let thecurved beamDOEshown in Figure2.13besubjected to theloadsQ. Thesurfacein which
thebersdo not changein length iscalled theneutral surface. Thetotal deformationsof thebers
between two normal sections such as AB and A
1
B
1
are assumed to vary proportionally with the
distances of the bers from the neutral surface. The top bers are compressed while those at the
bottomarestretched, i.e., theplanesection beforebendingremainsplaneafter bending.
In Figure2.13 thetwo linesAB and A
1
B
1
aretwo normal sectionsof thebeam beforetheloads
areapplied. Thechangein thelength of any ber between thesetwo normal sectionsafter bending
isrepresented by thedistancealongtheber between thelinesA
1
B
1
and A
; theneutral surfaceis
represented by NN
1
, and thestretch of ber PP
1
isP1P
1
, etc. For convenienceit will beassumed
that thelineAB isalineof symmetry and doesnot changedirection.
Thetotal deformationsof thebersinthecurvedbeamareproportional tothedistancesof thebers
from theneutral surface. However, thestrainsof thebersarenot proportional to thesedistances
becausethebersarenot of equal length. Within theelasticlimit thestresson any ber in thebeam
isproportional to thestrain of theber, and hencetheelasticstressesin thebersof acurved beam
arenot proportional to thedistancesof thebersfromtheneutral surface. Theresistingmoment in
acurved beam, therefore, isnot given by theexpression I/c. Hence, theneutral axisin acurved
beam doesnot passthrough thecentroid of thesection. Thedistribution of stressover thesection
and therelativeposition of theneutral axisareshown in Figure2.13b; if thebeamwerestraight, the
stresswould bezero at thecentroidal axisand would vary proportionally with thedistancefromthe
FIGURE2.13: Bendingof curved beams.
centroidal axisasindicated by thedot-dash linein thegure. Thestresson anormal section such as
AB iscalled thecircumferential stress.
SignConventions
The bending moment M is positive when it decreases the radius of curvature, and negative
when it increasestheradiusof curvature; y ispositivewhen measured toward theconvex sideof the
beam, and negativewhen measured toward theconcaveside, that is, toward thecenter of curvature.
With thesesign conventions, ispositivewhen it isatensilestress.
Circumferential Stresses
Figure2.14 showsafreebody diagram of theportion of thebody on onesideof thesection;
theequationsof equilibriumareappliedtotheforcesactingon thisportion. Theequationsobtained
are
F
z
= 0 or
_
da = 0 (2.17)
M
z
= 0 or M =
_
yda (2.18)
Figure 2.15 represents the part ABB
1
A
1
of Figure 2.13a enlarged; the angle between the two
sectionsAB andA
1
B
1
isd. Thebendingmoment causestheplaneA
1
B
1
torotatethroughan angle
d, thereby changingtheanglethisplanemakeswith theplaneBAC fromd to (d +d); the
center of curvatureischanged from C to C
, and thedistanceof thecentroidal axisfrom thecenter

of curvatureischanged fromR to. It should benoted that y, R, and at any section aremeasured
fromthecentroidal axisand not fromtheneutral axis.
It can beshown that thebendingstress isgiven by therelation
=
M
aR
_
1 +
1
Z
y
R +y
_
(2.19)
in which
Z =
1
a
_
y
R +y
da
isthetensileor compressive(circumferential) stressat apoint at thedistancey fromthecentroidal
axisof atransversesection at which thebendingmoment isM; R isthedistancefromthecentroidal
FIGURE2.14: Free-body diagramof curved beamsegment.
FIGURE2.15: Curvaturein acurved beam.
axisof thesection tothecenter of curvatureof thecentral axisof theunstressedbeam; a istheareaof
thecross-section; Z isaproperty of thecross-section, thevaluesof which can beobtained from the
expressionsfor variousareasgiven in Table2.1. Detailed information can beobtained from[ 51] .
EXAMPLE2.2:
Thebent bar showninFigure2.16issubjectedtoaloadP = 1780 N. Calculatethecircumferential
stressat A and B assumingthat theelasticstrength of thematerial isnot exceeded.
WeknowfromEquation 2.19
=
P
a
+
M
aR
_
1 +
1
Z
y
R +y
_
TABLE2.1 Analytical Expressionsfor Z
TABLE2.1 Analytical Expressionsfor Z (continued)
TABLE2.1 Analytical Expressionsfor Z (continued)
FromSeely, F.B. and Smith, J.O., AdvancedMechanicsof Materials, John Wiley & Sons, NewYork, 1952. With permission.
FIGURE2.16: Bent bar.
in which
a = areaof rectangular section = 40 12 = 480 mm
2
R = 40mm
y
A
= 20
y
B
= +20
P = 1780N
M = 1780 120 = 213600 N mm
FromTable2.1, for rectangular section
Z = 1 +
R
h
_
log
e
R +c
R c
_
h = 40 mm
c = 20 mm
Hence,
Z = 1 +
40
40
_
log
e
40 +20
40 20
_
= 0.0986
Therefore,
A
=
1780
480
+
213600
48040
_
1 +
1
0.0986
20
4020
_
= 105.4 N mm
2
(tensile)
B
=
1780
480
+
213600
48040
_
1 +
1
0.0986
20
40+20
_
= 45 N mm
2
(compressive)
2.3 Trusses
A structure that is composed of a number of bars pin connected at their ends to form a stable
framework iscalled atruss. If all thebarsliein aplane, thestructureisaplanar truss. It isgenerally
assumedthat loadsandreactionsareappliedtothetrussonlyat thejoints. Thecentroidal axisof each
member isstraight, coincideswith thelineconnectingthejoint centersat each end of themember,
and liesin a planethat also containsthelinesof action of all theloadsand reactions. Many truss
structuresarethreedimensional innatureandacompleteanalysiswouldrequireconsiderationof the
full spatial interconnection of themembers. However, in many cases, such asbridgestructuresand
simpleroof systems, thethree-dimensional framework can besubdivided into planar components
for analysisasplanar trusseswithout seriouslycompromisingtheaccuracyof theresults. Figure2.17
showssometypical idealized planar trussstructures.
FIGURE2.17: Typical planar trusses.
There exists a relation between the number of members, m, number of joints, j, and reaction
components, r. Theexpression is
m = 2j r (2.20)
which must besatised if it isto bestatically determinateinternally. Theleast number of reaction
componentsrequired for external stability isr. If m exceeds(2j r), then theexcessmembersare
called redundant membersand thetrussissaid to bestatically indeterminate.
Trussanalysisgivesthebar forcesin atruss; for astatically determinatetruss, thesebar forcescan
befoundbyemployingthelawsof staticstoassureinternal equilibriumof thestructure. Theprocess
requiresrepeated useof free-body diagramsfrom which individual bar forcesaredetermined. The
methodofjointsisatechniqueof trussanalysisinwhichthebar forcesaredeterminedbythesequential
isolation of jointstheunknown bar forcesat onejoint aresolved and becomeknown bar forcesat
subsequent joints. Theother method isknown asmethodof sectionsin which equilibrium of apart
of thetrussisconsidered.
2.3.1 Methodof Joints
An imaginary section may becompletely passed around ajoint in atruss. Thejoint hasbecomea
freebody in equilibriumunder theforcesapplied to it. Theequations
H = 0 and
V = 0 may
beapplied tothejoint todeterminetheunknown forcesin membersmeetingthere. It isevident that
no morethan two unknownscan bedetermined at ajoint with thesetwo equations.
EXAMPLE2.3:
A trussshown in Figure2.18issymmetrically loaded, and it issufcient to solvehalf thetrussby
considering the joints 1 through 5. At Joint 1, there are two unknown forces. Summation of the
FIGURE2.18: Examplemethodsof joints, planar truss.
vertical componentsof all forcesat Joint 1gives
135 F
12
sin 45 = 0
which in turn givestheforcein themember 1-2, F
12
= 190.0 kN (compressive). Similarly, summa-
tion of thehorizontal componentsgives
F
13
F
12
cos 45
= 0
Substitutingfor F
12
givestheforcein themember 1-3as
F
13
= 135 kN (tensile).
Now, Joint 2 is cut completely and it is found that there are two unknown forces F
25
and F
23
.
Summation of thevertical componentsgives
F
12
cos 45
F
23
= 0.
Therefore,
F
23
= 135 kN (tensile).
Summation of thehorizontal componentsgives
F
12
sin 45
F
25
= 0
and hence
F
25
= 135 kN (compressive).
After solvingfor Joints1and 2, oneproceedsto takeasection around Joint 3at which therearenow
two unknown forces, namely, F
34
and F
35
. Summation of thevertical componentsat Joint 3gives
F
23
F
35
sin 45
90 = 0
Substituting for F
23
, oneobtainsF
35
= 63.6 kN (compressive). Summing thehorizontal compo-
nentsand substitutingfor F
13
onegets
135 45 +F
34
= 0
Therefore,
F
34
= 180 kN (tensile).
The next joint involving two unknowns is Joint 4. When we consider a section around it, the
summation of thevertical componentsat Joint 4gives
F
45
= 90 kN (tensile).
Now, theforcesin all thememberson theleft half of thetrussareknown and bysymmetrytheforces
in theremainingmemberscan bedetermined. Theforcesin all themembersof atrusscan also be
determined by makinguseof themethod of section.
2.3.2 Methodof Sections
If only a few member forces of a truss are needed, the quickest way to nd these forces is by the
Method of Sections. In thismethod, an imaginary cutting linecalled asection isdrawn through a
stableand determinatetruss. Thus, asection subdividesthetrussinto two separateparts. Sincethe
entiretrussisin equilibrium, anypart of it must alsobein equilibrium. Either of thetwopartsof the
trusscanbeconsideredandthethreeequationsof equilibrium
F
x
= 0,
F
y
= 0, and
M = 0
can beapplied to solvefor member forces.
Theexampleconsidered in Section 2.3.1 (Figure2.19) isonceagain considered. To calculatethe
forcein themember 3-5, F
35
, asection AA should berun to cut themember 3-5 asshown in the
gure. It isonly required to consider theequilibrium of oneof thetwo partsof thetruss. In this
case, theportion of thetrusson theleft of thesection isconsidered. Theleft portion of thetruss
as shown in Figure2.19 is in equilibrium under theaction of theforces, namely, theexternal and
internal forces. Consideringtheequilibriumof forcesin thevertical direction, onecan obtain
135 90 +F
35
sin 45
= 0
FIGURE2.19: Examplemethod of sections, planar truss.
Therefore, F
35
isobtained as
F
35
= 45
2 kN
Thenegativesign indicatesthat themember forceiscompressive. Thisresult isthesameastheone
obtained by theMethod of Joints. Theother member forcescut by thesection can beobtained by
consideringtheother equilibrium equations, namely,
M = 0. Moresectionscan betaken in the

sameway so asto solvefor other member forcesin thetruss. Themost important advantageof this
method is that one can obtain the required member force without solving for the other member
forces.
2.3.3 CompoundTrusses
Acompoundtrussisformedbyinterconnectingtwoor moresimpletrusses. Examplesof compound
trussesareshown in Figure2.20. A typical compound roof trussisshown in Figure2.20ain which
FIGURE2.20: Compound truss.
two simple trusses are interconnected by means of a single member and a common joint. The
compound trussshown in Figure2.20b iscommonly used in bridgeconstruction and in thiscase,
threemembersareusedtointerconnect twosimpletrussesat acommonjoint. Therearethreesimple
trussesinterconnected at their common jointsasshown in Figure2.20c.
The Method of Sections may be used to determine the member forces in the interconnecting
membersof compound trussessimilar to thoseshown in Figure2.20aand b. However, in thecase
of cantilevered truss, themiddlesimpletrussisisolated asafreebody diagram to nd itsreactions.
Thesereactionsarereversedandappliedtotheinterconnectingjointsof theother twosimpletrusses.
After theinterconnectingforcesbetween thesimpletrussesarefound, thesimpletrussesareanalyzed
by theMethod of Jointsor theMethod of Sections.
2.3.4 StabilityandDeterminacy
A stable and statically determinate plane truss should have at least three members, three joints,
and threereaction components. To formastableand determinateplanetrussof n joints, thethree
membersof theoriginal triangleplustwoadditional membersfor eachof theremaining(n3) joints
arerequired. Thus, theminimumtotal number of members, m, requiredtoforman internallystable
planetrussism = 2n3. If astable, simple, planetrussof njointsand(2n3) membersissupported
by threeindependent reaction components, thestructureisstableand determinatewhen subjected
to a general loading. If the stable, simple, plane truss has more than three reaction components,
the structure is externally indeterminate. That means not all of the reaction components can be
determined from thethreeavailableequationsof statics. If thestable, simple, planetrusshasmore
than (2n 3) members, thestructureisinternally indeterminateand henceall of themember forces
cannot bedetermined fromthe2n availableequationsof staticsin theMethod of Joints. Theanalyst
must examinethearrangement of thetrussmembersand thereaction componentsto determineif
thesimpleplanetrussisstable. Simpleplanetrusseshaving(2n 3) membersarenot necessarily
stable.
2.4 Frames
Framesarestatically indeterminatein general; special methodsarerequired for their analysis. Slope
deection and moment distribution methods are two such methods commonly employed. Slope
deection is a method that takes into account the exural displacements such as rotations and
deections and involves solutions of simultaneous equations. Moment distribution on the other
hand involves successive cycles of computation, each cycle drawing closer to the exact answers.
Themethod ismorelabor intensivebut yieldsaccuracy equivalent to that obtained fromtheexact
methods. This method, however, remains the most important hand-calculation method for the
analysisof frames.
2.4.1 SlopeDeectionMethod
Thismethodisaspecial caseof thestiffnessmethodof analysis, andit isconvenient for handanalysis
of small structures. Momentsat theendsof framemembersareexpressed in termsof therotations
and deectionsof thejoints. Membersareassumed to beof constant section between each pair of
supports. It is further assumed that the joints in a structure may rotate or deect, but the angles
between themembersmeetingat ajoint remain unchanged.
The member force-displacement equations that are needed for the slope deection method are
written for amember AB in aframe. Thismember, which hasitsundeformed position along the
x axisisdeformed into theconguration shown in Figure2.21. Thepositiveaxes, along with the
positivemember-end forcecomponentsand displacement components, areshown in thegure.
FIGURE2.21: Deformed conguration of abeam.
Theequationsfor end momentsarewritten as
M
AB
=
2EI
l
(2
A
+
B
3
AB
) +M
FAB
M
BA
=
2EI
l
(2
B
+
A
3
AB
) +M
FBA
(2.21)
in which M
FAB
and M
FBA
are xed-end moments at supports A and B, respectively, due to the
applied load.
AB
istherotation asaresult of therelativedisplacement between themember ends
A and B given as
AB
=

AB
l
=
y
A
+y
B
l
(2.22)
where
AB
is the relative deection of the beam ends. y
A
and y
B
are the vertical displacements
at ends A and B. Fixed-end moments for some loading cases may be obtained from Figure 2.8.
The slope deection equations in Equation 2.21 show that the moment at the end of a member
isdependent on member propertiesEI, dimension l, and displacement quantities. Thexed-end
momentsreect thetransverseloadingon themember.
2.4.2 Applicationof SlopeDeectionMethodtoFrames
The slope deection equations may be applied to statically indeterminate frames with or without
sidesway. A framemay besubjected to sidesway if theloads, member properties, and dimensionsof
theframearenot symmetrical about thecenterline. Application of slopedeection method can be
illustrated with thefollowingexample.
EXAMPLE2.4:
Consider the frame shown in Figure 2.22. subjected to sidesway to the right of the frame.
Equation 2.21can beapplied to each of themembersof theframeasfollows:
Member AB:
M
AB
=
2EI
20
_
2
A
+
B

3
20
_
+M
FAB
FIGURE2.22: Exampleslopedeection method.
M
BA
=
2EI
20
_
2
B
+
A

3
20
_
+M
FBA
A
= 0, M
FAB
= M
FBA
= 0
Hence,
M
AB
=
2EI
20
(
B
3) (2.23)
M
BA
=
2EI
20
(2
B
3) (2.24)
in which
=

20
Member BC:
M
BC
=
2EI
30
(2
B
+
C
3 0) +M
FBC
M
CB
=
2EI
30
(2
C
+
B
3 0) +M
FCB
M
FBC
=
40 10 20
2
30
2
= 178 ft-kips
M
FCB
=
40 10
2
20
30
2
= 89 ft-kips
Hence,
M
BC
=
2EI
30
(2
B
+
C
) 178 (2.25)
M
CB
=
2EI
30
(2
C
+
B
) +89 (2.26)
Member CD:
M
CD
=
2EI
30
_
2
C
+
D

3
30
_
+M
FCD
M
DC
=
2EI
30
_
2
D
+
C

3
30
_
+M
FDC
M
FCD
= M
FDC
= 0
Hence,
M
DC
=
2EI
30
_
C
3
2
3
_
=
2EI
30
(2
C
2) (2.27)
M
DC
=
2EI
30
_
C
3
2
3
_
=
2EI
30
(
C
2) (2.28)
Consideringmoment equilibriumat Joint B
M
B
= M
BA
+M
BC
= 0
Substitutingfor M
BA
and M
BC
, oneobtains
EI
30
(10
B
+2
C
9) = 178
or
10
B
+2
C
9 =
267
K
(2.29)
whereK =
EI
20
.
Consideringmoment equilibriumat Joint C
M
C
= M
CB
+M
CD
= 0
Substitutingfor M
CB
and M
CD
weget
2EI
30
(4
C
+
B
2) = 89
or
B
+4
C
2 =
66.75
K
(2.30)
Summation of baseshear equalsto zero, wehave
H = H
A
+H
D
= 0
or
M
AB
+M
BA
1
AB
+
M
CD
+M
DC
1
CD
= 0
Substitutingfor M
AB
, M
BA
, M
CD
, and M
DC
and simplifying
2
B
+12
C
70 = 0 (2.31)
Solution of Equations2.29to 2.31resultsin
B
=
42.45
K
C
=
20.9
K
and
=
12.8
K
(2.32)
Substitutingfor
B
,
C
, and fromEquations2.32into Equations2.23to 2.28weget,
M
AB
= 10.10 ft-kips
M
BA
= 93 ft-kips
M
BC
= 93 ft-kips
M
CB
= 90 ft-kips
M
CD
= 90 ft-kips
M
DC
= 62 ft-kips
2.4.3 Moment DistributionMethod
Themoment distributionmethodinvolvessuccessivecyclesof computation, eachcycledrawingcloser
to theexact answers. Thecalculationsmay bestopped after two or threecycles, givingavery good
approximateanalysis, or they may becarried on to whatever degreeof accuracy isdesired. Moment
distribution remains the most important hand-calculation method for the analysis of continuous
beams and frames and it may besolely used for theanalysis of small structures. Unliketheslope
deection method, thismethod doesrequirethesolution to simultaneousequations.
Thetermsconstantly used in moment distribution arexed-end moments, unbalanced moment,
distributed moments, and carry-over moments. When all of thejointsof astructureareclamped to
prevent any joint rotation, theexternal loadsproducecertain momentsat theendsof themembers
to which they areapplied. Thesemomentsarereferred to asxed-endmoments. Initially thejoints
in astructureareconsidered to beclamped. When thejoint isreleased, it rotatesif thesum of the
xed-end momentsat thejoint isnot zero. Thedifferencebetween zero and theactual sum of the
end momentsistheunbalancedmoment. Theunbalanced moment causesthejoint to rotate. The
rotation twists theends of themembers at thejoint and changes their moments. In other words,
rotation of thejoint isresistedbythemembersandresistingmomentsarebuilt upin themembersas
theyaretwisted. Rotationcontinuesuntil equilibriumisreachedwhentheresistingmomentsequal
theunbalanced momentat which timethesum of themomentsat thejoint isequal to zero. The
momentsdeveloped in themembersresistingrotation arethedistributedmoments. Thedistributed
momentsin theendsof themember causemomentsin theother ends, which areassumed xed, and
thesearethecarry-over moments.
SignConvention
Themomentsat theend of amember areassumed to bepositivewhen they tend to rotatethe
member clockwise about the joint. This implies that the resisting moment of the joint would be
counter-clockwise. Accordingly, under gravity loading condition thexed-end moment at theleft
end isassumed ascounter-clockwise(ve) and at theright end asclockwise(+ve).
Fixed-EndMoments
Fixed-end momentsfor several casesof loading may befound in Figure2.8. Application of
moment distribution may beexplained with referenceto acontinuousbeam exampleasshown in
Figure2.23. Fixed-endmomentsarecomputedfor eachof thethreespans. At Joint B theunbalanced
moment isobtained and theclamp isremoved. Thejoint rotates, thusdistributingtheunbalanced
moment to theB-endsof spansBA and BC in proportion to their distribution factors. Thevalues
of these distributed moments are carried over at one-half rate to the other ends of the members.
When equilibrium isreached, Joint B isclamped in itsnewrotated position and Joint C isreleased
afterwards. Joint C rotatesunder itsunbalanced moment until it reachesequilibrium, therotation
causingdistributed momentsin theC-endsof membersCB and CD and their resultingcarry-over
FIGURE2.23: Examplecontinuousbeamby moment distribution.
moments. Joint C is now clamped and Joint B is released. This procedureis repeated again and
again for JointsB and C, theamount of unbalanced moment quickly diminishing, until therelease
of ajoint causesnegligiblerotation. Thisprocessiscalled moment distribution.
Thestiffnessfactorsand distribution factorsarecomputed asfollows:
DF
BA
=
K
BA
K
=
I/20
I/20 +I/30
= 0.6
DF
BC
=
K
BC
K
=
I/30
I/20 +I/30
= 0.4
DF
CB
=
K
CB
K
=
I/30
I/30 +I/25
= 0.45
DF
CD
=
K
CD
K
=
I/25
I/30 +I/25
= 0.55
Fixed-end moments
M
FAB
= 50 ft-kips; M
FBC
= 150 ft-kips; M
FCD
= 104 ft-kips
M
FBA
= 50 ft-kips; M
FCB
= 150 ft-kips; M
FDC
= 104 ft-kips
When a clockwise couple is applied at the near end of a beam, a clockwise couple of half the
magnitudeisset up at thefar end of thebeam. Theratio of themomentsat thefar and near ends
isdened ascarry-over factor, and it is
1
2
in thecaseof astraight prismatic member. Thecarry-over
factor wasdeveloped for carrying over to xed ends, but it isapplicableto simply supported ends,
which must have nal moments of zero. It can be shown that the beam simply supported at the
far end is only three-fourths as stiff as the one that is xed. If the stiffness factors for end spans
that aresimply supported aremodied by three-fourths, thesimpleend isinitially balanced to zero
and no carry-oversaremadeto theend afterward. Thissimpliesthemoment distribution process
signicantly.
FIGURE2.24: Examplenon-sway frameby moment distribution.
Moment Distributionfor Frames
Moment distribution for frameswithout sideswayissimilar tothat for continuousbeams. The
exampleshowninFigure2.24illustratestheapplicationsof moment distributionfor aframewithout
sidesway.
DF
BA
=
EI/20
EI
20
+
EI
20
+
2EI
20
= 0.25
Similarly
DF
BE
= 0.50; DF
BC
= 0.25
M
FBC
= 100 ft-kips; M
FCB
= 100 ft-kips
M
FBE
= 50 ft-kips; M
FEB
= 50 ft-kips.
Structural framesareusually subjected to sway in onedirection or theother dueto asymmetry
of thestructureand eccentricity of loading. Thesway deections affect themoments resulting in
unbalanced moment. Thesemomentscould beobtained for thedeectionscomputed and added to
theoriginallydistributedxed-endmoments. Theswaymomentsaredistributedtocolumns. Should
aframehavecolumnsall of thesamelength and thesamestiffness, thesideswaymomentswill bethe
samefor each column. However, should thecolumnshavedifferinglengthsand/or stiffness, thiswill
not bethecase. Thesidesway momentsshould vary from column to column in proportion to their
I/l
2
values.
Theframein Figure2.25 shows a framesubjected to sway. Theprocess of obtaining thenal
momentsisillustrated for thisframe.
Theframeswaysto theright and thesidesway moment can beassumed in theratio
400
20
2
:
300
20
2
(or) 1 : 0.7
Final moments areobtained by adding distributed xed-end moments and
13.06
2.99
times thedis-
tributed assumed sidesway moments.
2.4.4 Methodof Consistent Deformations
Themethod of consistent deformationsmakesuseof theprincipleof deformation compatibility to
analyzeindeterminatestructures. Thismethodemploysequationsthat relatetheforcesactingon the
structureto thedeformationsof thestructure. Theserelationsareformed so that thedeformations
areexpressed in termsof theforcesand theforcesbecometheunknownsin theanalysis.
Let usconsider thebeam shown in Figure2.26a. Therst step, in thismethod, isto determine
thedegreeof indeterminacy or thenumber of redundants that thestructurepossesses. As shown
in thegure, thebeam has threeunknown reactions, R
A
, R
C
, and M
A
. Sincethereareonly two
equationsof equilibriumavailablefor calculatingthereactions, thebeamissaid to beindeterminate
to therst degree. Restraintsthat can beremoved without impairingtheload-supportingcapacity
of thestructurearereferred to asredundants.
Oncethenumber of redundantsisknown, thenext stepistodecidewhichreactionistoberemoved
inorder toformadeterminatestructure. Anyoneof thereactionsmaybechosentobetheredundant
provided that astablestructureremainsafter theremoval of that reaction. For example, let ustake
thereaction R
C
astheredundant. Thedeterminatestructureobtained by removingthisrestraint is
thecantilever beamshown in Figure2.26b. Wedenotethedeection at endC of thisbeam, duetoP,
by
CP
. Therst subscript indicatesthat thedeection ismeasured at C and thesecond subscript
that thedeection isdueto theapplied load P. Using themoment areamethod, it can beshown
that
CP
= 5PL
3
/48EI. Theredundant R
C
isthen applied to thedeterminatecantilever beam,
asshown in Figure2.26c. Thisgivesriseto adeection
CR
at point C themagnitudeof which can
beshown to beR
C
L
3
/3EI.
In theactual indeterminatestructure, which is subjected to thecombined effects of theload P
and theredundant R
C
, thedeection at C iszero. Hencethealgebraicsumof thedeection
CP
in
Figure2.26b and thedeection
CR
in Figure2.26c must vanish. Assumingdownward deections
to bepositive, wewrite
CP

CR
= 0 (2.33)
or
5PL
3
48EI
R
C
L
3
3EI
= 0
fromwhich
R
C
=
5
16
P
Equation 2.33, which isused to solvefor theredundant, isreferred to asan equation of consistent of
deformation.
Oncetheredundant R
C
hasbeenevaluated, onecandeterminetheremainingreactionsbyapplying
theequationsof equilibriumto thestructurein Figure2.26a. Thus,
F
y
= 0 leadsto
R
A
= P
5
16
P =
11
16
P
FIGURE2.25: Examplesway frameby moment distribution.
FIGURE2.25: (Continued) Examplesway frameby moment distribution.
FIGURE2.26: Beamwith oneredundant reaction.
and
M
A
= 0 gives
M
A
=
PL
2

5
16
PL =
3
16
PL
A freebody of thebeam, showingall theforcesactingon it, isshown in Figure2.26d.
Thestepsinvolved in themethod of consistent deformationsare:
1. Thenumber of redundantsin thestructureisdetermined.
2. Enough redundantsareremoved to formadeterminatestructure.
3. Thedisplacementsthat theapplied loadscausein thedeterminatestructureat thepoints
wheretheredundantshavebeen removed arethen calculated.
4. Thedisplacementsat thesepointsin thedeterminatestructureduetotheredundantsare
obtained.
5. At each point wherearedundant hasbeen removed, thesumof thedisplacementscalcu-
lated in Steps3 and 4 must beequal to thedisplacement that existsat that point in the
actual indeterminatestructure. Theredundantsareevaluated usingtheserelationships.
6. Oncetheredundantsareknown, theremainingreactionsaredeterminedusingtheequa-
tionsof equilibrium.
StructureswithSeveral Redundants
Themethod of consistent deformationscan beapplied to structureswith two or moreredun-
dants. For example, the beam in Figure 2.27a is indeterminate to the second degree and has two
redundant reactions. If we let the reactions at B and C be the redundants, then the determinate
structureobtained by removingthesesupportsisthecantilever beamshown in Figure2.27b. To this
determinatestructureweapply separately thegiven load (Figure2.27c) and theredundantsR
B
and
R
C
oneat atime(Figures2.27d and e).
Sincethedeectionsat B and C in theoriginal beamarezero, thealgebraicsumof thedeections
in Figures2.27c, d, and eat thesesamepointsmust also vanish.
Thus,
BP

BB

BC
= 0
CP

CB

CC
= 0 (2.34)
FIGURE2.27: Beamwith two redundant reactions.
It isuseful in thecaseof complex structuresto writetheequationsof consistent deformationsin
theform
BP

BB
R
B

BC
R
C
= 0
CP

CB
R
B

CC
R
C
= 0 (2.35)
in which
BC
, for example, denotesthedeection at B duetoaunit load at C in thedirection of R
C
.
Solution of Equation 2.35givestheredundant reactionsR
B
and R
C
.
EXAMPLE2.5:
Determinethereactionsfor thebeam shown in Figure2.28and drawitsshear forceand bending
moment diagrams.
It can beseen from thegurethat therearethreereactions, namely, M
A
, R
A
, and R
C
onemore
than that required for a stable structure. The reaction R
C
can be removed to make the structure
determinate. Weknowthat thedeection at support C of thebeam iszero. Onecan determinethe
deection
CP
at C dueto theapplied load on thecantilever in Figure2.28b. Thedeection
CR
at
C duetotheredundant reaction on thecantilever (Figure2.28c) can bedetermined in thesameway.
Thecompatibility equation gives
CP

CR
= 0
By moment areamethod,
CP
=
20
EI
2 1 +
1
2

20
EI
2
2
3
2
+
40
EI
2 3 +
1
2

60
EI
2
_
2
3
2 +2
_
=
1520
3EI
CR
=
1
2

4R
C
EI
4
2
3
4 =
64R
C
3EI
Substitutingfor
CP
and
CR
in thecompatibility equation oneobtains
1520
3EI
64R
C
3EI
= 0
fromwhich
R
C
= 23.75 kN
By usingstatical equilibriumequationsweget
R
A
= 6.25 kN
and
M
A
= 5 kNm.
Theshear forceand bendingmoment diagramsareshown in Figure2.28d.
FIGURE2.28: Example2.5.
2.5 Plates
2.5.1 Bendingof ThinPlates
When thethicknessof an object issmall compared to theother dimensions, it iscalled athin plate.
Theplaneparallel tothefacesof theplateand bisectingthethicknessof theplate, in theundeformed
state, is called the middle plane of the plate. When the deection of the middle plane is small
compared with thethickness, h, it can beassumed that
1. Thereisno deformation in themiddleplane.
2. The normal of the middle plane before bending is deformed into the normals of the
middleplaneafter bending.
3. Thenormal stressesin thedirection transverseto theplatecan beneglected.
Based on theseassumptions, all stresscomponentscan beexpressed by deection w
of theplate.
w
isafunction of thetwo coordinates(x, y) in theplaneof theplate. Thisfunction hasto satisfy a

linear partial differential equation, which, together withtheboundaryconditions, completelydenes
w
.
Figure2.29ashowsaplateelement cut fromaplatewhosemiddleplanecoincideswiththexy plane.
Themiddleplaneof theplatesubjected to alateral load of intensity q isshown in Figure2.29b. It
can beshown, byconsideringtheequilibriumof theplateelement, that thestressresultantsaregiven
as
M
x
= D
_
2
w
x
2
+
2
w
y
2
_
M
y
= D
_
2
w
y
2
+
2
w
x
2
_
M
xy
= M
yx
= D(1 )
2
w
xy
(2.36)
V
x
=

3
w
x
3
+(2 )
3
w
xy
2
(2.37)
V
y
=

3
w
y
3
+(2 )
3
w
yx
2
(2.38)
Q
x
= D
x
_
2
w
x
2
+

2
w
y
2
_
(2.39)
Q
y
= D
y
_
2
w
x
2
+

2
w
y
2
_
(2.40)
R = 2D(1 )
2
w
xy
(2.41)
where
M
x
and M
y
= bendingmomentsper unit length in thex and y directions, respectively
M
xy
and M
yx
= twistingmomentsper unit length
Q
x
and Q
y
= shearingforcesper unit length in thex and y directions, respectively
V
x
and V
y
= supplementary shear forcesin thex and y directions, respectively
R = corner force
D =
Eh
3
12(1
2
)
, exural rigidity of theplateper unit length
E = modulusof elasticity
FIGURE2.29: (a) Plateelement; (b) stressresultants.
= PoissonsRatio
Thegoverningequation for theplateisobtained as
4
w
x
4
+2

4
w
x
2
y
2
+

4
w
y
4
=
q
D
(2.42)
Any plate problem should satisfy the governing Equation 2.42 and boundary conditions of the
plate.
2.5.2 BoundaryConditions
Therearethreebasicboundaryconditionsfor plateproblems. Thesearetheclampededge, thesimply
supported edge, and thefreeedge.
ClampedEdge
For thisboundary condition, theedgeisrestrained such that thedeection and slopearezero
alongtheedge. If weconsider theedgex = a to beclamped, wehave
(w)
x=a
= 0
_
w
x
_
x=a
= 0 (2.43)
SimplySupportedEdge
If theedgex = a of theplateissimply supported, thedeection w along thisedgemust be
zero. At thesametimethisedgecan rotatefreely with respect to theedgeline. Thismeansthat
(w)
x=a
= 0;
_
2
w
x
2
_
x=a
= 0 (2.44)
FreeEdge
If theedgex = a of theplateisentirely free, thereareno bending and twisting momentsor
vertical shearingforces. Thiscan bewritten in termsof w, thedeection as
_
2
w
x
2
+
2
w
y
2
_
x=a
= 0
_
3
w
x
3
+(2 )
3
w
xy
2
_
x=a
= 0 (2.45)
2.5.3 Bendingof SimplySupportedRectangular Plates
A number of the plate bending problems may be solved directly by solving the differential Equa-
tion 2.42. The solution, however, depends on the loading and boundary condition. Consider a
simply supported platesubjected to asinusoidal loading asshown in Figure2.30. Thedifferential
FIGURE2.30: Rectangular plateunder sinusoidal loading.
Equation 2.42in thiscasebecomes
4
w
x
4
+2

4
w
x
2
y
2
+

4
w
y
4
=
q
o
D
sin
x
a
sin
y
b
(2.46)
Theboundary conditionsfor thesimply supported edgesare
w = 0,
2
w
x
2
= 0 for x = 0 and x = a
w = 0,
2
w
y
2
= 0 for y = 0 and y = b (2.47)
Thedeection function becomes
w = w
0
sin
x
a
sin
y
b
(2.48)
which satises all theboundary conditions in Equation 2.47. w
0
must bechosen to satisfy Equa-
tion 2.46. Substitution of Equation 2.48into Equation 2.46gives
4
_
1
a
2
+
1
b
2
_
2
w
0
=
q
o
D
Thedeection surfacefor theplatecan, therefore, befound as
w =
q
o
4
D
_
1
a
2
+
1
b
2
_
2
sin
x
a
sin
y
b
(2.49)
UsingEquations2.49and 2.36, wend expression for momentsas
M
x
=
q
o
2
_
1
a
2
+
1
b
2
_
2
_
1
a
2
+

b
2
_
sin
x
a
sin
y
b
M
y
=
q
o
2
_
1
a
2
+
1
b
2
_
2
_

a
2
+
1
b
2
_
sin
x
a
sin
y
b
M
xy
=
q
o
(1 )
2
_
1
a
2
+
1
b
2
_
2
ab
cos
x
a
cos
y
b
(2.50)
Maximum deection and maximum bending momentsthat occur at thecenter of theplatecan be
written by substitutingx = a/2 and y = b/2 in Equation 2.50as
w
max
=
q
o
4
D
_
1
a
2
+
1
b
2
_
2
(2.51)
(M
x
)
max
=
q
o
2
_
1
a
2
+
1
b
2
_
2
_
1
a
2
+

b
2
_
(M
y
)
max
=
q
o
2
_
1
a
2
+
1
b
2
_
2
_

a
2
+
1
b
2
_
If theplateissquare, then a = b and Equation 2.51becomes
w
max
=
q
o
a
4
4
4
D
(M
x
)
max
= (M
y
)
max
=
(1 +)
4
2
q
o
a
2
(2.52)
If thesimply supported rectangular plateissubjected to any kind of loadinggiven by
q = q(x, y) (2.53)
thefunction q(x, y) should berepresented in theformof adoubletrigonometricseriesas
q(x, y) =
m=1
n=1
q
mn
sin
mx
a
sin
ny
b
(2.54)
in which q
mn
isgiven by
q
mn
=
4
ab
_
a
0
_
b
0
q(x, y) sin
mx
a
sin
ny
b
dxdy (2.55)
FromEquations2.46, 2.53, 2.54, and 2.55wecan obtain theexpression for deection as
w =
1
4
D
m=1
n=1
q
mn
_
m
2
a
2
+
n
2
b
2
_
2
sin
mx
a
sin
ny
b
(2.56)
If theapplied load isuniformly distributed of intensity q
o
, wehave
q(x, y) = q
o
and fromEquation 2.55weobtain
q
mn
=
4q
o
ab
_
a
0
_
b
0
sin
mx
a
sin
ny
b
dxdy =
16q
o
2
mn
(2.57)
in which m and n areodd integers. q
mn
= 0 if m or n or both of them areeven numbers. We
can, therefore, writetheexpression for deection of asimply supported platesubjected touniformly
distributed load as
w =
16q
o
6
D
m=1
n=1
sin
mx
a
sin
ny
b
mn
_
m
2
a
2
+
n
2
b
2
_
2
(2.58)
wherem = 1, 3, 5, . . . and n = 1, 3, 5, . . .
Themaximum deection occurs at thecenter and it can bewritten by substituting x =
a
2
and
y =
b
2
in Equation 2.58as
w
max
=
16q
o
6
D
m=1
n=1
(1)
m+n
2
1
mn
_
m
2
a
2
+
n
2
b
2
_
2
(2.59)
Equation 2.59isarapidconvergingseriesandasatisfactoryapproximation can beobtainedbytaking
only therst termof theseries; for example, in thecaseof asquareplate,
w
max
=
4q
o
a
4
6
D
= 0.00416
q
o
a
4
D
Assuming = 0.3, weget for themaximumdeection
w
max
= 0.0454
q
o
a
4
Eh
3
FIGURE2.31: Typical loadingon platesand loadingfunctions.
FIGURE2.31: (Continued) Typical loadingon platesand loadingfunctions.
FIGURE2.32: Rectangular plate.
Theexpressionsfor bending and twisting momentscan beobtained by substituting Equation 2.58
into Equation 2.36. Figure2.31showssomeloadingcasesand thecorrespondingloadingfunctions.
Theabovesolution for uniformly loaded casesisknown asNavier solution. If two oppositesides
(say x = 0 and x = a) of arectangular platearesimply supported, thesolution takingthedeection
function as
w =
m=1
Y
m
sin
mx
a
(2.60)
can be adopted. This solution was proposed by Levy [53] . Equation 2.60 satises the boundary
conditionsw = 0 and

2
w
x
2
= 0 on thetwo simply supported edges. Y
m
should bedetermined such
that it satisestheboundary conditionsalongtheedgesy =
b
2
of theplateshown in Figure2.32
and also theequation of thedeection surface
4
w
x
4
+2

4
w
x
2
y
2
+

4
w
y
4
=
q
o
D
(2.61)
q
o
beingtheintensity of uniformly distributed load.
Thesolution for Equation 2.61can betaken in theform
w = w
1
+w
2
(2.62)
for auniformly loaded simply supported plate. w
1
can betaken in theform
w
1
=
q
o
24D
_
x
4
2ax
3
+a
3
x
_
(2.63)
representingthedeection of auniformlyloadedstripparallel tothex axis. It satisesEquation 2.61
and also theboundary conditionsalongx = 0 and x = a.
Theexpression w
2
hasto satisfy theequation
4
w
2
x
4
+2

4
w
2
x
2
y
2
+

4
w
2
y
4
= 0 (2.64)
and must bechosen such that Equation 2.62satisesall boundaryconditionsof theplate. Takingw
2
in theformof seriesgiven in Equation 2.60it can beshown that thedeection surfacetakestheform
w =
q
o
24D
_
x
4
2ax
3
+a
3
x
_
+
q
o
a
4
24D
m=1
_
A
m
cosh
my
a
+B
m
my
a
sinh
my
a
+C
m
sinh
my
a
(2.65)
+D
m
my
a
cosh
my
a
_
sin
mx
a
Observingthat thedeection surfaceof theplateissymmetrical with respect to thex axis, wekeep
in Equation 2.65only an even function of y; therefore, C
m
= D
m
= 0. Thedeection surfacetakes
theform
w =
q
o
24D
_
x
4
2ax
3
+a
3
x
_
+
q
o
a
4
24D
m=1
_
A
m
cosh
my
a
+B
m
my
a
sinh
my
a
_
sin
mx
a
(2.66)
Developingtheexpression in Equation 2.63 into atrigonometric series, thedeection surfacein
Equation 2.66iswritten as
w =
q
o
a
4
D
m=1
_
4
5
m
5
+A
m
cosh
my
a
+B
m
my
a
sin
my
a
_
sin
mx
a
(2.67)
SubstitutingEquation 2.67in theboundary conditions
w = 0,
2
w
y
2
= 0 (2.68)
oneobtainstheconstantsof integration A
m
andB
m
andtheexpression for deection maybewritten
as
w =
4q
o
a
4
5
D
m=1,3,5...
1
m
5
_
1

m
tanh
m
+2
2 cosh
m
cosh
2
m
y
b
+

m
2 cosh
m
2y
b
sinh
2
m
y
b
_
sin
mx
a
(2.69)
in which
m
=
mb
2a
.
Maximumdeection occursat themiddleof theplate, x =
a
2
, y = 0 and isgiven by
w =
4q
o
a
4
5
D
m=1,3,5...
(1)
m1
2
m
5
_
1

m
tanh
m
+2
2 cosh
m
_
(2.70)
Solution of plateswith arbitrary boundary conditionsarecomplicated. It ispossibleto makesome
simplifying assumptionsfor plateswith thesameboundary conditionsalong two parallel edgesin
order to obtain thedesired solution. Alternately, theenergy method can beapplied moreefciently
to solveplateswith complex boundary conditions. However, it should benoted that theaccuracy of
resultsdependsupon thedeection function chosen. Thesefunctionsmust beso chosen that they
satisfy at least thekinematicsboundary conditions.
Figure2.33givesformulasfor deection and bendingmomentsof rectangular plateswith typical
boundary and loadingconditions.
2.5.4 Bendingof Circular Plates
In thecaseof symmetrically loaded circular plate, theloadingisdistributed symmetrically about the
axisperpendicular to theplatethrough itscenter. In such cases, thedeection surfaceto which the
middle plane of the plate is bent will also be symmetrical. The solution of circular plates can be
conveniently carried out by usingpolar coordinates.
Stressresultantsin acircular plateelement areshown in Figure2.34. Thegoverning differential
equation isexpressed in polar coordinatesas
1
r
d
dr
_
r
d
dr
_
1
r
d
dr
_
r
dw
dr
___
=
q
D
(2.71)
in which q istheintensity of loading.
In thecaseof uniformly loaded circular plates, Equation 2.71 can beintegrated successively and
thedeection at any point at adistancer fromthecenter can beexpressed as
w =
q
o
r
4
64D
+
C
1
r
2
4
+C
2
log
r
a
+C
3
(2.72)
in which q
o
istheintensity of loadingand a istheradiusof theplate. C
1
, C
2
, and C
3
areconstants
of integration to bedetermined usingtheboundary conditions.
For aplatewithclampededgesunder uniformlydistributedloadq
o
, thedeection surfacereduces
to
w =
q
o
64D
_
a
2
r
2
_
2
(2.73)
Themaximumdeection occursat thecenter wherer = 0, and isgiven by
w =
q
o
a
4
64D
(2.74)
FIGURE2.33: Typical loadingand boundary conditionsfor rectangular plates.
Bendingmomentsin theradial and tangential directionsarerespectively given by
M
r
=
q
o
16
_
a
2
(1 +) r
2
(3 +)
_
M
t
=
q
o
16
_
a
2
(1 +) r
2
(1 +3)
_
(2.75)
Themethod of superposition can beapplied in calculatingthedeectionsfor circular plateswith
FIGURE2.34: (a) Circular plate; (b) stressresultants.
simply supported edges. Theexpressionsfor deection and bendingmoment aregiven asfollows:
w =
q
o
(a
2
r
2
)
64D
_
5 +
1 +
a
2
r
2
_
w
max
=
5 +
64(1 +)
q
o
a
4
D
(2.76)
M
r
=
q
o
16
(3 +)(a
2
r
2
)
M
t
=
q
o
16
_
a
2
(3 +) r
2
(1 +3)
_
(2.77)
This solution can be used to deal with plates with circular holes at the center and subjected to
concentric moment and shearing forces. Plates subjected to concentric loading and concentrated
loadingalsocanbesolvedbythismethod. Morerigoroussolutionsareavailabletodeal withirregular
loading on circular plates. Once again energy method can be employed advantageously to solve
circular plateproblems. Figure2.35 gives deection and bending moment expressions for typical
casesof loadingand boundary conditionson circular plates.
FIGURE2.35: Typical loadingand boundary conditionsfor circular plates.
FIGURE2.35: (Continued) Typical loadingand boundary conditionsfor circular plates.
2.5.5 StrainEnergyof SimplePlates
Thestrain energy expression for asimplerectangular plateisgiven by
U =
D
2
_ _
area
_
_
2
w
x
2
+

2
w
y
2
_
2
2(1 )
_
2
w
x
2
2
w
y
2

_

2
w
xy
_
2
__
dxdy (2.78)
Suitabledeection function w(x, y) satisfying theboundary conditions of thegiven platemay be
chosen. Thestrain energy, U, and thework doneby thegiven load, q(x, y),
W =
_ _
area
q(x, y)w(x, y)dxdy (2.79)
can becalculated. Thetotal potential energy is, therefore, given asV = U + W. Minimizing the
total potential energy theplateproblemcan besolved.
_
2
w
x
2
2
w
y
2

_

2
w
xy
_
2
_
Thetermisknown astheGaussian curvature.
If thefunction w(x, y) = f (x) (y) (product of afunction of x only and afunction of y only)
and w = 0 at theboundary areassumed, then theintegral of theGaussian curvatureover theentire
plateequalszero. Under theseconditions
U =
D
2
_ _
area
_
2
w
x
2
+

2
w
y
2
_
2
dxdy
If polar coordinatesinsteadof rectangular coordinatesareusedandaxial symmetryof loadingand
deformation isassumed, theequation for strain energy, U, takestheform
U =
D
2
_ _
area
_
_
2
w
r
2
+
1
r
w
r
_
2
2(1 )
r
w
r
2
w
r
2
_
rdrd (2.80)
and thework done, W, iswritten as
W =
_ _
area
qwrdrd (2.81)
Detailed treatment of thePlateTheory can befound in [ 56] .
2.5.6 Platesof VariousShapesandBoundaryConditions
SimplySupportedIsoscelesTriangular PlateSubjectedtoaConcentratedLoad
Platesof shapesother thancircleandrectangleareusedinsomesituations. Arigoroussolution
of thedeection for aplatewith amorecomplicated shapeislikely to bevery difcult. Consider, for
example, thebendingof anisoscelestriangular platewithsimplysupportededgesunder concentrated
load P acting at an arbitrary point (Figure 2.36). A solution can be obtained for this plate by
consideringamirror imageof theplateasshown in thegure. Thedeection of OBC of thesquare
FIGURE2.36: Isoscelestriangular plate.
plateisidentical with that of asimply supported triangular plateOBC. Thedeection owingto the
forceP can bewritten as
w
1
=
4Pa
2
4
D
m=1
n=1
sin(mx
1
/a) sin(ny
1
/a)
(m
2
+n
2
)
2
sin
mx
a
sin
ny
a
(2.82)
Upon substitution of P for P, (a y
1
) for x
1
, and (a x1) for y1 in Equation 2.82weobtain the
deection dueto theforceP at A
i
:
w
2
=
4Pa
2
4
D
m=1
n=1
(1)
m+n
sin(mx
1
/a) sin(ny
1
/a)
(m
2
+n
2
)
2
sin
mx
a
sin
ny
a
(2.83)
Thedeection surfaceof thetriangular plateisthen
w = w
1
+w
2
(2.84)
Equilateral Triangular Plates
Thedeection surfaceof asimply supported plateloaded by uniform moment M
o
along its
boundary and the surface of a uniformly loaded membrane, uniformly stretched over the same
triangular boundary, areidentical. Thedeection surfacefor such acasecan beobtained as
w =
M
o
4aD
_
x
3
3xy
2
a(x
2
+y
2
) +
4
27
a
3
_
(2.85)
If thesimply supported plateissubjected to uniformload p
o
thedeection surfacetakestheform
w =
p
o
64aD
_
x
3
3xy
2
a(x
2
+y
2
) +
4
27
a
3
_ _
4
9
a
2
x
2
y
2
_
(2.86)
For the equilateral triangular plate (Figure 2.37) subjected to uniform load and supported at the
cornersapproximatesolutionsbased on theassumption that thetotal bendingmoment alongeach
FIGURE2.37: Equilateral triangular platewith coordinateaxes.
side of the triangle vanishes were obtained by Vijakkhana et al. [ 58] who derived an equation for
deection surfaceas
w =
qa
4
144(1
2
)D
_
8
27
(7 +)(2 ) (7 +)(1 )
_
x
2
a
2
+
y
2
a
2
_
(5 )(1 +)
_
x
3
a
3
3
xy
2
a
3
_
+
9
4
(1
2
)
_
x
4
a
4
+2
x
2
y
2
a
4
+
y
4
a
4
__
(2.87)
Theerrorsintroducedbytheapproximateboundarycondition, i.e., thetotal bendingmoment along
eachsideof thetrianglevanishes, arenot signicant becauseitsinuenceonthemaximumdeection
and stressresultantsissmall for practical design purposes. Thevalueof thetwistingmoment on the
edgeat thecorner given by thissolution isfound to beexact.
Thedetailsof themathematical treatment may befound in [ 58] .
Rectangular PlateSupportedat Corners
Approximatesolutionsfor rectangular platessupported at thecornersand subjected to uni-
formly distributed load were obtained by Lee and Ballesteros [ 36] . The approximate deection
surfaceisgiven as
w =
qa
4
48(1
2
)D
_
(10 +
2
)
_
1 +
b
4
a
4
_
2(7 1)
b
2
a
2
+2
_
(1 +5)
b
2
a
2
(6 +
2
)
_
x
a
+2
_
(1 +5) (6 +
2
)
b
2
a
2
_
y
2
a
2
+(2 +
2
)
x
4
+y
4
a
4
6(1 +)
x
2
y
2
a
4
_
(2.88)
Thedetailsof themathematical treatment may befound in [ 36] .
2.5.7 Orthotropic Plates
Platesof anisotropicmaterialshaveimportant applicationsowingtotheir exceptionallyhighbending
stiffness. A nonisotropic or anisotropic material displaysdirection-dependent properties. Simplest
amongthem arethosein which thematerial propertiesdiffer in two mutually perpendicular direc-
tions. A material so described isorthotropic, e.g., wood. A number of manufactured materialsare
approximated asorthotropic. Examplesincludecorrugated and rolled metal sheets, llersin sand-
wich plateconstruction, plywood, ber reinforced composites, reinforced concrete, and gridwork.
Thelatter consistsof two systemsof equally spaced parallel ribs(beams), mutually perpendicular,
and attached rigidly at thepointsof intersection.
Thegoverning equation for orthotropic platessimilar to that of isotropic plates(Equation 2.42)
takestheform
D
x
4
w
x
4
+2H
4
w
x
2
y
2
+D
y
4
w
y
4
= q (2.89)
In which
D
x
=
h
3
E
x
12
, D
y
=
h
3
E
y
12
, H = D
xy
+2G
xy
, D
xy
=
h
3
E
xy
12
, G
xy
=
h
3
G
12
Theexpressionsfor D
x
, D
y
, D
xy
, and G
xy
represent theexural rigiditiesand thetorsional rigidity
of an orthotropic plate, respectively. E
x
, E
y
, and G are the orthotropic plate moduli. Practical
considerationsoften lead to assumptions, with regard to material properties, resulting in approxi-
mateexpressionsfor elastic constants. Theaccuracy of theseapproximationsisgenerally themost
signicant factor in theorthotropic plateproblem. Approximaterigiditiesfor somecasesthat are
commonly encountered in practicearegiven in Figure2.38.
General solution proceduresapplicableto thecaseof isotropicplatesareequally applicableto the
orthotropic plates as well. Deections and stress-resultants can thus be obtained for orthotropic
platesof different shapeswith different support and loadingconditions. Theseproblemshavebeen
researched extensively and solutionsconcerning platesof variousshapesunder different boundary
and loadingconditionsmay befound in thereferences, namely [ 37, 52, 53, 56, 57] .
2.5.8 Bucklingof ThinPlates
Rectangular Plates
Buckling of aplateinvolvesbending in two planesand isthereforefairly complicated. From
a mathematical point of view, the main difference between columns and plates is that quantities
such asdeectionsand bendingmoments, which arefunctionsof asingleindependent variable, in
columns becomefunctions of two independent variablesin plates. Consequently, thebehavior of
platesisdescribed by partial differential equations, whereasordinary differential equationssufce
for describingthebehavior of columns. A signicant differencebetween columnsand platesisalso
apparent if onecomparestheir bucklingcharacteristics. For acolumn, bucklingterminatestheability
of themember toresist axial load, andthecritical loadisthusthefailureloadof themember. However,
thesameisnot truefor plates. Thesestructural elementscan, subsequently to reachingthecritical
load, continueto resist increasingaxial force, and they do not fail until aload considerably in excess
of thecritical load isreached. Thecritical load of aplateis, therefore, not itsfailureload. Instead,
onemust determinetheload-carryingcapacity of aplateby consideringitspostbucklingbehavior.
To determine the critical in-plane loading of a plate by the concept of neutral equilibrium, a
governingequation in termsof biaxial compressiveforcesN
x
and N
y
and constant shear forceN
xy
asshown in Figure2.39can bederived as
D
_
4
w
x
4
+2

4
w
x
2
y
2
+

4
w
y
4
_
+N
x
2
w
x
2
+N
y
2
w
y
2
+2N
xy
2
w
xy
= 0 (2.90)
FIGURE2.38: Variousorthotropicplates.
Thecritical load for uniaxial compression can bedetermined fromthedifferential equation
D
_
4
w
x
4
+2

4
w
x
2
y
2
+

4
w
y
4
_
+N
x
2
w
x
2
= 0 (2.91)
which isobtained by settingN
y
= N
xy
= 0 in Equation 2.90.
For example, in thecaseof asimply supported plateEquation 2.91can besolved to give
N
x
=

2
a
2
D
m
2
_
m
2
a
2
+
n
2
b
2
_
2
(2.92)
FIGURE2.39: Platesubjected to in-planeforces.
Thecritical valueof N
x
, i.e., thesmallest value, can beobtained by takingn equal to 1. Thephysical
meaningof thisisthat aplatebucklesinsuchawaythat therecanbeseveral half-wavesinthedirection
of compression but only onehalf-wavein theperpendicular direction. Thus, theexpression for the
critical valueof thecompressiveforcebecomes
(N
x
)
cr
=

2
D
a
2
_
m+
1
m
a
2
b
2
_
2
(2.93)
Therst factor in thisexpression representstheEuler load for astrip of unit width and of length a.
Thesecond factor indicatesin what proportion thestability of thecontinuousplateisgreater than
thestability of an isolated strip. Themagnitudeof thisfactor dependson themagnitudeof theratio
a/b and also on thenumber m, which givesthenumber of half-wavesinto which theplatebuckles.
If a issmaller than b, thesecond term in theparenthesisof Equation 2.93 isalwayssmaller than
therst and theminimumvalueof theexpression isobtained bytakingm = 1, i.e., byassumingthat
theplatebucklesin onehalf-wave. Thecritical valueof N
x
can beexpressed as
N
cr
=
k
2
D
b
2
(2.94)
Thefactor k dependson theaspect ratioa/b of theplateandm, thenumber of half-wavesintowhich
the plate buckles in thex direction. The variation of k with a/b for different values of m can be
plotted, asshown in Figure2.40. Thecritical valueof N
x
isthesmallest valuethat isobtained for
m = 1 and thecorrespondingvalueof k isequal to4.0. ThisformulaisanalogoustoEulersformula
for bucklingof acolumn.
In themoregeneral casein which normal forcesN
x
and N
y
and theshearingforcesN
xy
areacting
on theboundary of theplate, thesamegeneral method can beused. Thecritical stressfor thecaseof
auniaxially compressed simply supported platecan bewritten as
cr
= 4

2
E
12(1
2
)
_
h
b
_
2
(2.95)
Thecritical stressvaluesfor different loadingand support conditionscan beexpressed in theform
f
cr
= k
2
E
12(1
2
)
_
h
b
_
2
(2.96)
in which f
cr
isthecritical valueof different loadingcases. Valuesof k for plateswith several different
boundary and loadingconditionsaregiven in Figure2.41.
FIGURE2.40: Bucklingstresscoefcientsfor unaxially compressed plate.
Circular Plates
The critical value of the compressive forces N
r
uniformly distributed around the edge of a
circular plate of radius r
o
, clamped along the edge (Figure 2.42) can be determined by using the
governingequation
r
2
d
2
dr
2
+r
d
dr
=
Qr
2
D
(2.97)
in which istheanglebetween theaxisof revolution of theplatesurfaceandanynormal totheplate,
r isthedistanceof any point measured from thecenter of theplate, and Q istheshearingforceper
unit of length. When thereareno lateral forcesacting on theplate, thesolution of Equation 2.97
involvesaBessel function of therst order of therst andsecondkindandtheresultingcritical value
of N
r
isobtained as
(N
r
)
cr
=
14.68D
r
2
0
(2.98)
Thecritical valueof N
r
for theplatewhen theedgeissimply supported can beobtained in thesame
way as
(N
r
)
cr
=
4.20D
r
2
0
(2.99)
2.6 Shell
2.6.1 StressResultantsinShell Element
Athin shell isdened asashell with athicknessthat isrelatively small compared to itsother dimen-
sions. Also, deformationsshould not belargecompared to thethickness. Theprimary difference
between ashell structureand aplatestructureisthat theformer hasacurvaturein theunstressed
state, whereas thelatter is assumed to beinitially at. Thepresenceof initial curvatureis of little
consequenceasfar asexural behavior isconcerned. Themembranebehavior, however, isaffected
signicantly by the curvature. Membrane action in a surface is caused by in-plane forces. These
forces may be primary forces caused by applied edge loads or edge deformations, or they may be
secondary forcesresultingfromexural deformations.
FIGURE2.41: Valuesof K for platewith different boundary and loadingconditions.
In thecaseof theat plates, secondary in-planeforcesdo not giveriseto appreciablemembrane
action unless the bending deformations are large. Membrane action due to secondary forces is,
therefore, neglected in small deection theory. If thesurface, asin thecaseof shell structures, hasan
initial curvature, membraneaction caused bysecondaryin-planeforceswill besignicant regardless
of themagnitudeof thebendingdeformations.
A plate is likened to a two-dimensional beam and resists transverse loads by two dimensional
bendingand shear. A membraneislikened to atwo-dimensional equivalent of thecableand resists
loads through tensile stresses. Imagine a membrane with large deections (Figure 2.43a), reverse
theload and themembraneand wehavethestructural shell (Figure2.43b) provided that theshell
isstablefor thetypeof load shown. Themembraneresiststheload through tensilestressesbut the
ideal thin shell must becapableof developingboth tension and compression.
Consider aninnitelysmall shell element formedbytwopairsof adjacent planeswhicharenormal
tothemiddlesurfaceof theshell andwhichcontain itsprincipal curvaturesasshown in Figure2.44a.
Thethicknessof theshell isdenoted ash. Coordinateaxesx and y aretaken tangent at O to the
linesof principal curvatureand theaxisz normal to themiddlesurface. r
x
and r
y
aretheprincipal
FIGURE2.42: Circular plateunder compressiveloading.
FIGURE2.43: Membranewith largedeections.
radii of curvaturelyingin thexz and yz planes, respectively. Theresultant forcesper unit length of
thenormal sectionsaregiven as
N
x
=
_
h/2
h/2
x
_
1
z
r
y
_
dz, N
y
=
_
h/2
h/2
y
_
1
z
r
x
_
dz
N
xy
=
_
h/2
h/2
xy
_
1
z
r
y
_
dz, N
yx
=
_
h/2
h/2
yx
_
1
z
r
x
_
dz
Q
x
=
_
h/2
h/2
xz
_
1
z
r
y
_
dz, Q
y
=
_
h/2
h/2
yz
_
1
z
r
x
_
dz (2.100)
Thebendingand twistingmomentsper unit length of thenormal sectionsaregiven by
M
x
=
_
h/2
h/2
x
z
_
1
z
r
y
_
dz, M
y
=
_
h/2
h/2
y
z
_
1
z
r
x
_
dz
M
xy
=
_
h/2
h/2
xy
z
_
1
z
r
y
_
dz, M
yx
=
_
h/2
h/2
yx
z
_
1
z
r
x
_
dz (2.101)
It isassumed, in bending of theshell, that linear elementsasAD and BC (Figure2.44), which
arenormal to themiddlesurfaceof theshell, remain straight and becomenormal to thedeformed
middlesurfaceof theshell. If theconditionsof ashell aresuch that bending can beneglected, the
FIGURE2.44: A shell element.
problemof stressanalysisisgreatlysimpliedbecausetheresultant moments(Equation2.101) vanish
alongwith shearingforcesQ
x
and Q
y
in Equation 2.100. Thus, theonlyunknownsareN
x
, N
y
, and
N
xy
= N
yx
and thesearecalled membraneforces.
2.6.2 MembraneTheoryof Shellsof Revolution
Shellshaving theform of surfacesof revolution nd extensiveapplication in variouskindsof con-
tainers, tanks, and domes. Consider an element of a shell cut by two adjacent meridiansand two
parallel circlesasshown in Figure2.45. Therewill beno shearingforceson thesidesof theelement
becauseof thesymmetry of loading. By consideringtheequilibrium in thedirection of thetangent
to themeridian and z, two equationsof equilibriumarewritten, respectively, as
d
d
(N
r
0
) N
r
1
cos +Yr
1
r
0
= 0
N
r
0
+N
r
1
sin +Zr
1
r
0
= 0 (2.102)
TheforceN
andN
canbecalculatedfromEquation 2.102if theradii r

0
andr
1
andthecomponents
Y and Z of theintensity of theexternal load aregiven.
2.6.3 Spherical Dome
Thespherical shell shown in Figure2.46 isassumed to besubjected to itsown weight; theintensity
of theself weight isassumed asaconstant valueq
o
per unit area. Consideringan element of theshell
at an angle, theself weight of theportion of theshell abovethiselement isobtained as
r = 2
_

0
a
2
q
o
sin d
FIGURE2.45: An element fromshellsof revolutionsymmetrical loading.
FIGURE2.46: Spherical dome.
= 2a
2
q
o
(1 cos )
Consideringtheequilibriumof theportion of theshell abovetheparallel circledened by theangle
, wecan write
2r
0
N
sin +R = 0 (2.103)
Therefore,
N
=
aq(1 cos )
sin
2
=
aq
1 +cos
Wecan writefromEquation 2.102
N
r
1
+
N
r
2
= Z (2.104)
Substitutingfor N
and R into Equation 2.104

N
= aq
_
1
1 +cos
cos
_
It isseen that theforcesN
arealwaysnegative. Thus, thereisacompression along themeridians

that increasesastheangle increases. TheforcesN
arealsonegativefor small angles. Thestresses

ascalculated abovewill represent theactual stressesin theshell with great accuracy if thesupports
areof such atypethat thereactionsaretangent to meridiansasshown in thegure.
2.6.4 Conical Shells
If a force P is applied in the direction of the axis of the cone as shown in Figure 2.47, the stress
distribution issymmetrical and weobtain
N
=
P
2r
0
cos
By Equation 2.104, oneobtainsN
= 0.
FIGURE2.47: Conical shell.
In the case of a conical surface in which the lateral forces are symmetrically distributed, the
membrane stresses can be obtained by using Equations 2.103 and 2.104. The curvature of the
meridian in thecaseof aconeiszero and hencer
1
= ; Equations2.103 and 2.104 can, therefore,
bewritten as
N
=
R
2r
0
sin
and
N
= r
2
Z =
Zr
0
sin
If theload distribution isgiven, N
and N
can becalculated independently.

For example, a conical tank lled with a liquid of specic weight is considered as shown in
Figure2.48. Thepressureat any parallel circlemn is
p = Z = (d y)
For thetank, = +

2
and r
0
= y tan .
Therefore,
N
=
(d y)y tan
cos
FIGURE2.48: Inverted conical tank.
N
ismaximumwhen y =
d
2
and hence
(N
)
max
=
d
2
tan
4 cos
Theterm R in theexpression for N
isequal to theweight of theliquid in theconical part mno

and thecylindrical part must beasshown in Figure2.47. Therefore,
R =
_
1
3
y
3
tan
2
+y
2
(d y) tan
2
= y
2
_
d
2
3
y
_
tan
2
Hence,
N
=
y
_
d
2
3
y
_
tan
2 cos
N
ismaximumwhen y =
3
4
d and
(N
)
max
=
3
16
d
2
tan
cos
Thehorizontal component of N
istaken by thereinforcingringprovided alongtheupper edgeof

thetank. Thevertical componentsconstitutethereactionssupportingthetank.
2.6.5 Shellsof RevolutionSubjectedtoUnsymmetrical Loading
Consider an element cut fromashell bytwoadjacent meridiansandtwoparallel circles(Figure2.49).
In thegeneral case, shear forcesN
= N
in addition to normal forcesN
and N
will act on the

sidesof theelement. Projectingtheforceson theelement in they direction weobtain theequation
(N
r
0
) +
N
r
1
N
r
1
cos +Yr
1
r
0
= 0 (2.105)
Similarly theforcesin thex direction can besummed up to give
(r
0
N
) +
N
r
1
+N
r
1
cos +Xr
0
r
1
= 0 (2.106)
FIGURE2.49: An element fromshellsof revolutionunsymmetrical loading.
Since the projection of shearing forces on the z axis vanishes, the third equation is the same as
Equation 2.104. The problem of determining membrane stresses under unsymmetrical loading
reducestothesolution of Equations2.104, 2.105, and2.106for given valuesof thecomponentsX, Y,
and Z of theintensity of theexternal load.
2.6.6 MembraneTheoryof Cylindrical Shells
It isassumed that thegenerator of theshell ishorizontal and parallel to thex axis. An element iscut
fromtheshell by two adjacent generatorsand two cross-sectionsperpendicular to thex axis, and its
position isdened by thecoordinatex and theangle. Theforcesactingon thesidesof theelement
areshown in Figure2.50b.
Thecomponentsof thedistributed load over thesurfaceof theelement aredenoted asX, Y, and
Z. Considering theequilibrium of theelement and summing up theforcesin thex direction, we
obtain
N
x
x
rddx +
N
x
ddx +Xrddx = 0
Thecorrespondingequationsof equilibriumin they and z directionsaregiven, respectively, as
N
x
x
rddx +
N
ddx +Yrddx = 0
N
ddx +Zrddx = 0
Thethreeequationsof equilibriumcan besimplied and represented in thefollowingform:
N
x
x
+
1
r
N
x
= X
N
x
x
+
1
r
N
= Y
N
= Z
r
(2.107)
In each particular casewereadily nd thevalueof N
. Substitutingthisvaluein thesecond of the

equations, wethen obtain N
x
by integration. Usingthevalueof N
x
thusobtained wend N
x
by
integratingtherst equation.
FIGURE2.50: Membraneforceson acylindrical shell element.
2.6.7 SymmetricallyLoadedCircular Cylindrical Shells
In practical applicationsproblemsin which acircular shell issubjected to theaction of forcesdis-
tributedsymmetricallywithrespect totheaxisof thecylinder arecommon. Toestablishtheequations
required for thesolution of theseproblems, weconsider an element, asshown in Figures2.50aand
2.51, and consider the equations of equilibrium. From symmetry, the membrane shearing forces
FIGURE2.51: Stressresultantsin acylindrical shell element.
N
x
= N
x
vanish in thiscase; forcesN
areconstant along thecircumference. From symmetry,

only theforcesQ
z
do not vanish. Considering themomentsacting on theelement in Figure2.51,
fromsymmetry it can beconcluded that thetwistingmomentsM
x
= M
x
vanish and thebending
momentsM
areconstant along thecircumference. Under such conditionsof symmetry threeof

thesix equations of equilibrium of theelement areidentically satised. Wehaveto consider only
theequationsobtained by projecting theforceson the x and z axesand by taking themoment of
theforcesabout they axis. For example, consider acasein which external forcesconsist only of a
pressurenormal to thesurface. Thethreeequationsof equilibriumare
dN
dx
adxd = 0
dQ
x
dx
adxd +N
dxd +Zadxd = 0
dM
x
dx
adxd Q
x
adxd = 0 (2.108)
Therst oneindicatesthat theforcesN
x
areconstant, and they aretaken equal to zero in thefurther
discussion. If theyaredifferent fromzero, thedeformationandstresscorrespondingtosuchconstant
forcescan beeasilycalculatedandsuperposedon stressesanddeformationsproducedbylateral load.
Theremainingtwo equationsarewritten in thesimplied form:
dQ
x
dx
+
1
a
N
= Z
dM
x
dx
Q
x
= 0 (2.109)
Thesetwo equationscontain threeunknown quantities: N
, Q
x
, and M
x
. Weneed, therefore, to
consider thedisplacementsof pointsin themiddlesurfaceof theshell.
Thecomponent v of thedisplacement in thecircumferential direction vanishesbecauseof sym-
metry. Only thecomponentsu and w in thex and z directions, respectively, areto beconsidered.
Theexpressionsfor thestrain componentsthen become
x
=
du
dx
=
w
a
(2.110)
By Hookeslaw, weobtain
N
x
=
Eh
1
2
(
x
+
) =
Eh
1
2
_
du
dx
w
a
_
= 0
N
=
Eh
1
2
(
+
x
) =
Eh
1
2
_
w
a
+
du
dx
_
= 0 (2.111)
Fromtherst of theseequation it followsthat
du
dx
=
w
a
and thesecond equation gives
N
=
Ehw
a
(2.112)
Consideringthebendingmoments, weconcludefromsymmetrythat thereisnochangein curvature
in thecircumferential direction. Thecurvaturein thex direction isequal to d
2
w/dx
2
. Usingthe
sameequationsasfor plates, wethen obtain
M
= M
x
M
x
= D
d
2
w
dx
2
(2.113)
where
D =
Eh
3
12(1
2
)
istheexural rigidity per unit length of theshell.
EliminatingQ
x
fromEquation 2.109, weobtain
d
2
M
x
dx
2
+
1
a
N
= Z
fromwhich, by usingEquations2.112and 2.113, weobtain
d
2
dx
2
_
D
d
2
w
dx
2
_
+
Eh
a
2
w = Z (2.114)
All problemsof symmetrical deformation of circular cylindrical shellsthusreduceto theintegration
of Equation 2.114.
Thesimplest application of thisequation isobtained when thethicknessof theshell isconstant.
Under such conditions, Equation 2.114becomes
D
d
4
w
dx
4
+
Eh
a
2
w = Z
Usingthenotation
4
=
Eh
4a
2
D
=
3(1
2
)
a
2
h
2
(2.115)
Equation 2.115can berepresented in thesimplied form
d
4
w
dx
4
+4
4
w =
Z
D
(2.116)
Thegeneral solution of thisequation is
w = e
x
(C
1
cos x +C
2
sin x)
+e
x
(C
3
cos x +C
4
sin x) +f (x) (2.117)
Detailed treatment of shell theory can beobtained fromTimoshenko and Woinowsky-Krieger [ 56] .
2.6.8 Bucklingof Shells
If a circular cylindrical shell is uniformly compressed in theaxial direction, buckling symmetrical
with respect to theaxisof thecylinder (Figure2.52) may occur at acertain valueof thecompressive
load. Thecritical valueof thecompressiveforceN
cr
per unit length of theedgeof theshell can be
obtained by solvingthedifferential equation
D
d
4
w
dx
4
+N
d
2
w
dx
2
+Eh
w
a
2
= 0 (2.118)
in which a istheradiusof thecylinder and h isthewall thickness.
Alternatively, thecritical forceper unit length may also beobtained by usingtheenergy method.
For acylinder of length L simply supported at both endsoneobtains
N
cr
= D
_
m
2
2
L
2
+
EhL
2
Da
2
m
2
2
_
(2.119)
FIGURE2.52: Bucklingof acylindrical shell.
For each valueof m thereisauniquebucklingmodeshapeand auniquebucklingload. Thelowest
valueisof greatest interest and isthusfound by settingthederivativeof N
cr
with respect to L equal
to zero for m = 1. With PoissonsRatio, = 0.3, thebucklingload isobtained as
N
cr
= 0.605
Eh
2
a
(2.120)
It ispossiblefor acylindrical shell besubjectedtouniformexternal pressureor tothecombinedaction
of axial and uniformlateral pressure. In such casesthemathematical treatment ismoreinvolved and
it requiresspecial considerations.
Moredetailed treatment of such casesmay befound in Timoshenko and Gere[55] .
2.7 InuenceLines
Structuressuchasbridges, industrial buildingswithtravellingcranes, andframessupportingconveyor
beltsaresubjected to movingloads. Each member of thesestructuresmust bedesigned for themost
severeconditionsthat can possibly bedeveloped in that member. Liveloadsshould beplaced at the
position wheretheywill producethesesevereconditions. Thecritical positionsfor placingliveloads
will not bethesamefor every member. On someoccasionsit ispossibleto determineby inspection
whereto placetheloadsto givethemost critical forces, but on many other occasionsit isnecessary
to resort to certain criteriato nd thelocations. Themost useful of thesemethodsisinuencelines.
An inuencelinefor a particular responsesuch as reaction, shear force, bending moment, and
axial forceisdenedasadiagramtheordinatetowhich at anypoint equalsthevalueof that response
attributableto aunit load actingat that point on thestructure. Inuencelinesprovideasystematic
procedurefor determininghowtheforceinagivenpart of astructurevariesastheappliedloadmoves
about on thestructure. Inuencelinesof responsesof statically determinatestructuresconsist only
of straight lineswhereasthey arecurvesfor statically indeterminatestructures. They areprimarily
usedtodeterminewheretoplaceliveloadstocausemaximumforceandtocomputethemagnitudeof
thoseforces. Theknowledgeof inuencelineshelpsto study thestructural responseunder different
movingload conditions.
2.7.1 InuenceLinesfor Shear inSimpleBeams
Figure2.53showsinuencelinesfor shear at twosectionsof asimplysupported beam. It isassumed
that positiveshear occurswhenthesumof thetransverseforcestotheleft of asectionisintheupward
direction or when thesumof theforcestotheright of thesection isdownward. Aunit forceisplaced
at variouslocationsand theshear forceat sections1-1and 2-2areobtained for each position of the
FIGURE2.53: Inuencelinefor shear force.
unit load. Thesevaluesgivetheordinateof inuencelinewith which theinuencelinediagramsfor
shear forceat sections1-1 and 2-2 can beconstructed. Notethat theslopeof theinuencelinefor
shear on theleft of thesection isequal to theslopeof theinuencelineon theright of thesection.
Thisinformation isuseful in drawingshear forceinuencelinein other cases.
2.7.2 InuenceLinesfor BendingMoment inSimpleBeams
Inuencelinesfor bendingmoment at thesamesections, 1-1and 2-2of thesimplebeamconsidered
in Figure2.53, areplotted asshown in Figure2.54. For asection, when thesum of themomentsof
FIGURE2.54: Inuencelinefor bendingmoment.
all theforcesto theleft isclockwiseor when thesum to theright iscounter-clockwise, themoment
istaken aspositive. Thevaluesof bendingmoment at sections1-1and 2-2areobtained for various
positionsof unit load and plotted asshown in thegure.
It should beunderstood that ashear or bendingmoment diagramshowsthevariation of shear or
moment acrossan entirestructurefor loadsxed in oneposition. On theother hand, an inuence
linefor shear or moment showsthevariationof that responseat oneparticular sectioninthestructure
caused by themovement of aunit load fromoneend of thestructureto theother.
Inuencelinescan beused to obtain thevalueof aparticular responsefor which it isdrawn when
thebeam issubjected to any particular typeof loading. If, for example, auniform load of intensity
q
o
per unit length isactingover theentirelength of thesimplebeamshown in Figure2.53, then the
shear forceat section 1-1isgiven by theproduct of theload intensity, q
o
, and thenet areaunder the
inuencelinediagram. Thenet areaisequal to 0.3l and theshear forceat section 1-1 is, therefore,
equal to 0.3q
o
l. In thesameway, thebendingmoment at thesection can befound astheareaof the
correspondinginuencelinediagramtimestheintensityof loading, q
o
. Thebendingmoment at the
section is, therefore, (0.08l
2
q
o
=)0.08q
o
l
2
.
2.7.3 InuenceLinesfor Trusses
Inuence lines for support reactions and member forces may be constructed in the same manner
asthosefor variousbeam functions. They areuseful to determinethemaximum load that can be
applied to thetruss. Theunit load movesacrossthetruss, and theordinatesfor theresponsesunder
consideration may becomputed for theload at each panel point. Member force, in most cases, need
not becalculated for everypanel point becausecertain portionsof inuencelinescan readilybeseen
to consist of straight linesfor several panels. Onemethod used for calculatingtheforcesin achord
member of atrussisby theMethod of Sectionsdiscussed earlier.
Thetrussshown in Figure2.55isconsidered for illustratingtheconstruction of inuencelinesfor
trusses.
Themember forcesin U
1
U
2
, L
1
L
2
, and U
1
L
2
aredetermined by passingasection 1-1 and con-
sideringtheequilibrium of thefreebody diagram of oneof thetrusssegments. Unit load isplaced
at L
1
rst and the force in U
1
U
2
is obtained by taking moment about L
2
of all the forces acting
on the right-hand segment of the truss and dividing the resulting moment by the lever arm (the
perpendicular distanceof theforcein U
1
U
2
fromL
2
). Thevaluethusobtained givestheordinateof
theinuencediagram at L
1
in thetruss. Theordinateat L
2
obtained similarly representstheforce
in U
1
U
2
for unit load placed at L
2
. Theinuencelinecan becompleted with two other points, one
at each of thesupports. Theforcein themember L
1
L
2
dueto unit load placed at L
1
and L
2
can
beobtained in thesamemanner and thecorresponding inuencelinediagram can becompleted.
By consideringthehorizontal component of forcein thediagonal of thepanel, theinuencelinefor
forcein U
1
L
2
can beconstructed. Figure2.55 showstherespectiveinuencediagram for member
forces in U
1
U
2
, L
1
L
2
, and U
1
L
2
. Inuence line ordinates for the force in a chord member of a
curved-chord trussmay bedetermined by passingavertical section through thepanel and taking
momentsat theintersection of thediagonal and theother chord.
2.7.4 QualitativeInuenceLines
One of the most effective methods of obtaining inuence lines is by the use of M uller-Breslaus
principle, whichstatesthat theordinatesof theinuencelinefor anyresponseinastructureareequal
tothoseof thedeection curveobtainedbyreleasingtherestraint correspondingtothisresponseand
introducingacorrespondingunit displacement in theremainingstructure. In thisway, theshapeof
theinuencelinesfor bothstaticallydeterminateandindeterminatestructurescanbeeasilyobtained
especially for beams.
FIGURE2.55: Inuencelinefor truss.
To drawtheinuencelinesof
1. Support reaction: Removethesupport andintroduceaunit displacement inthedirection
of thecorresponding reaction to theremaining structureasshown in Figure2.56 for a
symmetrical overhangbeam.
FIGURE2.56: Inuencelinefor support reaction.
2. Shear: Makeacut at thesection andintroduceaunit relativetranslation (in thedirection
of positive shear) without relative rotation of the two ends at the section as shown in
Figure2.57.
3. Bendingmoment: Introduceahingeat thesection (releasingthebendingmoment) and
apply bending (in the direction corresponding to positive moment) to produce a unit
relativerotation of thetwo beamendsat thehinged section asshown in Figure2.58.
FIGURE2.57: Inuencelinefor midspan shear force.
FIGURE2.58: Inuencelinefor midspan bendingmoment.
2.7.5 InuenceLinesfor ContinuousBeams
UsingM uller-Breslausprinciple, theshapeof theinuencelineof anyresponseof acontinuousbeam
can besketched easily. Oneof themethodsfor beam deection can then beused for determining
theordinatesof theinuencelineat critical points. Figures2.59 to 2.61 showtheinuencelinesof
bendingmoment at variouspointsof two, three, and four span continuousbeams.
FIGURE2.59: Inuencelinesfor bendingmomentstwo span beam.
2.8 EnergyMethodsinStructural Analysis
Energy methods are a powerful tool in obtaining numerical solutions of statically indeterminate
problems. Thebasic quantity required isthestrainenergy, or work stored dueto deformations, of
thestructure.
FIGURE2.60: Inuencelinesfor bendingmomentsthreespan beam.
FIGURE2.61: Inuencelinesfor bendingmomentsfour span beam.
2.8.1 StrainEnergyDuetoUniaxial Stress
Inanaxiallyloadedbar withconstant cross-section, theappliedloadcausesnormal stress
y
asshown
in Figure2.62. Thetensilestress
y
increasesfromzero to avalue
y
astheload isgradually applied.
Theoriginal, unstrained position of any section such as C C will bedisplaced by an amount v.
A section D D located adifferential length belowC C will havebeen displaced by an amount
v +
_
v
y
_
dy. As
y
varieswiththeappliedload, fromzeroto
y
, thework donebytheforcesexternal
to theelement can beshown to be
dV =
1
2E
2
y
Ady =
1
2
y
Ady (2.121)
in which A istheareaof cross-section of thebar and
y
isthestrain in thedirection of
y
.
FIGURE2.62: Axially loaded bar.
2.8.2 StrainEnergyinBending
It can beshown that thestrain energy of adifferential volumedxdydz stressed in tension or com-
pression in thex direction only by anormal stress
x
will be
dV =
1
2E
2
x
dxdydz =
1
2
x
dxdydz (2.122)
When
x
is thebending stress given by
x
=
My
I
(seeFigure2.63), then dV =
1
2E
M
2
y
2
I
2
dxdydz,
whereI isthemoment of inertiaof thecross-sectional areaabout theneutral axis.
FIGURE2.63: Beamunder arbitrary bendingload.
Thetotal strain energy of bendingof abeamisobtained as
V =
_ _ _
volume
1
2E
M
2
I
2
y
2
dzdydx
where
I =
_ _
area
y
2
dzdy
Therefore,
V =
_
length
M
2
2EI
dx (2.123)
2.8.3 StrainEnergyinShear
Figure2.64showsan element of volumedxdydz subjected to shear stress
xy
and
yx
.
FIGURE2.64: Shear loading.
For staticequilibrium, it can readily beshown that
xy
=
yx
Theshear strain, isdened asAB/AC. For small deformations, it followsthat
xy
=
AB
AC
Hence, the angle of deformation
xy
is a measure of the shear strain. The strain energy for this
differential volumeisobtained as
dV =
1
2
_
xy
dzdx
_
xy
dy =
1
2
xy
xy
dxdydz (2.124)
HookesLawfor shear stressand strain is
xy
=

xy
G
(2.125)
whereG istheshear modulusof elasticity of thematerial. Theexpression for strain energy in shear
reducesto
dV =
1
2G
2
xy
dxdydz (2.126)
2.8.4 TheEnergyRelationsinStructural Analysis
The energy relations or laws such as (1) Law of Conservation of Energy, (2) Theorem of Virtual
Work, (3) Theorem of Minimum Potential Energy, and (4) Theorem of Complementary Energy
areof fundamental importancein structural engineeringand areused in variouswaysin structural
analysis.
TheLawof Conservationof Energy
Therearemanywaysof statingthislaw. For thepurposeof structural analysisit will besufcient
to stateit in thefollowingway:
If a structure and the external loads acting on it are isolated so that these neither
receivenor giveout energy, then thetotal energy of thissystemremainsconstant.
Atypical application of theLawof Conservation of Energycan bemadebyreferringtoFigure2.65
which showsacantilever beamof constant cross-sectionssubjected to aconcentrated load at itsend.
If only bendingstrain energy isconsidered,
External work = Internal work
P
2
=
_
L
0
M
2
dx
2EI
SubstitutingM = Px and integratingalongthelength gives
=
PL
3
3EI
(2.127)
FIGURE2.65: Cantilever beam.
TheTheoremof Virtual Work
TheTheorem of Virtual Work can bederived by consideringthebeam shown in Figure2.66.
Thefull curved linerepresentstheequilibriumposition of thebeamunder thegiven loads. Assume
thebeamtobegiven an additional small deformation consistent with theboundaryconditions. This
is called a virtual deformation and corresponds to increments of deection
y1
,
y2
, ...,
yn
at
loadsP
1
, P
2
, ..., P
n
asshown by thebroken line.
Thechangein potential energy of theloadsisgiven by
(P.E.) =
n
i=1
P
i
y
i
(2.128)
By theLawof Conservation of Energy thismust beequal to theinternal strain energy stored in the
beam. Hence, wemay statetheTheoremof Virtual Work in thefollowingform:
FIGURE2.66: Equilibriumof asimply supported beamunder loading.
If a body in equilibrium under the action of a system of external loads is given
any small (virtual) deformation, then thework doneby theexternal loadsduring this
deformation isequal to theincreasein internal strain energy stored in thebody.
TheTheoremof MinimumPotential Energy
Let usconsider thebeam shown in Figure2.67. Thebeam isin equilibrium under theaction
FIGURE2.67: Simply supported beamunder point loading.
of loads, P
1
, P
2
, P
3
, ..., P
i
, ..., P
n
. ThecurveACB denestheequilibrium positionsof theloads
and reactions. Nowapply by somemeansan additional small displacement to thecurveso that it is
dened by AC
B. Let y
i
betheoriginal equilibrium displacement of thecurvebeneath aparticular
load P
i
. Theadditional small displacement iscalled
yi
. Thepotential energy of thesystem while
it isin theequilibrium conguration isfound by comparing thepotential energy of thebeam and
loadsin equilibrium and in theundeected position. If thechangein potential energy of theloads
isW and thestrain energy of thebeamisV, thetotal energy of thesystemis
U = W +V (2.129)
If weneglect thesecond-order terms, then
U = (W +V) = 0 (2.130)
Theaboveisexpressed asthePrincipleor Theorem of Minimum Potential Energy which can be
stated as
Of all displacements satisfying given boundary conditions, those that satisfy the
equilibriumconditionsmakethepotential energy aminimum.
CastiglianosTheorem
An example of application of energy methods to the eld of structural engineering is Cas-
tiglianosTheorem. Thetheorem appliesonly to structuresstressed within theelastic limit. Also,
all deformationsmust belinear homogeneousfunctionsof theloads. CastiglianosTheorem can be
derived usingtheexpression for total potential energy asfollows: For abeam in equilibrium loaded
asin Figure2.66, thetotal energy is
U = [P
1
y
1
+P
2
y
2
+...P
j
y
j
+...P
n
y
n
] +V (2.131)
For an elasticsystem, thestrain energy, V, turnsout tobeonehalf thechangein thepotential energy
of theloads.
V =
1
2
i=n
i=1
P
i
y
i
(2.132)
CastiglianosTheorem resultsfrom studyingthevariation in thestrain energy, V, produced by a
differential changein oneof theloads, say P
j
.
If theload P
j
ischanged by adifferential amount P
j
and if thedeectionsy arelinear functions
of theloads, then
V
P
j
=
1
2
i=n
i=1
P
i
y
i
P
j
+
1
2
y
j
= y
j
(2.133)
CastiglianosTheoremisstated asfollows:
Thepartial derivativesof thetotal strain energy of any structurewith respect to any
oneof theapplied forcesisequal to thedisplacement of thepoint of application of the
forcein thedirection of theforce.
Tondthedeectionof apoint inabeamthat isnot thepoint of applicationof aconcentratedload,
oneshould apply aload P = 0 at that point and carry theterm P into thestrain energy equation.
Finally, introducethetruevalueof P = 0 into theexpression for theanswer.
EXAMPLE2.6:
For example, it isrequiredtodeterminethebendingdeectionat thefreeendof acantilever loaded
asshown in Figure2.68.
Solution
V =
_
L
0
M
2
2EI
dx
=
V
W
1
=
_
L
0
M
EI
M
W
1
dx
M = W
1
x 0 < x
L
2
= W
1
x +W
2
_
x

2
_
L
2
< x < L
=
1
EI
_
/2
0
W
1
x xdx +
1
EI
_

/2
_
W
1
x +W
2
_
x

2
__
xdx
=
W
1
3
24EI
+
7W
1
3
24EI
+
5W
2
3
48EI
FIGURE2.68: Example2.6
=
W
1
3
3EI
+
5W
2
3
48EI
CastiglianosTheoremcan beapplied to determinedeection of trussesasfollows:
Weknowthat theincrement of strain energy for an axially loaded bar isgiven as
dV =
1
2E
2
y
Ady
Substituting,
y
=
S
A
, whereS istheaxial load in thebar and integrating over thelength of the
bar thetotal strain energy of thebar isgiven as
V =
S
2
L
2AE
(2.134)
Thedeection component
i
of thepoint of application of aloadP
i
in thedirection of P
i
isgiven as
i
=
V
P
i
=

P
i
S
2
L
2AE
=
S
S
P
i
L
AE
EXAMPLE2.7:
Let usconsider thetrussshown in Figure2.69. It isrequired todeterminethevertical deection at
g of thetrusswhen loaded asshown in thegure. Let usrst replace20k load at g byP and carry
out thecalculationsin termsof P. At theend, P will bereplaced by theactual value, namely 20k.
A L
Member in.
2
ft S
S
P
n nS
S
P
L
A
ab 2 25 (33.3 +0.83P) 0.83 2 (691 +17.2P)
af 2 20 (26.7 +0.67P) 0.67 2 (358 +9P)
fg 2 20 (26.7 +0.67P) 0.67 2 (358 +9P)
bf 1 15 20 0 2 0
bg 1 25 0.83P 0.83 2 34.4P
bc 2 20 26.7 1.33P 1.33 2 (710 +35.4P)
cg 1 15 0 0 1 0
n indicatesthenumber of similar members
S
S
P
L
A
2117 +105P
With
P = 20k
g
=
S
S
P
L
AE
=
(2117 +105 20) 12
30 10
3
= 1.69 in.
2.8.5 Unit LoadMethod
The unit load method is a versatile tool in the solution of deections of both trusses and beams.
Consider an elastic body in equilibrium under loads P
1
, P
2
, P
3
, P
4
, ...P
n
and a load p applied at
point O, as shown in Figure 2.70. By Castiglianos Theorem, the component of the deection of
FIGURE2.70: Elasticbody in equilibriumunder load.
point O in thedirection of theapplied forcep is
o
p
=
V
p
(2.135)
in which V is thestrain energy of thebody. It has been shown in Equation 2.123, that thestrain
energy of abeam, neglectingshear effects, isgiven by
V =
_
L
0
M
2
2EI
dx
Also it wasshown that if theelasticbody isatruss, fromEquation 2.134
V =
S
2
L
2AE
For abeam, therefore, fromEquation 2.135
o
p
=
_
L
M
M
p
dx
EI
(2.136)
and for atruss,
o
p
=
S
S
p
L
AE
(2.137)
ThebendingmomentsM and theaxial forcesS arefunctionsof theload p aswell asof theloads
P
1
, P
2
, ...P
n
. Let aunit load beapplied at O on theelasticbody and thecorrespondingmoment be
mif thebody isabeam, and theforcesin themembersof thebody beu if thebody isatruss. For the
body in Figure2.70, themomentsM and theforcesS dueto thesystem of forcesP
1
, P
2
, ...P
n
and
p at O applied separately can beobtained by superposition as
M = M
p
+pm (2.138)
S = S
p
+pu (2.139)
in which M
P
and S
P
are, respectively, momentsand forcesproduced by P
1
, P
2
, ...P
n
.
Then
M
p
= m = momentsproduced by aunit load at O (2.140)
S
p
= u = stressesproduced by aunit load at O (2.141)
UsingEquations2.140and 2.141in Equations2.136and 2.137, respectively,
o
p
=
_
L
Mmdx
EI
(2.142)
o
p
=
SuL
AE
(2.143)
EXAMPLE2.8:
Determine, using theunit load method, thedeection at C of asimplebeam of constant cross-
section loaded asshown in Figure2.71a.
Solution Thebendingmoment diagramfor thebeamdueto theapplied loadingisshown
in Figure2.71b. Aunit load isapplied at C whereit isrequired to determinethedeection asshown
in Figure2.71c and thecorresponding bending moment diagram isshown in Figure2.71d. Now,
usingEquation 2.142, wehave
c
=
_
L
0
Mmdx
EI
=
1
EI
_ L
4
0
(Wx)
_
3
4
x
_
dx +
1
EI
_ 3L
4
L
4
_
WL
4
_
1
4
(L x)dx
+
1
EI
_
L
3L
4
W(L x)
1
4
(L x)dx
=
WL
3
48EI
Further detailson energy methodsin structural analysismay befound in [ 10] .
2.9 MatrixMethods
In this method of structural analysis, a set of simultaneous equations that describe the load-
deformation characteristicsof thestructureunder consideration areformed. Theseequationsare
solved using thematrix algebra to obtain theload-deformation characteristicsof discreteor nite
elementsintowhich thestructurehasbeen subdivided. Matrix algebraisideallysuited for settingup
andsolvingequationsonthecomputer. Matrixstructural analysishastwomethodsof approach. The
rst iscalledtheexibilitymethodinwhichforcesareusedasindependent variablesandthesecondis
called thestiffnessmethod; thesecond method employsdeformationsastheindependent variables.
Thetwo methodsarealso called theforcemethod and thedisplacement method, respectively.
2.9.1 FlexibilityMethod
In a structure, theforcesand displacementsarerelated to oneanother by using stiffnessinuence
coefcients. Let usconsider, for example, asimplebeamin which threeconcentrated loadsW
1
, W
2
,
and W
3
areapplied at sections1, 2, and 3, respectively asshown in Figure2.72. Now, thedeection
at section 1,
1
can beexpressed as
1
= F
11
W
1
+F
12
W
2
+F
13
W
3
in which F
11
, F
12
, and F
13
arecalled exibility coefcientsand they are, respectively, dened asthe
deection at section 1duetounit loadsappliedat sections1, 2, and3. Deectionsat sections2and3
aresimilarly given as
2
= F
21
W
1
+F
22
W
2
+F
23
W
3
FIGURE2.72: Simplebeamunder concentrated loads.
and
3
= F
31
W
1
+F
32
W
2
+F
33
W
3
(2.144)
Theseexpressionsarewritten in thematrix formas
_
_
_
3
_
_
_
=
_
_
F
11
F
12
F
13
F
21
F
22
F
23
F
31
F
32
F
33
_
_
_
_
_
W
1
W
2
W
3
_
_
_
(or)
{} = [F]{W} (2.145)
The matrix [F] is called the exibility matrix. It can be shown, by applying Maxwells reciprocal
theorem[ 10] , that thematrix {F} isasymmetricmatrix.
Theexibility matrix for acantilever beam loaded asshown in Figure2.73 can beconstructed as
follows.
Therst column in theexibility matrix can begenerated by applyingaunit vertical load at the
freeend of thecantilever asshown in Figure2.73b and makinguseof themoment areamethod. We
get
F
11
=
8L
3
3EI
, F
21
=
2L
2
EI
, F
31
=
5L
3
6EI
, F
41
=
3L
2
2EI
Columns2, 3, and 4are, similarly, generated by applyingunit moment at thefreeend and unit force
and unit moment at themid-span asshown in Figures2.73c, d, and e, respectively. Combiningthe
resultsthusobtained, onegetstheexibility matrix as
_
4
_
_
=
1
EI
_
_
_
_
_
8L
3
3
2L
2 5L
3
6
3L
2
2
2L
2
2L
L
2
2
L
5L
3
6
L
2
2
L
3
3
L
2
2
3L
2
2
L
L
2
2
L
_
_
_
_
W
1
W
2
W
3
W
4
_
_
(2.146)
Theabovemethod to generatetheexibility matrix for a given structureisextremely impractical.
It is therefore recommended to subdivide a given structure into several elements and to form the
exibility matrix for each of the elements. The exibility matrix for the entire structure is then
obtained by combiningtheexibility matricesof theindividual elements.
Forcetransformation matrix relates what occurs in theseelements to thebehavior of theentire
structure. Usingtheconditionsof equilibrium, it relatestheelement forcesto thestructureforces.
Theprincipleof conservation of energy may beused to generatetransformation matrices.
2.9.2 StiffnessMethod
Forces and deformations in a structure are related to one another by means of stiffness inuence
coefcients. Let usconsider, for example, asimply supported beam subjected to end momentsW
1
FIGURE2.73: Cantilever beam.
andW
2
appliedat supports1and2andlet therespectiverotationsbedenotedas
1
and
2
asshown
in Figure2.74. Wecan nowwritetheexpressionsfor end momentsW
1
and W
2
as
W
1
= K
11
1
+K
12
2
W
2
= K
21
1
+K
22
2
(2.147)
in which K
11
and K
12
arecalled stiffnessinuencecoefcientsdened asmomentsat 1dueto unit
rotation at 1and 2, respectively. Theaboveequationscan bewritten in matrix formas
_
W
1
W
2
_
=
_
K
11
K
12
K
21
K
22
_ _

1
2
_
or
{W} = [K]{} (2.148)
Thematrix[K] isreferredtoasstiffnessmatrix. It canbeshownthat theexibilitymatrixof astructure
is the inverse of the stiffness matrix and vice versa. The stiffness matrix of the whole structure is
formed out of thestiffnessmatricesof theindividual elementsthat makeup thestructure.
FIGURE2.74: Simply supported beam.
2.9.3 Element StiffnessMatrix
AxiallyLoadedMember
Figure 2.75 shows an axially loaded member of constant cross-sectional area with element
forcesq
1
and q
2
and displacements
1
and
2
. They areshown in their respectivepositivedirections.
FIGURE2.75: Axially loaded member.
With unit displacement
1
= 1 at node1, asshown in Figure2.75, axial forcesat nodes1 and 2 are
obtained as
K
11
=
EA
L
, K
21
=
EA
L
In thesameway by setting
2
= 1 asshown in Figure2.75thecorrespondingforcesareobtained as
K
12
=
EA
L
, K
22
=
EA
L
Thestiffnessmatrix iswritten as
_
q
1
q
2
_
=
_
K
11
K
12
K
21
K
22
_ _

1
2
_
or
_
q
1
q
2
_
=
EA
L
_
1 1
1 1
_ _

1
2
_
. (2.149)
Flexural Member
Thestiffnessmatrix for theexural element shown in Figure2.76 can beconstructed asfol-
lows. The forces and the corresponding displacements, namely the moments, the shears, and the
FIGURE2.76: Beamelementstiffnessmatrix.
correspondingrotationsand translationsat theendsof themember, aredened in thegure. The
matrix equation that relatestheseforcesand displacementscan bewritten in theform
_
_
_
_
q
1
q
2
q
3
q
4
_
_
=
_
_
_
_
K
11
K
12
K
13
K
14
K
21
K
22
K
23
K
24
K
31
K
32
K
33
K
34
K
41
K
42
K
43
K
44
_
_
_
_
_
_
4
_
_
Thetermsintherst columnconsist of theelement forcesq
1
throughq
4
that result fromdisplacement
1
= 1 when
2
=
3
=
4
= 0. This means that a unit vertical displacement is imposed at the
left end of themember whiletranslation at theright end and rotation at both endsareprevented as
shown in Figure2.76. Thefour member forcescorrespondingto thisdeformation can beobtained
usingthemoment-areamethod.
Thechangeinslopebetweenthetwoendsof themember iszeroandtheareaof theM/EI diagram
between thesepoint must, therefore, vanish. Hence,
K
41
L
2EI
K
21
L
2EI
= 0
and
K
21
= K
41
(2.150)
Themoment of theM/EI diagramabout theleft end of themember isequal to unity. Hence,
K
41
L
2EI
_
2L
3
_
K
21
L
2EI
_
L
3
_
= 1
and in viewof Equation 2.150,
K
41
= K
21
=
6EI
L
2
Finally, moment equilibriumof themember about theright end leadsto
K
11
=
K
21
+K
41
L
=
12EI
L
3
and fromequilibriumin thevertical direction weobtain
K
31
= K
11
=
12EI
L
3
Theforcesact in thedirectionsindicated in Figure2.76b. To obtain thecorrect signs, onemust
comparetheforceswith thepositivedirectionsdened in Figure2.76a. Thus,
K
11
=
12EI
L
3
, K
21
=
6EI
L
2
, K
31
=
12EI
L
3
, K
41
=
6EI
L
2
Thesecond column of thestiffnessmatrix isobtained by letting
2
= 1 and settingtheremaining
three displacements equal to zero as indicated in Figure 2.76c. The area of the M/EI diagram
between theendsof themember for thiscaseisequal to unity, and hence,
K
22
L
2EI
K
42
L
2EI
= 1
Themoment of theM/EI diagramabout theleft end iszero, so that
K
22
L
2EI
_
L
3
_
K
42
L
2EI
_
2L
3
_
= 0
Therefore, oneobtains
K
22
=
4EI
L
, K
42
=
2EI
L
Fromvertical equilibriumof themember,
K
12
= K
32
and moment equilibriumabout theright end of themember leadsto
K
12
=
K
22
+K
42
L
=
6EI
L
2
Comparisonof theforcesinFigure2.76cwiththepositivedirectionsdenedinFigure2.76aindicates
that all theinuencecoefcientsexcept k
12
arepositive. Thus,
K
12
=
6EI
L
2
, K
22
=
4EI
L
, K
32
=
6EI
L
2
, K
42
=
2EI
L
Using Figures 2.76d and e, the inuence coefcients for the third and fourth columns can be
obtained. Theresultsof thesecalculationslead to thefollowingelement-stiffnessmatrix:
_
_
_
_
q
1
q
2
q
3
q
4
_
_
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
12EI
L
3

6EI
L
2

12EI
L
3

6EI
L
2
6EI
L
2
4EI
L
6EI
L
2
2EI
L
12EI
L
3
6EI
L
2
12EI
L
3
6EI
L
2
6EI
L
2
2EI
L
6EI
L
2
4EI
L
_
_
_
_
_
_
4
_
_
(2.151)
Notethat Equation 2.150denestheelement-stiffnessmatrix for aexural member with constant
exural rigidity EI.
If axial loadin aframemember isalsoconsideredthegeneral formof an element, then thestiffness
matrix for an element shown in Figure2.77becomes
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
q
1
q
2
q
3
q
4
q
5
q
6
_
_
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
EA
L
0 0
EA
L
0 0
0
12EI
L
3

6EI
L
2
0
12EI
L
3

6EI
L
2
0
6EI
L
2
4EI
L
0
6EI
L
2
2EI
L
EI
L
0 0
EI
L
0 0
0
12EI
L
3
6EI
L
2
0
12EI
L
3
6EI
L
2
0
6EI
L
2
2EI
L
0
6EI
L
2
4EI
L
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
6
_
_
(or)
[q] = [k
c
][] (2.152)
FIGURE2.77: Beamelement with axial force.
2.9.4 Grillages
Another common type of structure is one in which the members all lie in one plane with loads
beingapplied in thedirection normal to thisplane. Thistypeof structureiscommonly adopted in
buildingoor systems, bridgedecks, ship decks, oors, etc. Thegrid oor, for purposesof analysis
by using matrix method, can betreated asaspaceframe. However, thesolution can besimplied
by considering the grid member as a planar grid. A typical grid oor is shown in Figure 2.78a.
Thesignicant member forces in a member and thecorresponding deformations areas shown in
Figure2.78b.
FIGURE2.78: A grid member.
Themember stiffnessmatrix can bewritten as
K =
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
GJ
L
0 0
GJ
L
0 0
0
12EI
z
L
3
6EI
z
L
2
0
12EI
z
L
3
6EI
z
L
2
0
6EI
z
L
2
4EI
z
L
0
6EI
z
L
2
2EI
z
L
0
GJ
L
0 0
GJ
L
0 0
0
12EI
z
L
2

6EI
z
L
2
0
12EI
z
L
3

6EI
z
L
2
0
6EI
z
L
2
2EI
z
L
0
6EI
z
L
2
4EI
z
L
_
_
(2.153)
2.9.5 StructureStiffnessMatrix
Equation 2.152 has been expressed in terms of the coordinate system of the individual members.
In a structureconsisting of many members therewould beas many systems of coordinates as the
number of members. Before the internal actions in the members of the structure can be related,
all forcesand deectionsmust bestated in termsof onesinglesystem of axescommon to allthe
structureaxes. Thetransformation from element to structurecoordinatesiscarried out separately
for eachelement andtheresultingmatricesarethen combinedtoformthestructure-stiffnessmatrix.
A separatetransformation matrix [T ] iswritten for each element and arelation of theform
[]
n
= [T ]
n
[]
n
(2.154)
iswritten in which [T ]
n
denesthematrix relatingtheelement deformationsof element n to the
structuredeformationsat theendsof that particular element. Theelement and structureforcesare
related in thesameway asthecorrespondingdeformationsas
[q]
n
= [T ]
n
[W]
n
(2.155)
where[q]
n
containstheelement forcesfor element n and [W]
n
containsthestructureforcesat the
extremitiesof theelement. Thetransformation matrix [T ]
n
can beused to transform element n
fromitslocal coordinatestostructurecoordinates. Weknow, for anelement n, theforce-deformation
relation isgiven as
[q]
n
= [k]
n
[]
n
Substitutingfor [q]
n
and []
n
fromEquations2.153and 2.154oneobtains
[T ]
n
[W]
n
= [k]
n
[T ]
n
[]
n
or
[W]
n
= [T ]
1
n
[k]
n
[T ]
n
[]
n
= [T ]
T
n
[k]
n
[T ]
n
[]
n
= [K]
n
[]
n
[K]
n
= [T ]
T
n
[k]
n
[T ]
n
(2.156)
[K]
n
isthestiffnessmatrix which transformsany element n from itslocal coordinateto structure
coordinates. In this way, each element is transformed individually from element coordinate to
structure coordinate and the resulting matrices are combined to form the stiffness matrix for the
entirestructure.
Member stiffnessmatrix [K]
n
in structurecoordinatesfor atrussmember shown in Figure2.79,
for example, isgiven as
[K]
n
=
AE
L
_
_
_
_
2

2

2

2
2

2

2

2
_
_
i
j
k
(2.157)
in which = cos and = sin .
FIGURE2.79: A grid member.
Toconstruct [K]
n
for agiven member it isnecessarytohavethevaluesof andfor themember.
In addition, thestructurecoordinatesi, j, k, and at theextremitiesof themember must beknown.
Member stiffnessmatrix[K]
n
instructural coordinatesfor aexural member showninFigure2.80
can bewritten as
[K]
n
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
2 AE
L
+
2 12EI
L
3
_
(Symmetric)
_
AE
L

12EI
L
3
_ _
2 AE
L
+
2 12EI
L
3
_
_
6EI
L
2
_

_
6EI
L
2
_
4EI
L
_
2 AE
L

2 12EI
L
3
_

_
AE
L

12EI
L
3
_

_
6EI
L
2
_ _
2 AE
L
+
2 12EI
L
3
_
_
AE
L

12EI
L
3
_ _
2 AE
L

2 12EI
L
3
_

_
6EI
L
2
_

_
AE
L

12EI
L
3
_ _
2 AE
L
+
2 12EI
L
3
_
_
6EI
L
2
_

_
6EI
L
2
_
2EI
L

_
6EI
L
2
_

_
6EI
L
2
_
4EI
L
_
_
(2.158)
where = cos and = sin .
FIGURE2.80: A exural member in global coordinate.
EXAMPLE2.9:
Determinethedisplacement at theloaded point of thetrussshown in Figure2.81. Both members
havethesameareaof cross-section A = 3 in.
2
and E = 30 10
3
ksi.
Thedetailsrequired to form theelement stiffnessmatrix with referenceto structurecoordinates
axesarelisted below:
Member Length i j k l
1 10 ft 90
0 1 1 2 3 4
2 18.9 ft 32
0.85 0.53 1 2 5 6
Wenowusethesedatain Equation 2.157to form[K]
n
for thetwo elements.
For member 1,
AE
L
=
3 30 10
3
120
= 750
[K]
1
=
1 2 3 4
_
_
_
_
0 0 0 0
0 750 0 750
0 0 0 0
0 750 0 750
_
_
1
2
3
4
For member 2,
AE
L
=
3 30 10
3
18.9 12
= 397
[K]
2
=
1 2 5 6
_
_
_
_
286 179 286 179
179 111 179 111
286 179 286 179
179 111 179 111
_
_
1
2
5
6
Combiningtheelement stiffnessmatrices, [K]
1
and [K]
2
, oneobtainsthestructurestiffnessmatrix
asfollows:
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
W
1
W
2
W
3
W
4
W
5
W
6
_
_
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
286 179 0 0 286 179
179 861 0 750 179 111
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 750 0 750 0 0
286 179 0 0 286 179
179 111 0 0 179 111
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
6
_
_
Thestiffnessmatrix can nowbesubdivided to determinetheunknowns. Let usconsider
1
and
2
thedeectionsat joint 2which can bedetermined in viewof
3
=
4
=
5
=
6
= 0 asfollows:
_

1
2
_
=
_
286 179
179 861
_
1
_
9
7
_
or
1
= 0.042 in. to theleft
2
= 0.0169 in. upward
EXAMPLE2.10:
A simpletriangular frameisloaded at thetip by 20 kipsasshown in Figure2.82. Assemblethe
structurestiffnessmatrix and determinethedisplacementsat theloaded node.
Member Length (in.) A (in.
2
) I (in.
4
)
1 72 2.4 1037 0 1 0
2 101.8 3.4 2933 45
0.707 0.707
For members1and 2thestiffnessmatricesin structurecoordinatescan bewritten by makinguse
of Equation 2.158.
[K]
1
= 10
3
1 2 3 4 5 6
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
1 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 36 0 1 36
0 36 1728 0 36 864
1 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 36 0 1 36
0 36 864 0 36 1728
_
_
1
2
3
4
5
6
and
[K]
2
= 10
3
1 2 3 7 8 9
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
1 0 36 1 0 36
0 1 36 0 1 36
36 36 3457 36 36 1728
1 0 36 1 0 36
0 1 36 0 1 36
36 36 1728 36 36 3457
_
_
1
2
3
7
8
9
Combiningtheelement stiffnessmatrices[K]
1
and [K]
2
, oneobtainsthestructurestiffnessmatrix
asfollows:
[K] = 10
3
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
2 0 36 1 0 0 1 0 36
0 2 72 0 1 36 0 1 36
36 72 5185 0 36 864 36 36 1728
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 36 0 1 36 0 0 0
0 36 864 0 36 1728 0 0 0
1 0 36 0 0 0 1000 0 36
0 1 36 0 0 0 0 1 36
36 36 1728 0 0 0 36 36 3457
_
_
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
The deformations at joints 2 and 3 corresponding to
5
to
9
are zero since joints 2 and 4 are
restrained in all directions. Cancellingtherowsand columnscorrespondingtozerodeformationsin
thestructurestiffnessmatrix, oneobtainstheforcedeformation relation for thestructure:
_
_
F
1
F
2
F
3
_
_
=
_
_
2 0 36
0 2 72
36 72 5185
_
_
10
3
_
_
3
_
_
Substitutingfor theapplied load F
2
= 20 kips, thedeformationsaregiven as
_
_
3
_
_
=
_
_
2 0 36
0 2 72
36 72 5185
_
_
1
10
3
_
_
0
20
0
_
_
or
_
_
3
_
_
=
_
_
6.66 in.
23.334 in.
0.370 rad
_
_
10
3
2.9.6 LoadingBetweenNodes
Theproblemsdiscussed thusfar haveinvolved concentrated forcesand momentsapplied to nodes
only. But real structuresaresubjectedtodistributedor concentratedloadingbetweennodesasshown
in Figure2.83. Loadingmay rangefrom afew concentrated loadsto an innitevariety of uniform
FIGURE2.83: Loadingbetween nodes.
or nonuniformly distributed loads. The solution method of matrix analysis must be modied to
account for such load cases.
Oneway to treat such loadsin thematrix analysisisto insert articial nodes, such asp and q as
showninFigure2.83. Thedegreesof freedomcorrespondingtotheadditional nodesareaddedtothe
total structureand thenecessary additional equationsarewritten by considering therequirements
of equilibrium at these nodes. The internal member forces on each side of nodes p and q must
equilibratetheexternal loadsapplied at thesepoints. In thecaseof distributed loads, suitablenodes
such asl, m, and n shown in Figure2.83areselected arbitrarilyand thedistributed loadsarelumped
asconcentratedloadsat thesenodes. Thedegreesof freedomcorrespondingtothearbitraryandreal
nodesaretreated asunknownsof theproblem. Therearedifferent waysof obtaining equivalence
between the lumped and the distributed loading. In all cases the lumped loads must be statically
equivalent to thedistributed loadsthey replace.
Themethod of introducingarbitrarynodesisnot averyelegant procedurebecausethenumber of
unknown degreesof freedom madethesolution procedurelaborious. Theapproach that isof most
general usewith thedisplacement method isoneemploying therelated conceptsof articial joint
restraint, xed-end forces, and equivalent nodal loads.
2.9.7 Semi-RigidEndConnection
Arigidconnectionholdsunchangedtheoriginal anglesbetweenintersectingmembers; asimplecon-
nection allowsthemember end torotatefreelyunder gravityload, asemi-rigid connection possesses
amoment capacity intermediatebetween thesimpleand therigid. A simplied linear relationship
between the moment m acting on the connection and the resulting connection rotation in the
direction of m isassumed giving
M = R
EI
L
(2.159)
whereEI andLaretheexural rigidityandlengthof themember, respectively. Thenon-dimensional
quantityR, which isameasureof thedegreeof rigidityof theconnection, iscalled therigidityindex.
For asimpleconnection, R iszero and for arigid connection, R isinnity. Consideringthesemi-
rigidity of joints, themember exibility matrix for exureisderived as
_

1
2
_
=
L
EI
_
1
3
+
1
R
1

1
6
1
6
1
3
+
1
R
2
_
_
M
1
M
2
_
(2.160)
or
[] = [F][M] (2.161)
where
1
and
2
areasshown in Figure2.84.
FIGURE2.84: A exural member with semi-rigid end connections.
For convenience, two parametersareintroduced asfollows:
p
1
=
1
1 +
3
R
1
and
p
2
=
1
1 +
3
R
2
wherep
1
and p
2
arecalled thexity factors. For hinged connections, both thexity factors(p) and
therigidity index (R) arezero; but for rigid connections, thexity factor is1and therigidity index
isinnity. Sincethexity factor can only vary from0to 1, itsuseismoreconvenient in theanalyses
of structureswith semi-rigid connections.
Equation 2.160can berewritten to give
[F] =
L
EI
_
_
1
3p
1

1
6
1
6
1
3p
2
_
_
(2.162)
FromEquation 2.162, themodied member stiffnessmatrix [K] for amember with semi-rigid and
connectionsexpressesthemember endmoments, M
1
andM
2
, intermsof themember endrotations,
1
and
2
, as
[K] = EI
_
k
11
k
12
k
21
k
22
_
(2.163a)
Expressionsfor k
11
, and k
12
= k
21
and k
22
may beobtained by invertingthe[F] matrix. Thus,
k
11
=
12/p
2
4/(p
1
p
2
) 1
(2.163b)
k
12
= k
21
=
6
4(p
1
p
2
) 1
(2.163c)
k
22
=
12/p
1
4/(p
1
p
2
) 1
(2.163d)
Themodied member stiffnessmatrix [K], asexpressed by Equations2.163 will beneeded in the
stiffnessmethod of analysisof framesin which therearesemi-rigid member-end connections.
2.10 TheFiniteElement Method
Many problemsthat confront thedesign analyst, in practice, cannot besolved by analytical meth-
ods. This is particularly true for problems involving complex material properties and boundary
conditions. Numerical methods, in such cases, provideapproximatebut acceptablesolutions. Of
themany numerical methodsdeveloped beforeand after theadvent of computers, theniteelement
method hasproven to beapowerful tool. Thismethod can beregarded asanatural extension of the
matrix methodsof structural analysis. It can accommodatecomplex and difcult problemssuch as
nonhomogenity, nonlinear stress-strain behavior, and complicated boundary conditions. Thenite
element method is applicable to a wide range of boundary value problems in engineering and it
datesback to themid-1950swith thepioneeringwork by Argyris[4] , Clough [ 21] , and others. The
method wasrst applied to thesolution of planestressproblemsand extended subsequently to the
solution of plates, shells, and axisymmetricsolids.
2.10.1 Basic Concept
Theniteelement methodisbasedon therepresentation of abodyor astructurebyan assemblageof
subdivisionscalledniteelementsasshown in Figure2.85. Theseelementsareconsideredtobecon-
FIGURE2.85: Assemblageof subdivisions.
nected at nodes. Displacement functionsarechosen to approximatethevariation of displacements
over each niteelement. Polynomialsarecommonly employed to expressthesefunctions. Equilib-
riumequationsfor eachelement areobtainedbymeansof theprincipleof minimumpotential energy.
Theseequationsareformulated for theentirebody by combining theequationsfor theindividual
elementsso that thecontinuity of displacementsispreserved at thenodes. Theresultingequations
aresolved satisfyingtheboundary conditionsin order to obtain theunknown displacements.
Theentireprocedureof theniteelement methodinvolvesthefollowingsteps: (1) thegivenbodyis
subdividedintoan equivalent systemof niteelements, (2) suitabledisplacement function ischosen,
(3) element stiffnessmatrix isderived usingvariational principleof mechanicssuch astheprinciple
of minimum potential energy, (4) global stiffnessmatrix for theentirebody isformulated, (5) the
algebraicequationsthusobtained aresolved to determineunknown displacements, and (6) element
strainsand stressesarecomputed fromthenodal displacements.
2.10.2 Basic EquationsfromTheoryof Elasticity
Figure2.86 showsthestateof stressin an elemental volumeof abody under load. It isdened in
termsof threenormal stresscomponents
x
,
y
, and
z
and threeshear stresscomponents
xy
,
yz
,
and
zx
. The corresponding strain components are three normal strains
x
,
y
, and
z
and three
shear strains
xy
,
yz
, and
zx
. Thesestrain componentsarerelatedtothedisplacement components
u, v, and w at apoint asfollows:
x
=
u
x
xy
=
v
x
+
u
y
y
=
v
y
yz
=
w
y
+
v
z
z
=
w
z
zx
=
u
z
+
w
x
(2.164)
TherelationsgiveninEquation2.164arevalidinthecaseof thebodyexperiencingsmall deformations.
If thebody undergoeslargeor nitedeformations, higher order termsmust beretained.
FIGURE2.86: Stateof stressin an elemental volume.
Thestress-strain equationsfor isotropicmaterialsmaybewritten in termsof theYoungsmodulus
and Poissonsratio as
x
=
E
1
2
[
x
+(
y
+
z
)]
y
=
E
1
2
[
y
+(
z
+
x
)]
z
=
E
1
2
[
z
+(
x
+
y
)]
xy
= G
xy
,
yz
= G
yz
,
zx
= G
zx
(2.165)
2.10.3 PlaneStress
When the elastic body is very thin and there are no loads applied in the direction parallel to the
thickness, thestateof stressin thebody issaid to beplanestress. A thin platesubjected to in-plane
loading asshown in Figure2.87 isan exampleof aplanestressproblem. In thiscase,
z
=
yz
=
zx
= 0 and theconstitutiverelation for an isotropiccontinuumisexpressed as
_
_
xy
_
_
=
E
1
2
_
_
1 0
1 0
0 0
1
2
_
_
_
_
xy
_
_
(2.166)
2.10.4 PlaneStrain
Thestateof planestrain occursin membersthat arenot freetoexpandin thedirection perpendicular
to theplaneof theapplied loads. Examplesof someplanestrain problemsareretainingwalls, dams,
longcylinder, tunnels, etc. asshown in Figure2.88. In theseproblems
z
,
yz
, and
zx
will vanish
and hence,
z
= (
x
+
y
)
Theconstitutiverelationsfor an isotropicmaterial arewritten as
_
_
xy
_
_
=
E
(1 +)(1 2)
_
_
(1 ) 0
(1 ) 0
0 0
12
2
_
_
_
_
xy
_
_
(2.167)
FIGURE2.87: Plane-stressproblem.
FIGURE2.88: Practical examplesof plane-strain problems.
2.10.5 Element ShapesandDiscretization
Theprocessof subdividingacontinuumisanexerciseof engineeringjudgement. Thechoicedepends
onthegeometryof thebody. Aniteelement generallyhasasimpleone-, two-, or three-dimensional
conguration. Theboundariesof elementsareoften straight linesand theelementscan beone, two,
or threedimensional asshown in Figure2.89. Whilesubdividingthecontinuum, onehasto decide
the number, shape, size, and conguration of the elements in such a way that the original body
is simulated as closely as possible. Nodes must be located in locations where abrupt changes in
geometry, loading, and material propertiesoccur. Anodemust beplaced at thepoint of application
of aconcentrated load becauseall loadsareconverted into equivalent nodal-point loads.
It iseasy to subdivideacontinuuminto acompletely regular onehavingthesameshapeand size.
But problemsencountered in practicedo not involveregular shape; they may haveregionsof steep
gradientsof stresses. Aner subdivision maybenecessaryin regionswherestressconcentrationsare
expected in order to obtain auseful approximatesolution. Typical examplesof mesh selection are
shown in Figure2.90.
2.10.6 Choiceof Displacement Function
Selection of displacement function is the important step in the nite element analysis because it
determines the performance of the element in the analysis. Attention must be paid to select a
FIGURE2.89: (a) One-dimensional element; (b) two-dimensional elements; (c) three-dimensional
elements.
displacement function which (1) has the number of unknown constants as the total number of
degreesof freedomof theelement, (2) doesnot haveany preferred directions, (3) allowstheelement
toundergorigid-bodymovement without anyinternal strain, (4) isabletorepresent statesof constant
stressor strain, and(5) satisesthecompatibilityof displacementsalongtheboundarieswithadjacent
elements. Elementsthat meet boththethirdandfourthrequirementsareknownascompleteelements.
A polynomial isthemost common form of displacement function. Mathematicsof polynomials
are easy to handle in formulating the desired equations for various elements and convenient in
digital computation. Thedegreeof approximation isgoverned by thestageat which thefunction is
truncated. Solutionscloser to exact solutionscan beobtained by includingmorenumber of terms.
Thepolynomialsareof thegeneral form
w(x) = a
1
+a
2
x +a
3
x
2
+. . . a
n+1
x
n
(2.168)
Thecoefcients as areknown as generalizeddisplacement amplitudes. Thegeneral polynomial
formfor atwo-dimensional problemcan begiven as
u(x, y) = a
1
+a
2
x +a
3
y +a
4
x
2
+a
5
xy +a
6
y
2
+. . . a
m
y
n
FIGURE2.90: Typical examplesof niteelement mesh.
v(x, y) = a
m+1
+a
m+2
x +a
m+3
y +a
m+4
x
2
+a
m+5
xy
+a
m+6
y
2
+. . . +a
2m
y
n
in which
m =
n+1
i=1
i (2.169)
Thesepolynomialscan betruncated at any desired degreeto giveconstant, linear, quadratic, or
higher order functions. For example, alinear model in thecaseof atwo-dimensional problem can
begiven as
u = a
1
+a
2
x +a
3
y
v = a
4
+a
5
x +a
6
y (2.170)
A quadraticfunction isgiven by
u = a
1
+a
2
x +a
3
y +a
4
x
2
+a
5
xy +a
6
y
2
v = a
7
+a
8
x +a
9
y +a
10
x
2
+a
11
xy +a
12
y
2
(2.171)
The Pascal triangle shown below can be used for the purpose of achieving isotropy, i.e., to avoid
displacement shapesthat changewith achangein local coordinatesystem.
1 Constant
x y Linear
x
2
xy y
2
Quadratic
x
3
x
2
y xy
2
y
3
Cubic
x
4
x
3
y x
2
y
2
xy
3
y
4
Quantic
x
5
x
4
y x
3
y
2
x
2
y
3
xy
4
y
5
Quintic
Lineof Symmetry
2.10.7 Nodal Degreesof Freedom
Thedeformation of theniteelement isspecied completely by thenodal displacement, rotations,
and/or strains which are referred to as degreesof freedom. Convergence, geometric isotropy, and
potential energyfunction arethefactorsthat determinetheminimumnumber of degreesof freedom
necessary for agiven element. Additional degreesof freedombeyond theminimumnumber may be
includedfor anyelement byaddingsecondaryexternal nodes. Suchelementswithadditional degrees
of freedomarecalled higher order elements. Theelementswith moreadditional degreesof freedom
becomemoreexible.
2.10.8 Isoparametric Elements
Thescopeof niteelement analysisisalso measured by thevariety of element geometriesthat can
beconstructed. Formulation of element stiffnessequationsrequirestheselection of displacement
expressionswith asmany parametersastherearenode-point displacements. In practice, for planar
conditions, only thefour-sided (quadrilateral) element ndsaswidean application asthetriangular
element. Thesimplest form of quadrilateral, therectangle, hasfour nodepointsand involvestwo
displacement components at each point for a total of eight degrees of freedom. In this case one
would choosefour-term expressionsfor both u and v displacement elds. If thedescription of the
element isexpanded toincludenodesat themid-pointsof thesides, an eight-termexpression would
bechosen for each displacement component.
Thetriangleand rectanglecan approximatethecurved boundariesonly asaseriesof straight line
segments. Acloser approximation can beachieved bymeansof isoparametriccoordinates. Theseare
non-dimensionalized curvilinear coordinateswhosedescription isgiven by thesamecoefcientsas
areemployed in thedisplacement expressions. Thedisplacement expressionsarechosen to ensure
continuity acrosselement interfacesand alongsupported boundaries, so that geometric continuity
isensured when thesameformsof expressionsareused asthebasisof description of theelement
boundaries. Theelementsinwhichthegeometryanddisplacementsaredescribedintermsof thesame
parametersand areof thesameorder arecalled isoparametricelements. Theisoparametric concept
enables one to formulate elements of any order which satisfy the completeness and compatibility
requirementsand which haveisotropicdisplacement functions.
2.10.9 Isoparametric Familiesof Elements
DenitionsandJustications
For example, let u
i
represent nodal displacementsand x
i
represent nodal x-coordinates. The
interpolation formulasare
u =
m
i=1
N
i
u
i
x =
n
i=1
N
i
x
i
whereN
i
andN areshapefunctionswritten in termsof theintrinsiccoordinates. Thevalueof u and
thevalueof x at apoint within theelement areobtained in termsof nodal valuesof u
i
and x
i
from
theaboveequationswhen the(intrinsic) coordinatesof theinternal point aregiven. Displacement
componentsv and w in they and z directionsaretreated in asimilar manner.
Theelement isisoparametricif m = n, N
i
= N, andthesamenodal pointsareusedtodeneboth
element geometry and element displacement (Figure2.91a); theelement issubparametricif m > n
FIGURE2.91: (a) Isoparametricelement; (b) subparametricelement; (c) superparametricelement.
and theorder of N
i
islarger than N
i
(Figure2.91b); theelement issuperparametricif m < n and
theorder of N
i
issmaller than N
i
(Figure2.91c). Theisoparametric elementscan correctly display
rigid-body and constant-strain modes.
2.10.10 Element ShapeFunctions
Theniteelement method isnot restricted to theuseof linear elements. Most niteelement codes,
commercially available, allow theuser to select between elementswith linear or quadratic interpo-
lation functions. In thecaseof quadratic elements, fewer elementsareneeded to obtain thesame
degreeof accuracy in thenodal values. Also, thetwo-dimensional quadraticelementscan beshaped
to model acurved boundary. Shapefunctionscan bedeveloped based on thefollowingproperties:
(1) each shapefunction hasa valueof oneat itsown nodeand iszero at each of theother nodes,
(2) theshapefunctionsfor two-dimensional elementsarezeroalongeachsidethat thenodedoesnot
touch, and (3) each shapefunction isapolynomial of thesamedegreeastheinterpolation equation.
Shapefunction for typical elementsaregiven in Figures2.92aand b.
2.10.11 Formulationof StiffnessMatrix
It ispossibleto obtain all thestrainsand stresseswithin theelement and to formulatethestiffness
matrix and a consistent load matrix once the displacement function has been determined. This
consistent load matrix represents the equivalent nodal forces which replace the action of external
distributed loads.
Asan example, let usconsider alinearly elastic element of any of thetypesshown in Figure2.93.
Thedisplacement function may bewritten in theform
{f } = [P]{A} (2.172)
in which {f } may havetwo components{u, v} or simply beequal to w, [P] isafunction of x and y
only, and {A} isthevector of undetermined constants. If Equation 2.172isapplied repeatedly to the
nodesof theelement oneafter theother, weobtain aset of equationsof theform
{D
} = [C]{A} (2.173)
Figure2.92a Shapefunctionsfor typical elements.
Figure2.92b Shapefunctionsfor typical elements.
Figure2.92b (Continued) Shapefunctionsfor typical elements.
FIGURE 2.93: Degrees of freedom. (a) Triangular plane-stress element; (b) triangular bending
element.
in which {D
} isthenodal parametersand [C] istherelevant nodal coordinates. Theundetermined

constants{A} can beexpressed in termsof thenodal parameters{D
} as
{A} = [C]
1
{D
} (2.174)
SubstitutingEquation 2.174into Equation 2.172
{f } = [P][C]
1
{D
} (2.175)
Constructingthedisplacement function directly in termsof thenodal parametersoneobtains
{f } = [L]{D
} (2.176)
where[L] isafunction of both (x, y) and (x, y)
i,j,m
given by
[L] = [P][C]
1
(2.177)
Thevariouscomponentsof strain can beobtained by appropriatedifferentiation of thedisplace-
ment function. Thus,
{} = [B]{D
} (2.178)
[B] isderivedbydifferentiatingappropriatelytheelementsof [L] withrespect tox andy. Thestresses
{} in alinearly elastic element aregiven by theproduct of thestrain and asymmetrical elasticity
matrix [E]. Thus,
{} = [E]{}
or {} = [E][B]{D
} (2.179)
Thestiffnessand theconsistent load matricesof an element can beobtained using theprinciple
of minimum total potential energy. The potential energy of the external load in the deformed
conguration of theelement iswritten as
W = {D
}
T
{Q
}
_
a
{f }
T
{q}da (2.180)
In Equation 2.180{Q
} representsconcentrated loadsat nodesand {q} representsthedistributed

loadsper unit area. Substitutingfor {f }
T
fromEquation 2.176oneobtains
W = {D
}
T
{Q
} {D
}
T
_
a
[L]
T
{q}da (2.181)
Notethat theintegral istaken over thearea a of theelement. Thestrain energy of theelement
integrated over theentirevolumev isgiven as
U =
1
2
_
v
{}
T
{}dv
Substitutingfor {} and {} fromEquations2.178and 2.179, respectively,
U =
1
2
{D
}
T
__
v
[B]
T
[E][B]dv
_
{D
} (2.182)
Thetotal potential energy of theelement is
V = U +W
or
V =
1
2
{D
}
T
__
v
[B]
T
[E][B]dv
_
{D
} {D
}
T
{Q
}
{D
}
T
_
a
[L]
T
{q}da (2.183)
Usingtheprincipleof minimumtotal potential energy, weobtain
__
v
[B]
T
[E][B]dv
_
{D
} = {Q
} +
_
a
[L]
T
{q}da
or
[K]{D
} = {F
} (2.184)
where
K] =
_
v
[B]
T
[E][B]dv (2.185a)
and
{F
} = {Q
} +
_
a
[L]
T
{q}da (2.185b)
2.10.12 PlatesSubjectedtoIn-PlaneForces
The simplest element available in two-dimensional stress analysis is the triangular element. The
stiffness and consistent load matrices of such an element will now be obtained by applying the
equation derived in theprevioussection.
Consider the triangular element shown in Figure2.93a. There are two degrees of freedom per
nodeand atotal of six degreesof freedomfor theentireelement. Wecan write
u = A
1
+A
2
x +A
3
y
and
v = A
4
+A
5
x +A
6
y
expressed as
{f } =
_
u
v
_
=
_
1 x y 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 x y
_
_
_
A
1
A
2
A
3
A
4
A
5
A
6
_
_
(2.186)
or
{f } = [P]{A} (2.187)
Oncethedisplacement function isavailable, thestrainsfor aplaneproblemareobtained from
x
=
u
x
y
=
v
y
and
xy
=
u
y
v
x
Thematrix [B] relatingthestrainsto thenodal displacement {D
} isthusgiven as
[B] =
1
2
_
_
b
i
0 b
j
0 b
m
0
0 c
i
0 c
j
0 c
m
c
i
b
j
c
j
b
j
c
m
b
m
_
_
(2.188)
b
i
, c
i
, etc. areconstantsrelated to thenodal coordinatesonly. Thestrainsinsidetheelement must
all beconstant and hencethenameof theelement.
For derivation of strain matrix, only isotropic material isconsidered. Theplanestressand plane
strain casescan becombined to givethefollowingelasticity matrix which relatesthestressesto the
strains
[E] =
_
_
C
1
C
1
C
2
0
C
1
C
2
C
1
0
0 0 C
12
_
_
(2.189)
where
C
1
=

E/(1
2
) and C
2
= for planestress
and
C
1
=
E(1 )
(1 +)(1 2)
and C
2
=

(1 )
for planestrain
and for both cases,
C
12
= C
1
(1 C
2
)/2
and

E =Modulusof elasticity.
Thestiffnessmatrix can nowbeformulated accordingto Equation 2.185a
[E][B] =
1
2
_
_
C
1
C
1
C
2
0
C
1
C
2
C
1
0
0 0 C
12
_
_
_
_
b
i
0 b
j
0 b
m
0
0 c
i
0 c
j
0 c
m
c
i
b
j
c
j
b
j
c
m
b
m
_
_
where istheareaof theelement.
Thestiffnessmatrix isgiven by Equation 2.185aas
[K] =
_
v
[B]
T
[E][B]dv
Thestiffnessmatrix hasbeen worked out algebraically to be
[K] =
h
4
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
C
1
b
2
i
+C
12
c
2
i
C
1
C
2
b
i
c
i
C
1
c
2
i
+C
12
b
i
c
i
+C
12
b
2
i
Symmetrical
C
1
b
i
b
j
C
1
C
2
b
j
c
i
C
1
b
2
j
+C
12
c
i
c
j
+C
12
b
i
c
j
+C
12
c
2
j
C
1
C
2
b
i
c
j
C
1
c
i
c
j
C
1
C
2
b
j
c
j
C
1
c
2
j
+C
12
b
j
c
i
+C
1
b
i
b
j
+C
12
b
j
c
j
+C
12
b
2
j
C
1
b
i
b
m
C
1
C
2
b
m
c
i
C
1
b
j
b
m
C
1
C
2
b
m
c
j
C
1
b
2
m
+C
12
c
i
c
m
+C
12
b
i
c
m
+C
12
c
j
c
m
+C
12
b
j
c
m
+C
12
c
2
m
C
1
C
2
b
i
c
m
C
1
c
i
c
m
C
1
C
2
b
j
c
m
C
1
c
j
c
m
C
1
C
2
b
m
c
m
C
1
c
2
m
+C
12
b
m
c
i
+C
12
b
i
b
m
+C
12
b
m
c
j
+C
12
b
j
b
m
+C
12
b
m
c
m
+C
12
b
2
m
_
_
2.10.13 BeamElement
Thestiffnessmatrixfor abeamelement withtwodegreesof freedom(onedeectionandonerotation)
can bederived in thesamemanner asfor other niteelementsusingEquation 2.185a.
Thebeamelement hastwonodes, oneat eachend, andtwodegreesof freedomat eachnode, giving
it atotal of four degreesof freedom. Thedisplacement function can beassumed as
f = w = A
1
+A
2
x +A
3
x
2
+A
4
x
3
i.e.,
f =
_
1 x x
2
x
3
_
_
_
A
1
A
2
A
3
A
4
_
_
or
f = [P]{A}
With theorigin of thex and y axisat theleft-hand end of thebeam, wecan expressthenodal-
displacement parametersas
D
1
= (w)
x=0
= A
1
+A
2
(0) +A
3
(0)
2
+A
4
(0)
3
D
2
=
_
dw
dx
_
x=0
= A
2
+2A
3
(0) +3A
4
(0)
2
D
3
= (w)
x=l
= A
1
+A
2
(l) +A
3
(l)
2
+A
4
(l)
3
D
4
=
_
dw
dx
_
x=l
= A
2
+2A
3
(l) +3A
4
(l)
2
or
{D
} = [C]{A}
where
{A} = [C]
1
{D
}
and
[C]
1
=
_
_
_
_
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
3
l
2
2
l
3
l
2
1
l
2
l
3
1
l
2
2
l
3
1
l
2
_
_
(2.190)
UsingEquation 2.190, weobtain
[L] = [P][C]
1
or
[C]
1
=
__
1
3x
2
l
2
+
2x
3
l
3
_
_
x
2x
2
l
+
x
3
l
2
_
_
3x
2
l
2

2x
3
l
3
_
x
2
l
+
x
3
l
2
__
(2.191)
Neglectingshear deformation
{} =
d
2
y
dx
2
SubstitutingEquation 2.178into Equation 2.191and theresult into Equation 2.179
{} =
_
6
l
2

12x
l
3
4
l
6x
l
2
6
l
2
+
12x
l
3
2
l
6x
l
2
_
{D
}
or
{} = [B]{D
}
Moment-curvaturerelationship isgiven by
M =

EI
_
d
2
y
dx
2
_
where

E =modulusof elasticity.
Weknowthat {} = [E]{}, so wehavefor thebeamelement
[E] =

EI
Thestiffnessmatrix can nowbeobtained fromEquation 2.185awritten in theform
[K] =
_
l
0
[B]
T
[E][B]dx
with theintegration over thelength of thebeam. Substitutingfor [B] and [E], weobtain
[K] =

EI
_
l
0
_
_
_
_
_
_
36
4

144x
5
+
144x
2
6
symmetrical
24
3

84x
4
+
72x
2
5
16
2

48x
3
+
36x
2
4
36
4
+
144x
5

144x
2
6
24
3
+
84x
4

72x
2
5
36
4

144x
5
+
144x
2
6
12
3

60x
4
+
72x
2
5
8
2

36x
3
+
36x
2
4
12
3
+
60x
4

72x
2
5
4
2

24x
3
+
36x
2
4
_
_
dx
(2.192)
or
[K] =

EI
_
_
_
_
_
12
3
symmetrical
6
2
4
12
3
6
2
12
3
6
2
2
2
4
_
(2.193)
2.10.14 PlatesinBendingsRectangular Element
For the rectangular bending element shown in Figure 2.94 with three degrees of freedom (one
FIGURE2.94: Rectangular bendingelement.
deection and tworotations) at each node, thedisplacement function can bechosen asapolynomial
with 12undetermined constantsas
{f } = w = A
1
+A
2
x +A
3
y +A
4
x
2
+A
5
xy +A
6
y
2
+A
7
x
3
+A
8
x
2
y +A
9
xy
2
+A
10
y
3
+A
11
x
3
y +A
12
xy
3
(2.194)
or
{f } = {P}{A}
Thedisplacement parameter vector isdened as
{D
} =
_
w
i
,
xi
,
yi
w
j
,
xj
,
yj
w
k
,
xk
,
yk
,
x
,
y
_
where
x
=
w
y
and
y
=
w
x
Asin thecaseof beamit ispossibletoderivefromEquation 2.194asystemof 12equationsrelating
{D
} to constants{A}. Thelast equation

w =
_
[L]
i
|[L]
j
|[L]
k
|[L]
l
_
{D
} (2.195)
Thecurvaturesof theplateelement at any point (x, y) aregiven by
{} =
_
2
w
x
2
2
w
y
2
2
2
w
xy
_
_
By differentiatingEquation 2.195, weobtain
{} =
_
[B]
i
|[B]
j
|[B]
k
|[B]
l
_
{D
} (2.196)
or
{} =
r=i,j,k,l
[B]
r
{D
}
r
(2.197)
where
[B]
r
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
_

2
x
2
[L]
r
2
y
2
[L]
r
2

2
xy
[L]
r
_
_
(2.198)
and
{D
}
r
= {w
r
,
xr
,
yr
} (2.199)
For an isotropicslab, themoment-curvaturerelationship isgiven by
{} = {M
x
M
y
M
xy
} (2.200)
[E] = N
_
_
1 0
1 0
0 0
1
2
_
_
(2.201)
and
N =
Eh
3
12(1
2
)
(2.202)
For orthotropicslabswith theprincipal directionsof orthotropycoincidingwith thex and y axes,
no additional difculty isexperienced. In thiscasewehave
[E] =
_
_
D
x
D
1
0
D
1
D
y
0
0 0 D
xy
_
_
(2.203)
where D
x
, D
1
, D
y
, and D
xy
are the orthotropic constants used by Timoshenko and Woinowsky-
Krieger [ 56] ,
D
x
=
E
x
h
3
12(1
x
y
)
D
y
=
E
y
h
3
12(1
x
y
)
D
1
=

x
E
y
h
3
12(1
x
y
)
=

y
E
x
h
3
12(1
x
y
)
D
xy
=
Gh
3
12
_
_
(2.204)
whereE
x
, E
y
,
x
,
y
, and G aretheorthotropicmaterial constants, and h istheplatethickness.
Unlikethestrain matrix for theplanestresstriangle(seeEquation 2.188), thestressand strain in
thepresent element vary with x and y. In general wecalculatethestresses(moments) at thefour
corners. Thesecan beexpressed in termsof thenodal displacementsby Equation 2.179 which, for
an isotropicelement, takestheform
_
_
{}
i
{}
j
{}
k
{}
r
_
_
=
N
cb
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
6p
1
+6p 4c 4b 6p 2c 0 6p
1
0 2b 0 0 0
6p +6p
1
4c 4b 6p 2c 0 6p
1
0 2b 0 0 0
(1 ) (1 )b (1 )c (1 ) 0 (1 )c (1 ) (1 )b 0 (1 ) 0 0
6p 2c 0 6p
1
+6p 4c 4b 0 0 0 6p
1
0 2b
6p 2c 0 6p +6p
1
4c 4b 0 0 0 6p
1
0 2b
(1 ) 0 (1 )c (1 ) (1 )b (1 ) 0 0 (1 ) (1 )b 0
6p
1
0 2b 0 0 0 6p
1
+6p 4c 4b 6p 2c 0
6p
1
0 2b 0 0 0 6p +6p
1
4c 4b 6p 2c 0
(1 ) (1 )b 0 (1 ) 0 0 (1 ) (1 )b (1 )c (1 v) 0 (1 )c
0 0 0 6p
1
0 2b 6p 2c 0 6p
1
+6p 4 4b
0 0 0 6p
1
0 2b 6p 2c 0 6p +6p
1
4c 4b
(1 ) 0 0 (1 ) (1 )b 0 (1 ) 0 (1 )c (1 ) (1 )b (1 )c
_
_
_
_
{D
}
i
{D
}
j
{D
}
k
{D
}
r
_
_
(2.205)
wherep = c/b.
c
1
9
9
9
b
y
C
R
C
P
r
e
s
s
L
L
C
Thestiffnessmatrix correspondingto the12nodal coordinatescan becalculated by
[K] =
_
b/2
b/2
_
c/2
c/2
[B]
T
[E][B]dxdy (2.206)
For an isotropicelement, thisgives
[K
] =
N
15cb
[T ][
k][T ] (2.207)
where
[T ] =
_
_
_
_
[T
s
] Submatricesnot
[T
s
] shown are
[T
s
] zero
[T
s
]
_
_
(2.208)
[T
s
] =
_
_
1 0 0
0 b 0
0 0 c
_
_
(2.209)
and [

K] isgiven by thematrix shown in Equation 2.210.
[

K] =
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
60p
2
+60p
2
12 +42
30p
2
+12 20p
2
4
+3 +4
(30p
2
+12 15 20p
2
4 symmetrical
+3) +4
+30p
2
60p
2
30p
2
+3 15p
2
+12 60p
2
+60p
2
+12 42 3 +3 12 +42
30p
2
3 10p
2
+ 0 (30p
2
+12 20p
2
4
+3 1 +3) +4
15p
2
+12 0 10p
2
+4 (30p
2
+12 15 20p
2
4
+3 4 +3) +4
60p
2
+30p
2
15p
2
12 30p
2
3 30p
2
30p
2
15p
2
+3 15p
2
+3 60p
2
+60p
2
+12 42 3 +3 12 +42 3 3 12 +42
15p
2
12 10p
2
+4 0 15p
2
3 5p
2
0 30p
2
+12 20p
2
4
3 4 +3 +1 +3 +4
30p
2
+3 0 10p
2
+ 15p
2
3 0 5p
2
30p
2
+12 15 20p
2
4
3 +3 +3 +1 +3 +4
30p
2
+30p
2
15p
2
3 15p
2
+3 60p
2
+30p
2
15p
2
+12 30p
2
3 30p
2
60p
2
30p
2
+3 15p
2
12 60p
2
+60p
2
12 +42 +3 3 +12 42 +3 +3 +12 42 3 3 12 +42
+3 +3 +3
15p
2
3 5p
2
0 15p
2
+12 10p
2
+4 0 30p
2
+3 10p
2
+ 0 (30p
2
+12 20p
2
4
3 +1 +3 4 +3 1 +3) +4
15p
2
3 0 5p
2
30p
2
+3 0 10p
2
+ 15p
2
12 0 10p
2
+4 30p
2
+12 15 20p
2
4
3 +1 3 1 3 4 +3 +4
_
_
(2.210)
c
1
9
9
9
b
y
C
R
C
P
r
e
s
s
L
L
C
If theelement issubjected to auniform load in thez direction of intensity q, theconsistent load
vector becomes
{Q
q
} = q
_
b/2
b/2
_
c/2
c/2
[L]
T
dxdy (2.211)
where {Q
q
} are 12 forces corresponding to the nodal displacement parameters. Evaluating the
integralsin thisequation gives
{Q
q
} = qcb
_
_
1/4
b/24
c/24
1/4
b/24
c/24
1/4
b/24
c/24
1/4
b/24
c/24
_
_
(2.212)
Moredetailson theFiniteElement Method can befound in [ 23] and [ 27] .
2.11 Inelastic Analysis
2.11.1 AnOverall View
Inelasticanalysiscan begeneralizedintotwomain approaches. Therst approachisknown asplastic
hingeanalysis. Theanalysisassumesthat structural elementsremain elasticexcept at critical regions
wherezero-length plastichingesareallowed to form. Thesecond approach isknown asplastic-zone
analysis. Theanalysisfollowsexplicitly thegradual spread of yieldingthroughout thevolumeof the
structure. Material yielding in the member is modeled by discretization of members into several
beam-column elements, and subdivision of thecross-sectionsinto many bers. Theplastic-zone
analysis can predict accurately the inelastic response of the structure. However, the plastic hinge
analysis is considered to be more efcient than the plastic-zone analysis since it requires, in most
cases, onebeam-column element per member to capturethestability of column memberssubject to
end loading.
If geometric nonlinear effect isnot considered, theplastic hingeanalysispredictsthemaximum
loadof thestructurecorrespondingtotheformationof aplasticcollapsemechanism[ 16] . First-order
plastichingeanalysisisndingconsiderableapplication in continuousbeamsand low-risebuilding
frameswheremembersareloaded primarily in exure. For tall buildingframesand for frameswith
slender columnssubjected to sidesway, theinteraction between structural inelasticity and instability
mayleadtocollapseprior totheformation of aplasticmechanism[ 54] . If equilibriumequationsare
formulated based on deformed geometry of thestructure, theanalysisistermed secondorder. The
needfor asecond-order analysisof steel frameisincreasinginviewof theAmericanSpecications[ 3]
which giveexplicit permission for theengineer to computeload effectsfrom adirect second-order
analysis.
This section presents the virtual work principle to explain the fundamental theorems of plastic
hinge analysis. Simple and approximate techniques of practical plasticanalysis methods are then
introduced. Theconcept of hinge-by-hingeanalysisispresented. Themoreadvanced topicssuch as
second-order elasticplastichinge, rened plastichingeanalysis, and plasticzoneanalysisarecovered
in Section 2.12.
2.11.2 Ductility
Plasticanalysisisstrictlyapplicablefor materialsthat canundergolargedeformationwithout fracture.
Steel isonesuch material with an idealized stress-strain curveasshown in Figure2.95. When steel is
FIGURE2.95: Idealized stress-strain curve.
subjectedtotensileforce, it will elongateelasticallyuntil theyieldstressisreached. Thisisfollowedby
an increasein strain without much increasein stress. Fracturewill occur at very largedeformation.
This material idealization is generally known as elastic-perfectly plastic behavior. For a compact
section, theattainment of initial yieldingdoesnot result in failureof asection. Thecompact section
will havereserved plastic strength that dependson theshapeof thecross-section. Thecapability of
thematerial todeformunder constant loadwithout decreasein strength istheductilitycharacteristic
of thematerial.
2.11.3 Redistributionof Forces
Thebenet of usingaductilematerial can bedemonstrated from an exampleof athree-bar system
shown in Figure2.96. Fromtheequilibriumcondition of thesystem,
2T
1
+T
2
= P (2.213)
Assumingelasticstress-strain law, thedisplacement andforcerelationshipof thebarsmaybewritten
as:
=
T
1
L
1
AE
=
T
2
L
2
AE
(2.214)
SinceL
2
= L
1
/2 = L/2, Equation 2.214can bewritten as
T
1
=
T
2
2
(2.215)
FIGURE2.96: Forceredistribution in athree-bar system: (a) elastic, (b) partially yielded, (c) fully
plastic, (d) load-deection curve.
whereT
1
andT
2
arethetensileforcesintherods, L
1
andL
2
arelengthof therods, Aisacross-section
area, and E =elasticmodulus. SolvingEquations2.214and 2.215for T
2
:
T
2
=
P
2
(2.216)
The load at which the structure reaches the rst yield (in Figure 2.96b) is determined by letting
T
2
=
y
A. FromEquation 2.216:
P
y
= 2T
2
= 2
y
A (2.217)
Thecorrespondingdisplacement at rst yield is
y
=
y
L =

y
L
2E
(2.218)
After Bar 2 is yielded, the system continues to take additional load until all three bars reach their
maximum strength of
y
A, as shown in Figure2.96c. Theplastic limit load of thesystem is thus
written as
P
L
= 3
y
A (2.219)
Theprocessof successiveyieldingof barsin thissystemisknown asinelasticredistribution of forces.
Thedisplacement at theincipient of collapseis
L
=
y
L =

y
L
E
(2.220)
Figure 2.96d shows the load-displacement behavior of the system when subjected to increasing
force. Asload increases, Bar 2 will reach itsmaximum strength rst. Asit yielded, theforcein the
member remainsconstant, and additional loadson thesystemaretaken by thelesscritical bars. The
system will eventually fail when all threebarsarefully yielded. Thisisbased on an assumption that
material strain-hardeningdoesnot takeplace.
2.11.4 Plastic Hinge
A plastic hinge is said to form in a structural member when the cross-section is fully yielded. If
material strain hardeningisnot considered in theanalysis, afully yielded cross-section can undergo
indeniterotation at aconstant restrainingplasticmoment M
p
.
Most of theplastic analysesassumethat plastic hingesareconcentrated at zero length plasticity.
In reality, theyield zoneisdeveloped over acertain length, normally called theplastichingelength,
depending on the loading, boundary conditions, and geometry of the section. The hinge lengths
of beams(L) with different support and loadingconditionsareshown in Figures2.97a, b, and c.
Plastic hinges are developed rst at the sections subjected to the greatest curvature. The possible
FIGURE2.97: Hingelengthsof beamswith different support and loadingconditions.
locationsfor plastic hingesto develop areat thepointsof concentrated loads, at theintersectionsof
membersinvolvingachangein geometry, and at thepoint of zero shear for member under uniform
distributed load.
2.11.5 Plastic Moment
Aknowledgeof full plasticmoment capacityof asection isimportant in plasticanalysis. It formsthe
basisfor limit load analysisof thesystem. Plasticmoment isthemoment resistanceof afully yielded
cross-section. Thecross-section must befully compact in order to develop itsplastic strength. The
component platesof asection must not buckleprior to theattainment of full moment capacity.
Theplastic moment capacity, M
p
, of across-section dependson thematerial yield stressand the
section geometry. Theprocedurefor thecalculation of M
p
maybesummarized in thefollowingtwo
steps:
1. Theplasticneutral axisof across-section islocated by consideringequilibriumof forces
normal to thecross-section. Figure2.98ashowsacross-section of arbitrary shapesub-
jectedtoincreasingmoment. Theplasticneutral axisisdeterminedbyequatingtheforce
FIGURE2.98: Cross-section of arbitrary shapesubjected to bending.
in compression (C) tothat in tension (T ). If theentirecross-section ismadeof thesame
material, theplastic neutral axiscan bedetermined by dividingthecross-sectional area
into two equal parts. If thecross-section ismadeof morethan onetypeof material, the
plastic neutral axis must be determined by summing the normal force and letting the
forceequal zero.
2. Theplastic moment capacity isdetermined by obtaining themoment generated by the
tensileand compressiveforces.
Consider an arbitrary section with area2A and with oneaxisof symmetry of which thesection
isstrengthened by acover plateof areaa asshown in Figure2.98b. Further assumethat theyield
strength of theoriginal section and thecover plateis
yo
and
yc
, respectively. At thefull plastic
state, thetotal axial forceactingon thecover plateisa
yc
. In order to maintain equilibriumof force
in axial direction, theplasticneutral axismust shift down fromitsoriginal position by a
, i.e.,
a
=
a
yc
2
yo
(2.221)
Theresultingplastic capacity of the built-up section may beobtained by summingthefull plastic
moment of the original section and the moment contribution by the cover plate. The additional
capacity isequal to themoment caused by thecover plateforcea
yc
and aforcedueto thectitious
stress2
yo
actingon theareaa
resultingfrom theshiftingof plastic neutral axisfrom tension zone

to compression zoneasshown in Figure2.98c.
FIGURE2.99: Plasticmoment capacitiesof sections.
Figure2.99showsthecomputation of plasticmoment capacity of several shapesof cross-section.
Based on the principle developed in this section, the plastic moment capacities of typical cross-
sections may be generated. Additional information for sections subjected to combined bending,
torsion, shear, and axial load can befound in Mrazik et al. [ 43] .
2.11.6 Theoryof Plastic Analysis
Therearetwo main assumptionsfor rst-order plasticanalysis:
1. Thestructureismadeof ductilematerial that can undergo largedeformationsbeyond
elasticlimit without fractureor buckling.
2. Thedeectionsof thestructureunder loadingaresmall so that second-order effectscan
beignored.
An exact plastic analysis solution must satisfy three basic conditions. They are equilibrium,
mechanism, and plasticmoment conditions. Theplastic analysisdisregardsthecontinuity condition
as required by the elastic analysis of indeterminate structures. The formation of plastic hinge in
membersleadstodiscontinuity of slope. If sufcient plastichingesareformed toallowthestructure
todeformintoamechanism, it iscalledamechanismcondition. Sinceplasticanalysisutilizesthelimit
of resistanceof themembersplasticstrength, theplasticmoment conditionisrequiredtoensurethat
theresistanceof thecross-sectionsisnot violated anywherein thestructure. Lastly, theequilibrium
condition, which isthesamecondition to besatised in elastic analysis, requiresthat thesum of all
applied forcesand reactionsshould beequal to zero, and all internal forcesshould beself-balanced.
Whenall thethreeconditionsaresatised, thentheresultingplasticanalysisfor limitingloadisthe
correct limit load. Thecollapseloadsfor simplestructuressuch asbeamsand portal framescan be
solved easily usingadirect approach or through visualization of theformation of correct collapse
mechanism. However, for morecomplex structures, theexact solution satisfyingall threeconditions
maybedifcult topredict. Thus, simpletechniquesusingapproximatemethodsof analysisareoften
used to assessthesesolutions. Thesetechniques, called equilibrium and mechanism methods, will
bediscussed in thesubsequent sections.
Principleof Virtual Work
The virtual work principle may be applied to relate a system of forces in equilibrium to a
systemof compatibledisplacements. For example, if astructurein equilibriumisgiven aset of small
compatibledisplacement, then thework doneby theexternal loadson theseexternal displacements
is equal to the work done by the internal forces on the internal deformation. In plastic analysis,
internal deformationsareassumed to beconcentrated at plastic hinges. Thevirtual work equation
for hinged structurescan bewritten in an explicit formas
P
i
j
=
M
i
j
(2.222)
whereP
i
isan external load and M
i
isan internal moment at ahingelocation. Both theP
i
and M
i
constitutean equilibrium set and they must bein equilibrium.
j
arethedisplacementsunder the
point loadsP
i
and in thedirection of theloads.
j
aretheplastichingerotationsunder themoment
M
i
. Both
j
and
j
constituteadisplacement set and they must becompatiblewith each other.
Lower BoundTheorem
For agiven structure, if thereexistsany distribution of bendingmomentsin thestructurethat
satises both theequilibrium and plastic moment conditions, then theload factor,
L
, computed
fromthismoment diagrammust beequal toor lessthan thecollapseload factor,
c
, of thestructure.
Lower bound theoremprovidesasafeestimateof thecollapselimit load, i.e.,
L

c
.
Upper BoundTheorem
For agiven structuresubjected to aset of applied loads, aload factor,
u
, computed based on
an assumed collapsemechanism must begreater than or equal to thetruecollapseload factor,
c
.
Upper bound theorem, which usesonly themechanism condition, over-estimatesor isequal to the
collapselimit load, i.e.,
u

c
.
UniquenessTheorem
Astructureat collapsehastosatisfythreeconditions. First, asufcient number of plastichinges
must beformed to turn thestructure, or part of it, into amechanism; thisiscalled themechanism
condition. Second, thestructuremust beinequilibrium, i.e., thebendingmoment distributionmust
satisfy equilibrium with theapplied loads. Finally, thebending moment at any cross-section must
not exceedthefull plasticvalueof that cross-section; thisiscalledtheplasticmoment condition. The
theorem simply impliesthat thecollapseload factor,
c
, obtained from thethreebasic conditions
(mechanism, equilibrium, and plasticmoment) hasauniquevalue.
Theproof of thethreetheoremscan befound in Chen and Sohal [ 16] . A useful corollary of the
lower boundtheoremisthat if at aloadfactor, , it ispossibletondabendingmoment diagramthat
satisesboth theequilibriumand moment conditionsbut not necessarilythemechanismcondition,
then the structure will not collapse at that load factor unless the load happens to be the collapse
load. A corollary of theupper bound theorem isthat thetrueload factor at collapseisthesmallest
possible one that can be determined from a consideration of all possible mechanisms of collapse.
Thisconcept isvery useful in ndingthecollapseload of thesystem from variouscombinationsof
mechanisms. From these theorems, it can be seen that the lower bound theorem is based on the
equilibriumapproachwhiletheupper boundtechniqueisbasedon themechanismapproach. These
two alternativeapproachesto an exact solution, called theequilibriummethodand themechanism
method, will bediscussed in thesectionsthat follow.
2.11.7 EquilibriumMethod
The equilibrium method, which employs the lower bound theorem, is suitable for the analysis of
continuous beams and frames in which the structural redundancies are not exceeding two. The
procedures for obtaining the equilibrium equations of a statically indeterminate structure and to
evaluateitsplasticlimit load areasfollows:
Toobtaintheequilibriumequationsof astaticallyindeterminatestructure:
1. Select theredundant(s).
2. Freetheredundantsand draw a moment diagram for thedeterminatestructureunder
theapplied loads.
3. Drawamoment diagramfor thestructuredueto theredundant forces.
4. Superimposethemoment diagramsin Steps2and 3.
5. Obtain themaximum moment at critical sectionsof thestructureutilizingthemoment
diagramin Step 4.
Toevaluatetheplasticlimit loadof thestructure:
6. Select value(s) of redundant(s) such that theplasticmoment condition isnot violated at
any section in thestructure.
7. Determinetheload correspondingto theselected redundant(s).
8. Check for theformation of amechanism. If acollapsemechanismcondition ismet, then
thecomputed load istheexact plasticlimit load. Otherwise, it isalower bound solution.
9. Adjust theredundant(s) andrepeat Steps6to9until theexact plasticlimit loadisobtained.
EXAMPLE2.11: ContinuousBeam
Figure2.100ashowsatwo-spancontinuousbeamwhichisanalyzedusingtheequilibriummethod.
Theplasticlimit load of thebeamiscalculated based on thestep-by-step proceduredescribed in the
FIGURE2.100: Analysisof atwo-span continuoususingtheequilibriummethod.
previoussection asfollows:
1. Select the redundant force as M
1
which is the bending moment at the intermediate
support, asshown in Figure2.100b.
2. Freetheredundantsand drawthemoment diagramfor thedeterminatestructureunder
theapplied loads, asshown in Figure2.100c.
3. Drawthemoment diagramfor thestructureduetotheredundant moment M
1
asshown
in Figure2.100d.
4. Superimposethemoment diagramsin Figures2.100c and d. Theresultsareshown in
Figure2.100e. Themoment diagramin Figure2.100eisredrawn on asinglestraight base
line. Thecritical moment in thebeamis
M
cr
=
Pa(L a)
L
M
1
a
L
(2.223)
The maximum moment at the critical sections of the structure utilizing the moment
diagram in Figure 2.100e is obtained. By letting M
cr
= M
p
, the resulting moment
distribution isshown in Figure2.100f.
5. Alower bound solution may beobtained by selectingavalueof redundant moment M
1
.
For example, if M
1
= 0 is selected, the moment diagram is reduced to that shown in
Figure2.100c. Byequatingthemaximummoment in thediagramtotheplasticmoment,
M
p
, wehave
M
cr
=
Pa(L a)
L
= M
p
(2.224)
which givesP = P
1
as
P
1
=
M
p
L
a(L a)
(2.225)
Themoment diagram in Figure2.100cshowsaplastichingeformed at each span. Since
twoplastichingesin each span arerequired toformaplasticmechanism, theload P
1
isa
lower bound solution. However, if theredundant moment M
1
isset equal to theplastic
moment M
p
, and lettingthemaximummoment in Figure2.100f beequal to theplastic
moment, wehave
M
cr
=
Pa(L a)
L
M
p
a
L
= M
p
(2.226)
which givesP = P
2
as
P
2
=
M
p
(L +a)
a(L a)
(2.227)
6. Sinceasufcient number of plastic hingeshasformed in thebeams(Figure2.100g) to
arriveat acollapsemechanism, thecomputed load, P
2
, istheexact plasticlimit load.
EXAMPLE2.12: Portal Frame
A pinned-baserectangular framesubjected to vertical load V and horizontal load H isshown in
Figure2.101a. All themembersof theframe, AB, BD, and DE aremadeof thesamesection with
moment capacityM
p
. Theobjectiveistodeterminethelimit valueof H if theframeswidth-to-height
ratio L/h is1.0.
Procedure: Theframehasonedegreeof redundancy. Theredundancyfor thisstructurecanbechosen
asthehorizontal reaction at E. Figures2.101bandcshowtheresultingdeterminateframeloadedby
theapplied loadsand redundant force. Themoment diagramscorrespondingto thesetwo loading
FIGURE2.101: Analysisof portal frameusingtheequilibriummethod.
conditionsareshown in Figures2.101d and e.
Thehorizontal reactionS shouldbechoseninsuchamanner that all threeconditions(equilibrium,
plasticmoment, and mechanism) aresatised. Formation of two plastichingesisnecessary to form
amechanism. Theplastic hingesmay beformed at B, C, and D. Assuming that aplastic hingeis
formed at D, asshown in Figure2.101e, wehave
S =
M
p
h
(2.228)
Correspondingto thisvalueof S, themomentsat B and C can beexpressed as
M
B
= Hh M
p
(2.229)
M
C
=
Hh
2
+
VL
4
M
p
(2.230)
Thecondition for thesecond plastichingeto format B is|M
B
| > |M
C
|. FromEquations2.229and
2.230wehave
Hh M
p
>
Hh
2
+
VL
4
M
p
(2.231)
and
V
H
<
h
L
(2.232)
Thecondition for thesecond plastichingeto format C is|M
C
| > |M
B
|. FromEquations2.229and
2.230wehave
Hh M
p
<
Hh
2
+
VL
4
M
p
(2.233)
and
V
H
>
h
L
(2.234)
For aparticular combination of V, H, L, and h, thecollapseload for H can becalculated.
(a) When L/h = 1 and V/H = 1/3, wehave
M
B
= Hh M
p
(2.235)
M
C
=
Hh
2
+
Hh
12
M
p
=
7
12
Hh M
p
(2.236)
Since|M
B
| > |M
C
|, thesecond plastichingewill format B, and thecorrespondingvaluefor H is
H =
2M
p
h
(2.237)
(b) When L/h = 1 and V/H = 3, wehave
M
B
= Hh M
p
(2.238)
M
C
=
Hh
2
+
3
4
Hh M
p
=
5
4
Hh M
p
(2.239)
Since|M
C
| > |M
B
|, thesecond plastichingewill format C, and thecorrespondingvaluefor H is
H =
1.6M
p
h
(2.240)
2.11.8 MechanismMethod
Thismethod, whichisbasedon theupper boundtheorem, statesthat theloadcomputedon thebasis
of an assumed failuremechanism isnever lessthan theexact plastic limit load of astructure. Thus,
it alwayspredictstheupper bound solution of thecollapselimit load. It can also beshown that the
minimumupper bound isthelimit load itself. Theprocedurefor usingthemechanismmethod has
thefollowingtwo steps:
1. Assumeafailuremechanismand formthecorrespondingwork equation fromwhich an
upper bound valueof theplasticlimit load can beestimated.
2. Writetheequilibriumequationsfor theassumed mechanismand check themomentsto
seewhether theplasticmoment condition ismet everywherein thestructure.
To obtain the true limit load using the mechanism method, it is necessary to determine every
possiblecollapsemechanismof whichsomearethecombinationsof acertainnumber of independent
mechanisms. Once the independent mechanisms have been identied, a work equation may be
established for each combination and the corresponding collapse load is determined. The lowest
load amongthoseobtained byconsideringall thepossiblecombination of independent mechanisms
isthecorrect plasticlimit load.
Number of Independent Mechanisms
Thenumber of possibleindependent mechanismsn, for astructure, can bedetermined from
n = N R (2.241)
whereN isthenumber of critical sectionsat which plastic hingesmight form, and R isthedegrees
of redundancy of thestructure.
Critical sectionsgenerally occur at thepointsof concentrated loads, at jointswheretwo or more
membersaremeetingat different angles, and at sectionswherethereisan abrupt changein section
FIGURE2.102: Number of redundantsin (a) abeamand (b) aframe.
geometriesor properties. To determinethenumber of redundant Rsof astructure, it isnecessary to
freesufcient supportsor restrainingforcesin structural membersso that thestructurebecomesan
assembly of several determinatesub-structures.
Figure2.102showstwo examples. Thecutsthat aremadein each structurereducethestructural
memberstoeither cantileversor simplysupportedbeams. Thexed-endbeamrequiresashear force
and amoment to restorecontinuity at thecut section, and thusR = 2. For thetwo-story frame, an
axial force, shear, and moment arerequired at each cut section for full continuity, and thusR = 12.
Typesof Mechanism
Figure 2.103a shows a frame structure subjected to a set of loading. The frame may fail by
different types of collapse mechanisms dependent on the magnitude of loading and the frames
congurations. Thecollapsemechanismsare:
(a) BeamMechanism: Possiblemechanismsof thistypeareshown in Figure2.103b.
(b) Panel Mechanism: The collapse mode is associated with sidesway as shown in Fig-
ure2.103c.
(c) GableMechanism: Thecollapsemodeisassociated with thespreadingof column tops
with respect to thecolumn basesasshown in Figure2.103d.
(d) JointMechanism: Thecollapsemodeisassociated with therotation of jointsof which
theadjoiningmembersdevelopedplastichingesanddeformedunder anappliedmoment
asshown in Figure2.103e.
(e) CombinedMechanism: It canbeapartial collapsemechanismasshowninFigure2.103f
or it may beacompletecollapsemechanismasshown in Figure2.103g.
Theprincipal rulefor combiningindependent mechanismsisto obtain alower valueof collapse
load. Thecombinationsareselected in such away that theexternal work becomesamaximum and
theinternal work becomesaminimum. Thus, thework equation would requirethat themechanism
involveasmany applied loadsaspossibleand at thesametimeto eliminateasmany plastichingesas
possible. Thisprocedurewill beillustrated in thefollowingexample.
EXAMPLE2.13: Rectangular Frame
Axed-end rectangular framehasauniformsection with M
p
= 20 and carriestheload shown in
Figure2.104. Determinethevalueof load ratio at collapse.
FIGURE2.103: Typical plasticmechanisms.
Solution
Number of possibleplastichinges N = 5
Number of redundancies R = 3
Number of independent mechanisms N R = 2.
Thetwo independent mechanismsareshown in Figures2.104b and c, and thecorrespondingwork
equationsare
Panel mechanism 20 = 4(20) = 80 = 4
Beammechanism 30 = 4(20) = 80 = 2.67
Thecombined mechanismsarenowexamined toseewhether theywill producealower value. It
isobservedthat onlyonecombinedmechanismispossible. ThemechanismisshowninFigure2.104c
involvingcancellation of aplastichingeat B. Thecalculation of thelimit load isdescribed below:
Panel mechanism 20 = 4(20)
Beammechanism 30 = 4(20)
Addition 50 = 8(20)
Cancellation of plastichinge 2(20)
Combined mechanism 50 = 6(20)
= 2.4
FIGURE2.104: Collapsemechanismsof axed baseportal frame.
Thecombined mechanism resultsin asmaller valuefor and no other possiblemechanism can
producealower load. Thus, = 2.4 isthecollapseload.
EXAMPLE2.14: FrameSubjected to Distributed Load
When a frame is subjected to distributed loads, the maximum moment and hence the plastic
hingelocation isnot known in advance. Theexact location of theplastic hingemay bedetermined
by writing the work equation in terms of the unknown distance and then maximizing the plastic
moment by formal differentiation.
Consider theframeshown in Figure2.105a. Thesidesway collapsemodein Figure2.105bleadsto
thefollowingwork equation:
4M
p
= 24(10)
which gives
M
p
= 60 kip-ft
Thebeammechanismof Figure2.105cgives
4M
p
=
1
2
(10)32
FIGURE2.105: A portal framesubjected to acombined uniform distributed load and ahorizontal
load.
which gives
M
p
= 40 kip-ft
In fact, thecorrect mechanism isshown in Figure2.105d in which thedistanceZ from theplastic
hingelocation isunknown. Thework equation is
24(10) +
1
2
(1.6)(20)(z) = M
p
_
2 +2
_
20
20 z
__
which gives
M
p
=
(240 +16z)(20 z)
80 2z
To maximizeM
p
, thederivativeof M
p
isset to zero, i.e.,
(80 2z)(80 32z) +(4800 +80z 16z
2
)(2) = 0
which gives
z = 40
1100 = 6.83 ft
and
M
p
= 69.34 kip-ft
In practice, uniform load isoften approximated by applyingseveral equivalent point loadsto the
member under consideration. Plastic hingesthuscan beassumed to form only at theconcentrated
loadpoints, andthecalculationsbecomesimpler whenthestructural systembecomesmorecomplex.
2.11.9 GableFrames
The mechanism method is used to determine the plastic limit load of the gable frame shown in
Figure2.106. Theframeiscomposed of memberswith plastic moment capacity of 270 kip-in. The
column basesarexed. Theframeisloaded by ahorizontal load H and vertical concentrated load
V. A graph fromwhich V and H causethecollapseof theframeisto beproduced.
Solution Consider thethreemodesof collapseasfollows:
1. Plastichingesformat A, C, D, and E
Themechanismisshown in Figure2.106b. Theinstantaneouscenter O for member CD
islocated at theintersection of AC and ED extended. Fromsimilar trianglesACC
1
and
OCC
2
, wehave
OC
2
CC
2
=
C
1
A
C
1
C
which gives
OC
2
=
C
1
A
C
1
C
CC
2
=
22.5(9)
18
= 11.25 ft
FromtrianglesACC
and CC
O, wehave
AC() = OC()
which gives
=
OC
AC
=
CC
2
C
1
C
=
9
8
=
1
2
Similarly, fromtrianglesODD
and EDD
, therotation at E isgiven as
DE() = OD()
which gives
=
OD
DE
= 1.5
From thehingerotationsand displacements, thework equation for thismechanism can
bewritten as
V(9) +H(13.5) = M
p
[ +( +) +( +) +]
Substitutingvaluesfor and and simplifying, wehave
V +2.25H = 180
2. Mechanismwith Hingesat B, C, D, and E
Figure2.106cshowsthemechanisminwhichtheplastichingerotationsanddisplacements
at theload points can beexpressed in terms of therotation of member CD about the
instantaneouscenter O.
FIGURE2.106: Collapsemechanismsof axed basegableframe.
Fromsimilar trianglesBCC
1
and OCC
2
, wehave
OC
2
CC
2
=
BC
1
C
1
C
which gives
OC
2
=
BC
1
C
1
C
CC
2
=
9
18
(9) = 4.5 ft
FromtrianglesBCC
and CC
O, wehave
BC() = OC()
which gives
=
OC
BC
=
OC
2
BC
1
=
4.5
9

1
2
Similarly, fromtrianglesODD
and EDD
, therotation at E isgiven as
DE() = OD()
which gives
=
OD
DE
=
Thework equation for thismechanismcan bewritten as
V(9) +H(13.5) = M
p
[ +( +) +( +) +]
Substitutingvaluesof and and simplifying, wehave
V +1.5H = 150
3. Mechanismwith Hingesat A, B, D, and E
Thehingerotationsand displacementscorresponding to thismechanism areshown in
Figure2.106d. Therotation of all hingesis. Thehorizontal load movesby 13.5 but
thehorizontal load hasno vertical displacement. Thework equation becomes
H(13.5) = M
p
( + + +)
or
H = 80 kips
The interaction equations corresponding to the three mechanisms are plotted in Fig-
ure2.107. By carrying out moment checks, it can beshown that Mechanism 1 isvalid
for portion AB of thecurve, Mechanism 2isvalid for portion BC, and Mechanism 3is
valid only when V = 0.
2.11.10 AnalysisChartsfor GableFrames
Pinned-BaseGableFrames
Figure2.108ashowsapinned-end gableframesubjected to auniform gravity load wL and
ahorizontal load 1H at thecolumn top. Thecollapsemechanism isshown in Figure2.108b. The
FIGURE2.107: Vertical load and horizontal forceinteraction curvefor collapseanalysisof agable
frame.
work equation isused to determinetheplasticlimit load. First, theinstantaneousnessof rotation O
isdetermined by consideringsimilar triangles,
OE
CF
=
L
xL
and
OE
CF
=
OE
h
1
+2xh
2
(2.242)
and
OD = OE h
1
=
(1 x)h
1
+2xh
2
x
(2.243)
Fromthehorizontal displacement of D,
h
1
= OD (2.244)
of which
=
x
(1 x) +2xk
(2.245)
wherek = h
2
/h
1
. Fromthevertical displacement at C,
=
1 x
(1 x) +2xk
(2.246)
Thework equation for theassumed mechanismis
1
Hh
1
+
wL
2
2
(1 x) = M
p
( +2 +) (2.247)
which gives
M
p
=
(1 x)
1
Hh
1
+(1 x)xwL
2
/2
2(1 +kx)
(2.248)
DifferentiatingM
p
in Equation 2.248with respect to x and solvefor x,
x =
A 1
k
(2.249)
FIGURE 2.108: Pinned base gable frame subjected to a combined uniform distributed load and
horizontal load.
where
A =
_
(1 +k)(1 Uk) and U =
2
1
Hh
1
wL
2
(2.250)
Substitutingfor x in theexpression for M
p
gives
M
p
=
wL
2
8
_
U(2 +U)
A
2
+2A Uk
2
+1
_
(2.251)
In theabsenceof horizontal loading, thegablemechanism, asshown in Figure2.108c, isthefailure
mode. In thiscase, lettingH = 0 and U = 0 gives[ 31] :
M
p
=
wL
2
8
_
1
1 +k +
1 +k
_
(2.252)
Equation 2.251can beused to produceachart asshown in Figure2.109by which thevalueof M
p
can bedetermined rapidly by knowingthevaluesof
k =
h
2
h
1
and U =
2
1
Hh
1
wL
2
(2.253)
FIGURE2.109: Analysischart for pinned basegableframe.
Fixed-BaseGableFrames
Similar chartscan begenerated for xed-basegableframesasshown in Figure2.110. Thus, if
thevaluesof loading, w and
1
H, and framegeometry, h
1
, h
2
, and L, areknown, theparameters
k and U can beevaluated and thecorrespondingvalueof M
p
/(wL
2
) can beread directly fromthe
appropriatechart. Therequired valueof M
p
isobtained by multiplyingthevalueof M
p
/(wL
2
) by
wL
2
.
2.11.11 Grillages
Grillageisatypeof structureconsistingof straight beamslyingon thesameplane, subjected toloads
acting perpendicular to the plane. An example of such structure is shown in Figure 2.111. The
grillageconsistsof twoequal simplysupportedbeamsof span length2Landfull plasticmoment M
p
.
Thetwo beamsareconnected rigidly at their centerswhereaconcentrated load W iscarried.
Thecollapsemechanismconsistsof four plastichingesformed at thebeamsadjacent to thepoint
load asshown in Figure2.111. Thework equation is
WL = 4M
p
FIGURE2.110: Analysischart for xed basegableframe.
of which thecollapseload is
W =
4M
p
L
Six-BeamGrillage
Agrillageconsistingof six beamsof span length 4Leach and full plasticmoment M
p
isshown
in Figure2.112. A total load of 9W actson thegrillage, splitting into concentrated loadsW at the
nine nodes. Three collapse mechanisms are possible. Ignoring member twisting due to torsional
forces, thework equationsassociated with thethreecollapsemechanismsarecomputed asfollows:
Mechanism1(Figure2.113a)
Work equation 9wL = 12M
p
of which w =
12
9
Mp
L
=
4Mp
3L
Mechanism2(Figure2.113b)
Work equation wL = 8M
p
of which w =
8Mp
L
Mechanism3(Figure2.113c)
Work equation w2L2 +4 w2L = M
p
(4 +8)
of which w =
Mp
L
Thelowest upper bound load correspondstoMechanism3. Thiscan beconrmed byconducting
a moment check to ensurethat bending moments anywherearenot violating theplastic moment
condition. Additional discussion of plasticanalysisof grillagescan befound in [ 6] and [ 29] .
FIGURE2.111: Two-beamgrillagesystem.
FIGURE2.112: Six-beamgrillagesystem.
2.11.12 Vierendeel Girders
Figure2.114 showsasimply supported girder in which all membersarerigidly joined and havethe
same plastic moment M
p
. It is assumed that axial loads in the members do not cause member
instability. Two possiblecollapsemechanismsareconsidered asshown in Figures2.114b and c. The
work equation for Mechanism1is
W3L = 20M
p
so that
W =
20M
p
3L
Thework equation for Mechanism2is
W3L = 16M
p
or
W =
16M
p
3L
It can beeasily proved that thecollapseload associated with Mechanism 2 isthecorrect limit load.
Thisisdoneby constructingan equilibriumset of bendingmomentsand checkingthat they arenot
violatingtheplasticmoment condition.
2.11.13 First-Order Hinge-By-HingeAnalysis
Instead of nding thecollapseload of theframe, it may beuseful to obtain information about the
distribution and redistribution of forces prior to reaching the collapse load. Elastic-plastic hinge
analysis(alsoknown ashinge-by-hingeanalysis) determinestheorder of plastichingeformation, the
load factor associated with each plastic-hingeformation, and member forcesin theframebetween
each hingeformation. Thus, thestateof theframecan bedened at any load factor rather than only
FIGURE2.113: Six-beamgrillagesystem. (a) Mechanism1. (b) Mechanism2. (c) Mechanism3.
FIGURE2.114: Collapsemechanismsof aVierendeel girder.
at thestateof collapse. Thisallowsfor amoreaccuratedetermination of member forcesat thedesign
load level.
Educational andcommercial softwarearenowavailablefor elastic-plastichingeanalysis[16] . The
computationsof deectionsfor simplebeamsand multi-story framescan bedoneusingthevirtual
work method [ 5, 8, 16, 34] . The basic assumption of rst-order elastic-plastic hinge analysis is
that thedeformationsof thestructureareinsufcient to alter radically theequilibrium equations.
Thisassumption ceasesto betruefor slender membersand structures, and themethod givesunsafe
predictionsof limit loads.
2.12 FrameStability
2.12.1 Categorizationof AnalysisMethods
Several stability analysis methods havebeen utilized in research and practice. Figure 2.115 shows
schematicrepresentationsof theload-displacement resultsof asway frameobtained fromeach type
of analysisto beconsidered.
Elastic BucklingAnalysis
Theelasticbucklingloadiscalculatedbylinear bucklingor bifurcation(or eigenvalue) analysis.
Thebucklingloadsareobtained fromthesolutionsof idealized elasticframessubjected to idealized
loads which do not produce direct bending in the structure. The only displacements that occur
beforebucklingoccursarethosein thedirectionsof theapplied loads. When buckling(bifurcation)
occurs, thedisplacementsincreasewithout bound, assuminglinearizedtheoryof elasticityandsmall
displacement as shown by the horizontal straight line in Figure 2.115. The load at which these
FIGURE2.115: Categorization of stability analysismethods.
displacementsoccur isknown asthebucklingload, or commonlyreferredtoasbifurcation load. For
structural modelsthat actually exhibit abifurcation fromtheprimary load path, theelasticbuckling
loadisthelargest loadthat themodel can sustain, at least within thevicinityof thebifurcation point,
provided that thepost-buckling path isin unstableequilibrium. If thesecondary path isin stable
equilibrium, theload can still increasebeyond thecritical load value.
Buckling analysis is a common tool for calculations of column effective lengths. The effective
length factor of acolumn member can becalculated usingtheproceduredescribed in Section 2.12.2.
Thebucklinganalysisprovidesuseful indicesof thestability behavior of structures; however, it does
not predict actual behavior of all but idealizedstructureswithgravityloadsappliedonlyat thejoints.
Second-Order Elastic Analysis
Theanalysisisformulatedbasedonthedeformedcongurationof thestructure. Whenderived
rigorously, asecond-order analysiscan includeboth themember curvature(P ) andthesidesway
(P ) stability effects. The P- effect is associated with the inuence of the axial force acting
through themember displacement with respect totherotated chord, whereastheP effect isthe
inuenceof axial forceacting through therelativesidesway displacementsof themember ends. It
isinterestingto notethat astructural system will becomestiffer when itsmembersaresubjected to
tension. Conversely, thestructurewill becomesofter when itsmembersarein compression. Such
behavior can beillustrated for asimplemodel shown in Figure2.116. Thereisaclear advantagefor
adesigner to takeadvantageof thestiffer behavior for tension structures. However, thedetrimental
effectsassociatedwith second-order deformationsduetothecompression forcesmust beconsidered
in designingstructuressubjected to predominant gravity loads.
Unlike the rst-order analysis in which solutions can be obtained in a rather simple and direct
manner, asecond-order analysisoften requiresan iterativeprocedureto obtain solutions. Although
second-order analysis can account for all the stability effects, it does not provide information on
the actual inelastic strength of the structure. In design, the combined effects due to stability and
inelasticity must beconsidered for aproper evaluation of member and system strengths. Theload-
FIGURE2.116: Behavior of framein compression and tension.
displacement curvegenerated from asecond-order analysiswill gradually approach thehorizontal
straight linewhichrepresentsthebucklingloadobtainedfromtheelasticbucklinganalysis, asshown
in Figure2.115. Differencesin thetwo loadsmay arisefrom thefact that theelastic stability limit is
calculated for equilibrium based on thedeformed conguration whereastheelastic critical load is
calculated asabifurcation fromequilibriumon theundeformed geometry of theframe.
The load-displacement response of most frame structures usually does not involve any actual
bifurcation or branchfromoneequilibriumsolution toanother equilibriumpath. In somecases, the
second-order elasticincremental responsemaynot haveanylimit. Thereader isreferredtoChapter 1
of [ 14] for abasicdiscussion of thesebehavioral issues.
Recent workson second-order elastic analysishavebeen reported in Liew et al. [ 40] ; Whiteand
Hajjar [ 64] ; Chen and Lui [ 15] , Liew and Chen [ 39] , and Chen and Kim [ 17] , among others.
Second-order analysis programs which can take into consideration connection exibility are also
available[ 1, 24, 26, 28, 30, 41, 42] .
Second-Order Inelastic Analysis
Second-order inelastic analysisrefersto any method of analysisthat can capturegeometrical
andmaterial nonlinearitiesintheanalysis. Themost renedinelasticanalysismethodiscalledspread-
of-plasticity analysis. It involvesdiscretization of membersinto many linesegments, and thecross-
section of each segment into anumber of niteelements. Inelasticity iscaptured within thecross-
sectionsand alongthemember length. Thecalculation of forcesand deformationsin thestructure
after yielding requires iterative trial-and-error processes because of the nonlinearity of the load-
deformationresponse, andthechangeincross-sectioneffectivestiffnessat inelasticregionsassociated
with theincreasein theapplied loadsand thechangein structural geometry. Although most of the
plastic-zoneanalysismethodshavebeen developed for planar analysis[59, 62] , three-dimensional
plastic-zonetechniquesarealso availableinvolvingvariousdegreesof renements[ 12, 20, 60, 63] .
The simplest second-order inelastic analysis is the elastic-plastic hinge approach. The analysis
assumes that the element remains elastic except at its ends where zero-length plastic hinges are
allowed to form [ 15, 18, 19, 41, 42, 45, 66, 69, 70] . Second-order plastic hinge analysis allows
efcient analysis of large scale building frames. This is particularly true for structures in which
the axial forces in the component members are small and the predominate behavior is associated
with bending actions. Although elastic-plastic hinge approaches can provide essentially the same
load-displacement predictionsassecond-order plastic-zonemethodsfor manyframeproblems, they
cannot beclassied asadvanced analysisfor usein framedesign. Somemodicationsto theelastic-
plastic hinge are required to qualify the methods as advanced analysis, and they are discussed in
Section 2.12.8.
Figure 2.115 shows the load-displacement curve (a smooth curve with a descending branch)
obtained from thesecond-order inelastic analysis. Thecomputed limit load should becloseto that
obtained fromtheplastic-zoneanalysis.
2.12.2 ColumnsStability
StabilityEquations
Thestability equation of acolumn can beobtained by consideringan innitesimal deformed
segment of thecolumn asshown in Figure2.117. Bysummingthemoment about point b, weobtain
FIGURE2.117: Stability equationsof acolumn segment.
Qdx +Pdy +M
_
M +
dM
dx
dx
_
= 0
or, upon simplication
Q =
dM
dx
P
dy
dx
(2.254)
Summingforcehorizontally, wecan write
Q+
_
Q+
dQ
dx
dx
_
= 0
or, upon simplication
dQ
dx
= 0 (2.255)
DifferentiatingEquation 2.254with respect to x, weobtain
dQ
dx
=
d
2
M
dx
2
P
d
2
y
dx
2
(2.256)
which, when compared with Equation 2.255, gives
d
2
M
dx
2
P
d
2
y
dx
2
= 0 (2.257)
SinceM = EI
d
2
y
dx
2
, Equation 2.257can bewritten as
EI
d
4
y
dx
4
+P
d
2
y
dx
2
= 0 (2.258)
or
y
IV
+k
2
y
= 0 (2.259)
Equation 2.259isthegeneral fourth-order differential equation that isvalid for all support condi-
tions. Thegeneral solution to thisequation is
y = Asin kx +B cos kx +Cx +D (2.260)
Todeterminethecritical load, it isnecessarytohavefour boundaryconditions: twoat each endof
thecolumn. In somecases, both geometricand forceboundary conditionsarerequired to eliminate
theunknown coefcients(A, B, C, D) in Equation 2.260.
ColumnwithPinnedEnds
For acolumn pinned at both endsasshown in Figure2.118a, thefour boundary conditions
are
y(x = 0) = 0, M(x = 0) = 0 (2.261)
y(x = L) = 0, M(x = L) = 0 (2.262)
SinceM = EIy
, themoment conditionscan bewritten as

y
(0) = 0 and y
(x = L) = 0 (2.263)
Usingtheseconditions, wehave
B = D = 0 (2.264)
Thedeection function (Equation 2.260) reducesto
y = Asin kx +Cx (2.265)
Usingtheconditionsy(L) = y
(L) = 0, Equation 2.265gives

Asin kL +CL = 0 (2.266)
and
Ak
2
sin kL = 0 (2.267)
_
sin kL L
k
2
sin kL 0
_ _
A
C
_
=
_
0
0
_
(2.268)
FIGURE2.118: Column with (a) pinned ends, (b) xed ends, and (c) xed-freeends.
If A = C = 0, thesolution istrivial. Therefore, to obtain anontrivial solution, thedeterminant
of thecoefcient matrix of Equation 2.268must bezero, i.e.,
det
sin kL L
k
2
sin kL 0
= 0 (2.269)
or
k
2
Lsin kL = 0 (2.270)
Sincek
2
L cannot bezero, wemust have
sin kL = 0 (2.271)
or
kL = n, n = 1, 2, 3, .... (2.272)
Thelowest bucklingload correspondsto therst modeobtained by settingn = 1:
P
cr
=

2
EI
L
2
(2.273)
ColumnwithFixedEnds
Thefour boundary conditionsfor axed-end column are(Figure2.118b):
y(x = 0) = y
(x = 0) = 0 (2.274)
y(x = L) = y
(x = L) = 0 (2.275)
Usingtherst two boundary conditions, weobtain
D = B, C = Ak (2.276)
Thedeection function (Equation 2.260) becomes
y = A(sin kx kx) +B(cos kx 1) (2.277)
Usingthelast two boundary conditions, wehave
_
sin kL kL cos kL 1
cos kL 1 sin kL
_ _
A
B
_
=
_
0
0
_
(2.278)
For anontrivial solution, wemust have
det
sin kL kL cos kL 1
cos kL 1 sin kL
= 0 (2.279)
or, after expanding
kLsin kL +2 cos kL 2 = 0 (2.280)
Usingtrigonometrical identitiessin kL = 2 sin(kL/2) cos(kL/2) and cos kL = 1 2 sin
2
(kL/2),
Equation 2.280can bewritten as
sin
kL
2
_
kL
2
cos
kL
2
sin
kL
2
_
= 0 (2.281)
Thecritical load for thesymmetricbucklingmodeisP
cr
= 4
2
EI/L
2
by lettingsin(kL/2) = 0.
Thebucklingloadfor theantisymmetricbucklingmodeisP
cr
= 80.766EI/L
2
bylettingthebracket
termin Equation 2.281equal zero.
ColumnwithOneEndFixedandOneEndFree
Theboundary conditionsfor axed-freecolumn are(Figure2.118c):
at thexed end
y(x = 0) = y
(x = 0) = 0 (2.282)
and, at thefreeend, themoment M = EIy
isequal to zero
y
(x = L) = 0 (2.283)
and theshear forceV = dM/dx = EIy
isequal to Py
which isthetransversecomponent of
P actingat thefreeend of thecolumn.
V = EIy
= Py
(2.284)
It followsthat theshear forcecondition at thefreeend hastheform
y
+k
2
y
= 0 (2.285)
Usingtheboundary conditionsat thexed end, wehave
B +D = 0, and Ak +C = 0 (2.286)
Theboundary conditionsat thefreeend give
Asin kL +B cos kL = 0 and C = 0 (2.287)
In matrix form, Equations2.286and 2.287can bewritten as
_
_
0 1 1
k 0 0
sin kL cos kL 0
_
_
_
_
A
B
C
_
_
=
_
_
0
0
0
_
_
(2.288)
For anontrivial solution, wemust have
det
0 1 1
k 0 0
sin kL cos kL 0
= 0 (2.289)
thecharacteristicequation becomes
k cos kL = 0 (2.290)
Sincek cannot bezero, wemust havecos kL = 0 or
kL =
n
2
n = 1, 3, 5, . . . (2.291)
Thesmallest root (n = 1) givesthelowest critical load of thecolumn
P
cr
=

2
EI
4L
2
(2.292)
Theboundary conditionsfor columnswith variousend conditionsaresummarized in Table2.2.
TABLE2.2 Boundary Conditionsfor
VariousEnd Conditions
End conditions Boundary conditions
Pinned y = 0 y
= 0
Fixed y = 0 y
= 0
Guided y
= 0 y
= 0
Free y
= 0 y
+k
2
y
= 0
ColumnEffectiveLengthFactor
The effective length factor, K, of columns with different end boundary conditions can be
obtained by equating the P
cr
load obtained from the buckling analysis with the Euler load of a
pinned-ended column of effectivelength KL.
P
cr
=

2
EI
(KL)
2
Theeffectivelength factor can beobtained as
K =
_
2
EI/L
2
P
cr
(2.293)
TheK factor isafactor that can bemultiplied to theactual length of theend-restrained column to
givethelength of an equivalent pinned-ended column whosebuckling load is thesameas that of
theend-restrained column. Table2.3 [ 2, 3] summarizesthetheoretical K factorsfor columnswith
different boundary conditions. Also shown in thetablearetherecommended K factorsfor design
applications. Therecommended valuesfor design areequal or larger than thetheoretical valuesto
account for semi-rigid effectsof theconnectionsused in practice.
TABLE2.3 Comparison of Theoretical and Design K Factors
2.12.3 Beam-ColumnStability
Figure2.119ashowsabeam-column subjected to an axial compressiveforceP at theends, alateral
load w alongtheentirelength and end momentsM
A
and M
B
. Thestability equation can bederived
by consideringtheequilibrium of an innitesimal element of length ds asshown in Figure2.119b.
Thecross-section forcesS and H act in thevertical and horizontal directions.
Consideringequilibriumof forces
(a) Horizontal equilibrium
H +
dH
ds
ds H = 0 (2.294)
(b) Vertical equilibrium
S +
dS
ds
ds S +wds = 0 (2.295)
(c) Moment equilibrium
M +
dM
ds
ds M
_
S +
dS
ds
+S
_
cos
_
ds
2
_
+
_
H +
dH
ds
ds +H
_
sin
_
ds
2
_
= 0 (2.296)
Since(dS/ds)ds and (dH/ds)ds arenegligibly small compared to S and H, theaboveequilibrium
equationscan bereduced to
FIGURE2.119: Basicdifferential equation of abeam-column.
dH
ds
= 0 (2.297a)
dS
ds
+w = 0 (2.297b)
dM
ds
S cos +H sin = 0 (2.297c)
For small deectionsand neglectingshear deformations
ds

= dx, cos

= 1 sin

=

=
dy
dx
(2.298)
wherey isthelateral displacement of themember. Usingtheaboveapproximations, Equation 2.297
can bewritten as
dM
dx
S +H
dy
dx
= 0 (2.299)
Differentiating Equation 2.299 and substituting Equations 2.297a and 2.297b into the resulting
equation, wehave
d
2
M
dx
2
+w +H
d
2
y
dx
2
= 0 (2.300)
Fromelementary mechanicsof materials, it can easily beshown that
M = EI
d
2
y
dx
2
(2.301)
Upon substitution of Equation 2.301into Equation 2.300and realizingthat H = P, weobtain
EI
d
4
y
dx
4
+P
d
2
y
dx
2
= w (2.302)
Thegeneral solution to thisdifferential equation hastheform
y = Asin kx +B cos kx +Cx +D +f (x) (2.303)
where k =

P/EI and f (x) is a particular solution satisfying the differential equation. The
constants A, B, C, and D can bedetermined from theboundary conditions of thebeam-column
under investigation.
Beam-ColumnSubjectedtoTransverseLoading
Figure2.120showsaxed-ended beam-column with uniformly distributed load w.
FIGURE2.120: Beam-column subjected to uniformloading.
Thegeneral solution to Equation 2.302is
y = Asin kx +B cos kx +Cx +D +
w
2EIk
2
x
2
(2.304)
Usingtheboundary conditions
y
x=0
= 0 y
x=0
= 0 y
x=L
= 0 y
x=L
= 0 (2.305)
in which aprimedenotesdifferentiation with respect to x, it can beshown that
A =
wL
2EIk
3
(2.306a)
B =
wL
2EIk
3
tan(kL/2)
(2.306b)
C =
wL
2EIk
2
(2.306c)
D =
wL
2EIk
3
tan(kL/2)
(2.306d)
Upon substitution of theseconstantsinto Equation 2.304, thedeection function can bewritten
as
y =
wL
2EIk
3
_
sin kx +
cos kx
tan(kL/2)
kx
1
tan(kL/2)
+
kx
2
L
_
(2.307)
Themaximummoment for thisbeam-column occursat thexed endsand isequal to
M
max
= EIy
|
x=0
= EIy
|
x=L
=
wL
2
12
_
3(tan u u)
u
2
tan u
_
(2.308)
whereu = kL/2.
Since wL
2
/12 is the maximum rst-order moment at the xed ends, the term in the bracket
representsthetheoretical moment amplication factor dueto theP- effect.
For beam-columns with other transverse loading and boundary conditions, a similar approach
canbefollowedtodeterminethemoment amplicationfactor. Table2.4summarizestheexpressions
for thetheoretical and design moment amplication factorsfor someloadingconditions[ 2, 3] .
TABLE2.4 Theoretical and Design Moment Amplication Factor
_
u = kL/2 =
1
2
_
(PL
2
/EI)
_
Boundary
conditions P
cr
Location of M
max
Moment amplication factor
Hinged-hinged

2
EI
L
2
Mid-span
2(sec u1)
u
2
Hinged-xed

2
EI
(0.7L)
2
End
2(tan uu)
u
2
(1/2u1/ tan 2u)
Fixed-xed

2
EI
(0.5L)
2
End
3(tan uu)
u
2
tan u
Hinged-hinged

2
EI
L
2
Mid-span
tan u
u
Hinged-xed

2
EI
(0.7L)
2
End
4u(1cos u)
3u
2
cos u(1/2u1/ tan 2u)
Fixed-xed

2
EI
(0.5L)
2
Mid-span and end
2(1cos u)
u sin u
FIGURE2.121: Beam-column subjected to end moments.
Beam-ColumnSubjectedtoEndMoments
Consider thebeam-column shown in Figure2.121. Themember issubjected to an axial force
of P andendmomentsM
A
andM
B
. Thedifferential equationfor thisbeam-columncanbeobtained
fromEquation 2.302by settingw = 0:
EI
d
4
y
dx
4
+P
d
2
y
dx
2
= 0 (2.309)
Thegeneral solution is
y = Asin kx +B cos kx +Cx +D (2.310)
TheconstantsA, B, C, and D aredetermined by enforcingthefour boundary conditions
y |
x=0
= 0, y
x=0
=
M
A
EI
, y |
x=L
= 0, y
x=L
=
M
B
EI
(2.311)
to give
A =
M
A
cos kL +M
B
EIk
2
sin kL
(2.312a)
B =
M
A
EIk
2
(2.312b)
C =
_
M
A
+M
B
EIk
2
L
_
(2.312c)
D =
M
A
EIk
2
(2.312d)
SubstitutingEquations2.312into thedeection function Equation 2.310and rearranginggives
y =
1
EIk
_
cos kL
sin kL
sin kx cos kx
x
L
+1
_
M
A
+
1
EIk
2
_
1
sin kL
sin kx
x
L
_
M
B
(2.313)
Themaximum moment can beobtained by rst locating its position by setting dM/dx = 0 and
substitutingtheresult into M = EIy
to give
M
max
=
_
_
M
2
A
+2M
A
M
B
cos kL +M
2
B
_
sin kL
(2.314)
Assumingthat M
B
isthelarger of thetwo end moments, Equation 2.314can beexpressed as
M
max
= M
B
_
_
_
_
(M
A
/M
B
)
2
+2 (M
A
/M
B
) cos kL +1
_
sin kL
_
_
(2.315)
SinceM
B
isthemaximumrst-order moment, theexpressioninbracketsisthereforethetheoretical
moment amplicationfactor. InEquation2.315, theratio(M
A
/M
B
) ispositiveif themember isbent
in double(or reverse) curvatureand theratio isnegativeif themember isbent in singlecurvature.
A special caseariseswhen theend momentsareequal and opposite(i.e., M
B
= M
A
). By setting
M
B
= M
A
= M
0
in Equation 2.315, wehave
M
max
= M
0
_
{2(1 cos kL)}
sin kL
_
(2.316)
For thisspecial case, themaximummoment alwaysoccursat mid-span.
2.12.4 SlopeDeectionEquations
Theslope-deection equationsof abeam-column can bederived by consideringthebeam-column
shown in Figure2.121. Thedeection function for thisbeam-column can beobtained from Equa-
tion 2.313in termsof M
A
and M
B
as:
y =
1
EIk
2
_
cos kL
sin kL
sin kx cos kx
x
L
+1
_
M
A
+
1
EIk
2
_
1
sin kL
sin kx
x
L
_
M
B
(2.317)
fromwhich
y
=
1
EIk
_
cos kL
sin kL
cos kx +sin kx
1
kL
_
M
A
+
1
EIk
_
cos kx
sin kL
1
kL
_
M
B
(2.318)
Theend rotations
A
and
B
can beobtained fromEquation 2.318as
A
= y
(x = 0) =
1
EIk
_
cos kL
sin kL
1
kL
_
M
A
+
1
EIk
_
1
sin kL
1
kL
_
M
B
=
L
EI
_
kLcos kL sin kL
(kL)
2
sin kL
_
M
A
+
L
EI
_
kL sin kL
(kL)
2
sin kL
_
M
B
(2.319)
and
B
= y
(x = L) =
1
EIk
_
1
sin kL
1
kL
_
M
A
+
1
EIk
_
cos kL
sin kL
1
kL
_
M
B
=
L
EI
_
kL sin kL
(kL)
2
sin kL
_
M
A
+
L
EI
_
kLcos kL sin kL
(kL)
2
sin kL
_
M
B
(2.320)
Themoment rotation relationshipcan beobtainedfromEquations2.319and2.320byarrangingM
A
and M
B
in termsof
A
and
B
as:
M
A
=
EI
L
(s
ii
A
+s
ij
B
) (2.321)
M
B
=
EI
L
(s
ji
A
+s
jj
B
) (2.322)
where
s
ii
= s
jj
=
kLsin kL (kL)
2
cos kL
2 2 cos kL kLsin kL
(2.323)
s
ij
= s
ji
=
(kL)
2
kLsin kL
2 2 cos kL kLsin kL
(2.324)
arereferred to asthestabilityfunctions.
Equations2.321and 2.322aretheslope-deection equationsfor abeam-column that isnot sub-
jectedtotransverseloadingandrelativejoint translation. It shouldbenotedthat when P approaches
zero, kL =

(P/EI)Lapproacheszero, and byusingLHospitalsrule, it can beshown that s
ij
= 4
and s
ij
= 2. Valuesfor s
ii
and s
ij
for variousvaluesof kL areplotted asshown in Figure2.122.
Equations2.322and 2.323arevalid if thefollowingconditionsaresatised:
1. Thebeamisprismatic.
2. Thereisno relativejoint displacement between thetwo endsof themember.
3. Themember iscontinuous, i.e., thereisnointernal hingeor discontinuityinthemember.
4. Thereisno in-span transverseloadingon themember.
5. Theaxial forcein themember iscompressive.
If these conditions are not satised, some modications to the slope-deection equations are
necessary.
FIGURE2.122: Plot of stability functions.
MembersSubjectedtoSidesway
If thereisarelativejoint translation, , between themember ends, asshown in Figure2.123,
theslope-deection equationsaremodied as
M
A
=
EI
L
_
s
ii
_
A

L
_
+s
ij
_
b

L
__
=
EI
L
_
s
ii
A
+s
ij
B
(s
ii
+s
ij
)
L
_
(2.325)
M
B
=
EI
L
_
s
ij
_
A

L
_
+s
ii
_
b

L
__
=
EI
L
_
s
ij
A
+s
ii
B

_
s
ii
+s
ij
_
L
_
(2.326)
FIGURE2.123: Beam-column subjected to end momentsand sidesway.
Member withaHingeat OneEnd
If ahingeispresent at B end of themember, theend moment thereiszero, i.e.,
M
B
=
EI
L
_
s
ij
A
+s
ii
B
_
= 0 (2.327)
fromwhich
B
=
s
ij
s
ii
A
(2.328)
Upon substitutingEquation 2.328into Equation 2.325, wehave
M
A
=
EI
L
_
s
ii

s
2
ij
s
ii
_
A
(2.329)
If the member is hinged at A rather than at B, Equation 2.329 is still valid provided that the
subscript A ischanged to B.
Member withEndRestraints
If themember endsareconnected by two linear elasticsprings, asin Figure2.124, with spring
constants, R
kA
and R
kB
at the A and B ends, respectively, the end rotations of the linear spring
areM
A
/R
kA
and M
B
/R
kB
. If wedenotethetotal end rotations at jointsA and B by
A
and
B
,
FIGURE2.124: Beam-column with end springs.
respectively, then themember end rotations, with respect to itschord, will be(
A
M
A
/R
kA
) and
(
B
M
B
/R
kB
). Asaresult, theslope-deection equationsaremodied to
M
A
=
EI
L
_
s
ii
_
A

M
A
R
kA
_
+s
ij
_
B

M
B
R
kB
__
(2.330)
M
B
=
EI
L
_
s
ij
_
A

M
A
R
kA
_
+s
jj
_
B

M
B
R
kB
__
(2.331)
SolvingEquations2.330and 2.331simultaneously for M
A
and M
B
gives
M
A
=
EI
LR
__
s
ii
+
EIs
2
ii
LR
kB
EIs
2
ij
LR
kB
_
A
+s
ij
B
_
(2.332)
M
B
=
EI
LR
_
s
ij
A
+
_
s
ii
+
EIs
2
ii
LR
kA
EIs
2
ij
LR
kA
_
B
_
(2.333)
where
R
=
_
1 +
EIs
ii
LR
kA
__
1 +
EIs
ii
LR
kB
_
_
EI
L
_
2
s
2
ij
R
kA
R
kB
(2.334)
In writing Equations2.332 to 2.333, theequality s
jj
= s
ii
hasbeen used. Notethat asR
kA
and
R
kB
approach innity, Equations2.332and 2.333reduceto Equations2.321and 2.322, respectively.
Member withTransverseLoading
For memberssubjected to transverseloading, theslope-deection Equations2.321 and 2.322
can bemodied by addingan extratermfor thexed-end moment of themember.
M
A
=
EI
L
_
s
ii
A
+s
ij
B
_
+M
FA
(2.335)
M
B
=
EI
L
_
s
ij
A
+s
jj
B
_
+M
FB
(2.336)
Table2.5 givetheexpressionsfor thexed-end momentsof vecommonly encountered casesof
transverseloading. Readersarereferred to [ 14, 15] for moredetails.
Member withTensileAxial Force
For memberssubjected to tensileforce, Equations2.321 and 2.322 can beused provided that
thestability functionsareredened as
s
ii
= s
jj
=
(kL)
2
cosh kL kLsinh kL
2 2 cosh kL +kLsinh kL
(2.337)
s
ij
= s
ji
=
kLsinh kL (kL)
2
2 2 cosh kL +kLsinh kL
(2.338)
Member Bent inSingleCurvaturewith
B
=
A
For themember bent in singlecurvaturein which
B
=
A
, theslope-deection equations
reduceto
M
A
=
EI
L
_
s
ii
s
ij
_
A
(2.339)
M
B
= M
A
(2.340)
Member Bent inDoubleCurvaturewith
B
=
A
For themember bent in doublecurvaturesuch that
B
=
A
, theslope-deection equations
become
M
A
=
EI
L
_
s
ii
+s
ij
_
A
(2.341)
M
B
= M
A
(2.342)
2.12.5 Second-Order Elastic Analysis
The basis of the formulation is that the beam-column element is prismatic and initially straight.
An update-Lagrangian approach [ 7] is assumed. There are two methods to incorporate second-
order effects: (1) thestability function approach and (2) thegeometric stiffness(or niteelement)
approach. Thestability function approach isbased directly on thegoverningdifferential equations
of theproblemasdescribed in Section 2.12.4, whereasthestiffnessapproach isbased on an assumed
cubic polynomial variation of thetransversedisplacement alongtheelement length. Therefore, the
stability function approach is more exact in terms of representing the member stability behavior.
However, thegeometricstiffnessapproach iseasier to implement for three-dimensional analysis.
TABLE2.5 Beam-Column Fixed-End Moments[ 15]
_
u = kL/2 =
L
2
_
P
EI
_
For either of theseapproaches, thelinearizedelement stiffnessequationsmaybeexpressedineither
incremental or total forceand displacement formsas
[K]{d} +{r
f
} = {r} (2.343)
where[K] istheelement stiffnessmatrix, {d} = {d
1
, d
2
, ...., d
6
}
T
istheelement nodal displacement
FIGURE2.125: Nodal displacementsand forcesof abeam-column element.
vector, {r
f
} = {r
f 1
, r
f 2
, ....., r
f 6
}
T
is the element xed-end force vector due to the presence of
in-span loading, and {r} = {r
1
, r
2
, ....., r
6
}
T
isthenodal forcevector asshown in Figure2.125. If
thestabilityfunction approach isemployed, thestiffnessmatrix of atwo-dimensional beam-column
element may bewritten as
[K] =
EI
L
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
A
I
0 0
A
I
0 0
2(S
ii
+S
ij
)(kL)
2
L
2
S
ii
+S
ij
L
0
2(S
ii
+S
ij
)+(kL)
2
L
2
S
ii
+S
ij
L
S
ii
0
(S
ii
+S
ij
)
L
S
ij
A
I
0 0
2(S
ii
+S
ij
)(kL)
2
L
2
(S
ii
+S
ij
)
L
sym. S
ii
_
_
(2.344)
where S
ii
and S
ij
are the member stiffness coefcients obtained from the elastic beam-column
stability functions[ 14] . Thesecoefcient may beexpressed as
S
ii
=
_
_
_
kLsin(kL)(kL)
2
cos(kL)
22 cos(kL)kLsin(kL)
for P < 0
(kL)
2
cosh(kL)kLsinh(kL)
22 cosh(kL)+kLsin(kL)
for P > 0
(2.345)
S
ij
=
_
_
_
(kL)
2
kLsin(kL)
22 cos(kL) sin(kL)
for P < 0
kLsinh(kL)(kL)
2
22 cosh(kL)+ sinh(kL)
for P > 0
(2.346)
wherekL = L
_
P
EI
, and P ispositivein compression and negativein tension.
Thexed-endforcevector r
f
isa61 matrix whichcan becomputedfromthein-span loadingin
thebeam-column. If curvatureshorteningisignored, r
f 1
= r
f 4
= 0, r
f 3
= M
FA
, andr
f 6
= M
FB
.
M
FA
and M
FB
can beobtained fromTable2.5for different in-span loadingconditions. r
f 2
and r
f 5
can beobtained fromequilibriumof forces.
If theaxial forcein themember issmall, Equation 2.344can besimplied by ignoringthehigher
order terms of the power series expansion of the trigonometric functions. The resulting element
stiffnessmatrix becomes:
[K] =
EI
L
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
A
I
0 0
A
I
0 0
12
L
2
6
L
0
12
L
2
6
L
4 0
6
L
2
A
I
0 0
12
L
2
6
L
sym. 4
_
_
+P
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
0 0 0 0 0 0
6
5L
1
10
0
6
5L
1
10
2L
15
0
1
10
L
30
0 0 0
6
5L
1
10
sym.
2L
15
_
_
(2.347)
The rst term on the right is the rst-order elastic stiffness matrix, and the second term is the
geometricstiffnessmatrix, which accountsfor theeffect of axial forceon thebendingstiffnessof the
member. Detailed discussionson thelimitation of thegeometric stiffnessapproach vs. thestability
function approach aregiven in Whiteet al. [ 66] .
2.12.6 ModicationstoAccount for Plastic HingeEffects
Therearetwo commonly used approachesfor representingplastichingebehavior in asecond-order
elastic-plastichingeformulation[ 19] . Themost basicapproachistomodel theplastichingebehavior
asareal hinge for thepurposeof calculatingtheelement stiffness. Thechangein moment capacity
dueto thechangein axial forcecan beaccommodated directly in thenumerical formulation. The
changein moment isdetermined in theforcerecovery at each solution step such that, for continued
plastic loading, thenew forcepoint ispositioned at thestrength surfaceat thecurrent valueof the
axial force. Adetaileddescription of theseproceduresisgiven byChen andLui [ 15] , Chen et al. [ 19] ,
and Leeand Basu [ 35] , amongothers.
Alternatively, the elastic-plastic hinge model may be formulated based on the extending and
contracting plastichingemodel. Theplastichingecanrotateandextend/contract for plasticloading
and axial force. Theformulation can follow theforce-spaceplasticity concept using thenormality
owrulerelativeto thecross-section surfacestrength [13] . Formal derivationsof thebeam-column
element basedonthisapproachhavebeenpresentedbyPorter andPowell [ 46] andOrbisonet al. [ 45] ,
amongothers.
2.12.7 Modicationfor EndConnections
Themoment rotation relationship of thebeam-column with end connectionsat both endscan be
expressed as(Equations2.332and 2.333):
M
A
=
EI
L
_
s
ii
A
+s
ij
B
_
(2.348)
M
B
=
EI
L
_
s
ij
A
+s
jj
B
_
(2.349)
where
S
ii
=
S
ii
+
EIS
2
ii
LR
kB
EIS
2
ij
LR
kB
_
1 +
EIS
ii
LR
kA
_ _
1 +
EIS
jj
LR
kB
_
_
EI
L
_
2 S
2
ij
R
kA
R
kB
(2.350)
S
jj
=
S
ii
+
EIS
2
ii
LR
kA
EIS
2
ij
LR
kA
_
1 +
EIS
ii
LR
kA
_ _
1 +
EIS
jj
LR
kB
_
_
EI
L
_
2 S
2
ij
R
kA
R
kB
(2.351)
and
S
ij
=
S
ij
_
1 +
EIS
ii
LR
kA
_ _
1 +
EIS
jj
LR
kB
_
_
EI
L
_
2 S
2
ij
R
kA
R
kB
(2.352)
Themember stiffnessrelationship can bewritten in termsof six degreesof freedom beam-column
element shown in Figure2.126as
FIGURE2.126: Nodal displacementsand forcesof abeam-column with end connections.
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
r
1
r
2
r
3
r
4
r
5
r
6
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
=
EI
L
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
A
I
0 0
A
I
0 0
S
ii
+2S
ij
+S
jj
(kL)
2
L
2
S
ii
+S
ij
L
0
(S
ii
+2S
ij
+S
jj
)+(kL)
2
L
2
S
ij
+S
jj
L
S
ii
0
(S
ii
+S
ij
)
L
S
ij
A
I
0 0
S
ii
+2S
ij
+S
jj
(kL)
2
L
2
(S
ij
+S
jj
)
L
sym. S
jj
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
d
1
d
2
d
3
d
4
d
5
d
6
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
(2.353)
2.12.8 Second-Order RenedPlastic HingeAnalysis
The main limitation of the conventional elastic-plastic hinge approach is that it over-predicts the
strength of columnsthat fail by inelastic exural buckling. Thekey reason for thislimitation isthe
modelingof amember byaperfect elasticelement between theplastichingelocations. Furthermore,
theelastic-plastichingemodel assumesthat material behavior changesabruptlyfromtheelasticstate
tothefullyyieldedstate. Theelement under considerationexhibitsasuddenstiffnessreductionupon
theformation of aplastic hinge. Thisapproach, therefore, overestimatesthestiffnessof amember
loaded into theinelasticrange[ 42, 64, 65, 66] . Thisleadsto further research and development of an
alternativemethod called therenedplastichingeapproach. Thisapproach isbased on thefollowing
improvementsto theelastic-plastichingemodel:
1. Acolumntangent-modulusmodel E
t
isusedinplaceof theelasticmodulusEtorepresent
the distributed plasticity along the length of a member due to axial force effects. The
member inelastic stiffness, represented by themember axial and bendingrigiditiesE
t
A
and E
t
I, isassumed to bethefunction of axial load only. In other words, E
t
A and E
t
I
can bethought of asthepropertiesof an effectivecoreof thesection, consideringcolumn
action only. Thetangent moduluscapturestheeffect of earlyyieldingin thecross-section
duetoresidual stresses, which wasbelieved tobethecauseof thelowstrength of inelastic
columnbuckling. Thetangent modulusapproachalsohasbeenutilizedinpreviouswork
by Orbison et al. [ 45] , Liew [ 38] , and Whiteet al. [ 66] to improvetheaccuracy of the
elastic-plastichingeapproachfor structuresinwhichmembersaresubjectedtolargeaxial
forces.
2. Distributed plasticity effectsassociated with exurearecaptured by gradually degrading
themember stiffnessat theplastichingelocationsasyieldingprogressesunder increasing
load asthecross-section strength isapproached. Several modelsof thistypehavebeen
proposedinrecent literaturebasedonextensionstotheelastic-plastichingeapproach[ 47]
as well as thetangent modulus inelastic hingeapproach [ 41, 42, 66] . Therationaleof
modelingstiffnessdegradation associated with both axial and exural actionsisthat the
tangent modulus model represents the column strength behavior in the limit of pure
axial compression, and theplastichingestiffnessdegradation model representsthebeam
behavior in purebending, thusthecombined effectsof thesetwoapproachesshould also
satisfy thecasesin which themember issubjected to combined axial compression and
bending.
It hasbeen shown that with theabovetwo improvements, therened plastic hingemodel can be
used with sufcient accuracy to provideaquantitativeassessment of amembersperformanceup to
failure. Detailed descriptionsof themethod and discussion of resultsgenerated by themethod are
given in Whiteet al. [ 66] and Chen et al. [ 19] .
2.12.9 Second-Order Plastic ZoneAnalysis
Plastic-zoneanalysescan beclassied intotwomain types, namely3-Dshell element and 2-Dbeam-
column approaches. In the3-D plastic-zoneanalysis, thestructureismodeled usingalargenumber
of nite3-Dshell elements, and theelasticconstitutivematrix, in theusual incremental stress-strain
relations, isreplaced by an elastic-plasticconstitutivematrix onceyieldingisdetected. Thisanalysis
approach typically requiresnumerical integration for theevaluation of thestiffnessmatrix. Based
on a deformation theory of plasticity, the combined effects of normal and shear stresses may be
accounted for. The3-D spread-of-plasticity analysisiscomputational intensiveand best suited for
analyzingsmall-scalestructures.
Thesecond-approachfor plastic-zoneanalysisisbasedontheuseof beam-columntheory, inwhich
themember isdiscretized into many beam-column segments, and thecross-section of each segment
isfurther subdividedintoanumber of bers. Inelasticityistypicallymodeledbytheconsideration of
normal stressonly. Whenthecomputedstressesat thecentroidof anybersreachtheuniaxial normal
strength of thematerial, theber isconsidered yielded. Compatibility istreated by assuming that
full continuity isretained throughout thevolumeof thestructurein thesamemanner asfor elastic
rangecalculations. Most of theplastic-zoneanalysismethodsdeveloped aremeant for planar (2-D)
analysis[ 18, 59, 62] . Three-dimensional plastic-zonetechniquesarealso availableinvolvingvarious
degreesof renements[ 60, 63] .
A plastic-zoneanalysis, which includesthespread of plasticity, residual stresses, initial geometric
imperfections, and anyother signicant second-order behavioral effects, isoften considered tobean
exact analysismethod. Therefore, when thistypeof analysisisemployed, thecheckingof member
interaction equationsisnot required. However, in reality, somesignicant behavioral effectssuch as
joint and connection performancestend to defy precisenumerical and analytical modeling. In such
cases, asimpler methodof analysisthat adequatelycapturestheinelasticbehavior wouldbesufcient
for engineeringapplication. Second-order plastic hingebased analysisisstill thepreferred method
for advanced analysisof large-scalesteel frames.
2.12.10 Three-Dimensional FrameElement
Thetwo-dimensional beam-columnformulationcanbeextendedtoathree-dimensional spaceframe
element by including additional terms due to shear force, bending moment, and torsion. The
following stiffness equation for a space frame element has been derived by Yang and Kuo [67] by
referringto Figure2.127:
[k
e
]{d} +[k
g
]{d} = {
2
f } {
1
f } (2.354)
where
{d}
T
= {d
1
, d
2
, .........., d
12
} (2.355)
isthedisplacement vector which consistsof threetranslationsand threerotationsat each node, and
{
i
f }
T
= {
i
f
1
,
i
f
2
, .........,
i
f
12
} i = 1, 2 (2.356)
aretheforcevectors which consist of thecorresponding nodal forces at congurationsi = 1 and
i = 2, respectively.
Thephysical interpretationof Equation2.356isasfollows: Byincreasingthenodal forcesactingon
theelement from{
1
f } to{
2
f }, further deformations{d} mayoccur withtheelement, resultinginthe
motion of theelement from conguration associated with theforces{
1
f } to thenewconguration
associated with {
2
f }. During thisprocessof deformation, theincrementsin thenodal forces, i.e.,
{
2
f } {
1
f }, will beresisted not only by theelastic actionsgenerated by theelastic stiffnessmatrix
[k
e
] but alsobytheforcesinducedbythechangeingeometryasrepresentedbythegeometricstiffness
matrix [k
g
].
Theonlyassumptionwiththeincremental stiffnessequationisthat thestrainsoccurringwitheach
incremental step should besmall sothat theapproximationsimplied by theincremental constitutive
lawarenot violated.
Theelastic stiffnessmatrix [K
e
] for thespaceframeelement, which hasa12x 12dimension, can
bederived asfollows:
[k] =
_
[k
1
] [k
2
]
[k
2
]
T
[k
3
]
_
(2.357)
wherethesubmatricesare
[k
1
] =
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
EA
L
0 0 0 0 0
0
12EI
z
L
3
0 0 0
6EI
z
L
2
0 0
12EI
y
L
3
0
6EI
y
L
2
0
0 0 0
GJ
L
0 0
0 0 0 0
4EI
y
L
0
0 0 0 0 0
4EI
z
L
_
_
(2.358)
FIGURE 2.127: Three-dimensional frame element: (a) nodal degrees of freedom and (b) nodal
forces.
[k
2
] =
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
EA
L
0 0 0 0 0
0
12EI
z
L
3
0 0 0
6EI
z
L
2
0 0
12EI
y
L
3
0
6EI
y
L
2
0
0 0 0
GJ
L
0 0
0 0
6EI
y
L
2
0
2EI
y
L
0
0
6EI
z
L
2
0 0 0
2EI
z
L
_
_
(2.359)
[k
3
] =
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
EA
L
0 0 0 0 0
0
12EI
z
L
3
0 0 0
6EI
z
L
2
0 0
12EI
y
L
3
0
6EI
y
L
2
0
0 0 0
GJ
L
0 0
0 0 0 0
4EI
y
L
0
0 0 0 0 0
4EI
z
L
_
_
(2.360)
whereI
x
, I
y
, and I
z
arethemoment of inertiaabout x-, y-, and z-axes; L = member length, E =
modulusof elasticity, A =cross-sectional area, G =shear modulus, and J =torsional stiffness.
Thegeometricstiffnessmatrixfor athree-dimensional spaceframeelement canbegivenasfollows:
[k
g
] =
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
a 0 0 0 d e a 0 0 0 n o
b 0 d g k 0 b 0 n g k
c e h g 0 0 c o h g
f i l 0 d e f i l
j 0 d g h i p q
m e k g l q r
a 0 0 0 n o
b 0 n g k
c o h g
f i l
sym. j o
m
_
_
(2.361)
where
a =
f
6
+f
12
L
2
, b =
6f
7
5L
, c =
f
5
+f
11
L
2
, d =
f
5
L
, e =
f
6
L
, f =
f
7
J
AL
,
g =
f
10
L
, h =
f
7
10
, i =
f
6
+f
12
6
, j =
2f
7
L
15
, k =
f
5
+f
11
6
, l =
f
11
L
,
m =
f
12
L
, n =
f
7
L
30
, o =
f
10
2
.
Further detailscan beobtained from[ 67] .
2.13 Structural Dynamic
2.13.1 Equationof Motion
Theessential physical propertiesof alinearly elasticstructural systemsubjected to external dynamic
loadingareitsmass, stiffnessproperties, andenergyabsorptioncapabilityor damping. Theprinciple
of dynamic analysis may be illustrated by considering a simple single-story structure as shown in
Figure2.128. Thestructureissubjected to atime-varying forcef (t ). k isthespring constant that
relatesthelateral story deection x to thestory shear force, and thedash pot relatesthedamping
forcetothevelocitybyadampingcoefcient c. If themass, m, isassumedtoconcentrateat thebeam,
FIGURE2.128: (a) OneDOFstructure; (b) forcesapplied to structures.
thestructurebecomesasingle-degree-of-freedom (SDOF) system. Theequation of motion of the
systemmay bewritten as:
m x +c x +kx = f (t ) (2.362)
Various solutions to Equation 2.362 can give an insight into the behavior of the structure under
dynamicsituation.
2.13.2 FreeVibration
In thiscasethesystem isset to motion and allowed to vibratein theabsenceof applied forcef (t ).
Lettingf (t ) = 0, Equation 2.362becomes
m x +c x +kx = 0 (2.363)
DividingEquation 2.363by themassm, wehave
x +2x +
2
x = 0 (2.364)
where
2 =
c
m
and
2
=
k
m
(2.365)
Thesolution to Equation 2.364dependson whether thevibration isdamped or undamped.
Case1: Undamped FreeVibration
In thiscase, c = 0, and thesolution to theequation of motion may bewritten as:
x = Asin t +B cos t (2.366)
where =

k/m isthecircular frequency. A and B areconstantsthat can bedetermined by the
initial boundary conditions. In theabsenceof external forcesand damping thesystem will vibrate
indenitely in arepeated cycleof vibration with an amplitudeof
X =
_
A
2
+B
2
(2.367)
and anatural frequency of
f =

2
(2.368)
Thecorrespondingnatural period is
T =
2
=
1
f
(2.369)
Theundamped freevibration motion asdescribed by Equation 2.366isshown in Figure2.129.
Case2: Damped FreeVibration
If thesystemisnot subjectedtoappliedforceanddampingispresented, thecorrespondingsolution
becomes
x = Aexp(
1
t ) +B exp(
2
t ) (2.370)
where
1
=
_
+
_
2
1
_
(2.371)
and
2
=
_

_
2
1
_
(2.372)
FIGURE2.129: Responseof undamped freevibration.
Thesolution of Equation 2.370changesitsformwith thevalueof dened as
=
c
2
mk
(2.373)
If
2
< 1 theequation of motion becomes
x = exp(t )(Acos
d
t +B sin
d
t ) (2.374)
where
d
isthedamped angular frequency dened as
d
=
_
(1
2
) (2.375)
For most buildingstructures isverysmall (about 0.01) andtherefore
d
. Thesystemoscillates
about theneutral position astheamplitudedecayswith timet . Figure2.130 illustratesan example
of such motion. Therateof decay isgoverned by theamount of dampingpresent.
FIGURE2.130: Responseof damped freevibration.
If thedamping is large, then oscillation will beprevented. This happens when
2
> 1 and the
behavior isreferred to asoverdamped. Themotion of such behavior isshown in Figure2.131.
FIGURE2.131: Responseof freevibration with critical damping.
Damping with
2
= 1 is called critical damping. This is thecasewhereminimum damping is
required to prevent oscillation and thecritical dampingcoefcient isgiven as
c
cr
= 2
km (2.376)
wherek and m arethestiffnessand massof thesystem.
Thedegreeof dampingin thestructureisoften expressed asaproportion of thecritical damping
value. Referringto Equations2.373and 2.376, wehave
=
c
c
cr
(2.377)
iscalled thecritical dampingratio.
2.13.3 ForcedVibration
If astructureissubjected to asinusoidal motion such asaground acceleration of x = F sin
f
t , it
will oscillateand after sometimethemotion of thestructurewill reach asteady state. For example,
theequation of motion dueto theground acceleration (fromEquation 2.364) is
x +2 x +
2
x = F sin
f
t (2.378)
The solution to the above equation consists of two parts; the complimentary solution given by
Equation 2.366 and theparticular solution. If thesystem isdamped, oscillation corresponding to
thecomplementary solution will decay with time. After sometime, themotion will reach asteady
stateand thesystemwill vibrateat aconstant amplitudeand frequency. Thismotion, which iscalled
forcevibration, isdescribed by theparticular solution expressed as
x = C
1
sin
f
t +C
2
cos
f
t (2.379)
It can beobserved that thesteadyforcevibration occursat thefrequencyof theexcited force,
f
, not
thenatural frequency of thestructure, .
SubstitutingEquation 2.379into Equation 2.378, thedisplacement amplitudecan beshown to be
X =
F
2
1
_
_
_
1
_
_
2
_
2
+
_
2
f
_
2
_
(2.380)
ThetermF/
2
isthestaticdisplacement caused by theforcedueto theinertiaforce. Theratio of
theresponseamplituderelativetothestaticdisplacement F/
2
iscalledthedynamicdisplacement
amplication factor, D, given as
D =
1
_
_
_
1
_
_
2
_
2
+
_
2
f
_
2
_
(2.381)
The variation of the magnication factor with the frequency ratio
f
/ and damping ratio is
shown in Figure2.132.
FIGURE2.132: Variation of dynamicamplication factor with frequency ratio.
When thedynamic forceisapplied at afrequency much lower than thenatural frequency of the
system(
f
/ 1), theresponseisquasi-static. Theresponseisproportional to thestiffnessof the
structure, and thedisplacement amplitudeiscloseto thestaticdeection.
When theforceisapplied at afrequency much higher than thenatural frequency (
f
/ 1),
theresponseisproportional to themassof thestructure. Thedisplacement amplitudeislessthan
thestaticdeection (D < 1).
Whentheforceisappliedat afrequencyclosetothenatural frequency, thedisplacement amplitude
increasessignicantly. Thecondition at which
f
/ = 1 isknown asresonance.
Similarly, theratioof theaccelerationresponserelativetothegroundaccelerationmaybeexpressed
as
D
a
=
x + x
g
x
g
_
1 +
_
2
f
_
2
_
_
1
_
_
2
_
2
+
_
2
f
_
2
_ (2.382)
D
a
iscalled thedynamicacceleration magnication factor.
2.13.4 ResponsetoSuddenlyAppliedLoad
Consider thespring-massdamper system of which a load P
o
isapplied suddenly. Thedifferential
equation isgiven by
M x +c x +kx = P
o
(2.383)
If thesystemisstarted at rest, theequation of motion is
x =
P
o
k
_
1 exp(t )
_
cos
d
t +

d
sin
d
t
__
(2.384)
If thesystemisundamped, then = 0 and
d
= , and wehave
x =
P
o
k
[1 cos
d
t ] (2.385)
Themaximumdisplacement is2(P
o
/k) correspondingtocos
d
t = 1. SinceP
o
/k isthemaximum
staticdisplacement, thedynamicamplication factor isequal to 2. Thepresenceof dampingwould
naturally reducethedynamicamplication factor and theforcein thesystem.
2.13.5 ResponsetoTime-VaryingLoads
Someforcesand ground motionsthat areencountered in practicearerather complex in nature. In
general, numerical analysisisrequired to predict theresponseof such effects, and theniteelement
method isoneof themost common techniquesto beemployed in solvingsuch problems.
Theevaluation of responsesduetotime-varyingloadscan becarriedout usingthePiecewiseExact
Method. In usingthismethod, theloadinghistoryisdividedintosmall timeintervals. Between these
points, it is assumed that theslopeof theload curveremains constant. Theentireload history is
represented by apiecewiselinear curve, and theerror of thisapproach can beminimizeby reducing
thelength of thetimesteps. Description of thisprocedureisgiven in [ 21] .
Other techniquesemployed includeFourier analysisof theforcingfunction followed by solution
for Fourier componentsin thefrequency domain. For randomforces, randomvibration theory and
spectrumanalysismay beused [ 25, 61] .
2.13.6 MultipleDegreeSystems
In multipledegreesystems, an independent differential equation of motion can bewritten for each
degree of freedom. The nodal equations of a multiple degree system consisting of n degrees of
freedommay bewritten as
[m]{ x} +[c]{ x} +[k]{x} = {F(t )} (2.386)
where [m] is a symmetrical n n matrix of mass, [c] is a symmetrical n n matrix of damping
coefcient, and {F(t )} istheforcevector which iszero in thecaseof freevibration.
Consider asystemunder freevibration without damping. Thegeneral solution of Equation 2.386
isassumed in theformof
_
_
x
1
x
2
.
.
.
x
n
_
_
=
_
_
_
_
_
cos(t ) 0 0 0
0 cos(t ) 0 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 0 cos(t )
_
_
_
_
C
1
C
2
.
.
.
C
n
_
_
(2.387)
whereangular frequency andphaseangle arecommon toall xs. In thisassumedsolution, and
C
1
, C
2
, C
n
aretheconstantsto bedetermined from theinitial boundary conditionsof themotion
and isacharacteristicvalue(eigenvalue) of thesystem.
SubstitutingEquation 2.387into Equation 2.386yields
_
_
_
_
_
k
11
m
11
2
k
12
m
12
2
k
1n
m
1n
2
k
21
m
21
2
k
22
m
22
2
k
2n
m
2n
2
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
k
n1
m
n1
2
k
n2
m
n2
2
k
nn
m
nn
2
_
_
_
_
C
1
C
2
.
.
.
C
n
_
_
cos(t ) =
_
_
0
0
.
.
.
0
_
_
(2.388)
or _
[k]
2
[m]
_
{C} = {0} (2.389)
where[k] and [m] arethen n matrices,
2
and cos(t ) arescalars, and {C} istheamplitude
vector. For non-trivial solutions, cos(t ) = 0; thus, solution to Equation 2.389 requiresthe
determinant of
_
[k]
2
[m]
_
= 0. The expansion of the determinant yields a polynomial of n
degreeasafunction of
2
, then rootsof which aretheeigenvalues
1
,
2
,
n
.
If theeigenvaluefor anormal modeissubstitutedinEquation2.389, theamplitudevector {C} for
that modecan beobtained. {C
1
}, {C
2
}, {C
3
}, {C
n
} arethereforecalled theeigenvectors, theabsolute
valuesof which must bedetermined through initial boundary conditions. Theresultingmotion isa
sumof n harmonicmotions, each governed by therespectivenatural frequency , written as
{x} =
n
i=1
{C
i
} cos(
i
t ) (2.390)
2.13.7 DistributedMassSystems
Althoughmanystructuresmaybeapproximatedbylumpedmasssystems, inpracticeall structuresare
distributedmasssystemsconsistingof an innitenumber of particles. Consequently, if themotion is
repetitive, thestructurehasan innitenumber of natural frequenciesandmodeshapes. Theanalysis
of adistributed-parameter system isentirely equivalent to that of adiscretesystem oncethemode
shapes and frequencies have been determined because in both cases the amplitudes of the modal
responsecomponentsareused asgeneralized coordinatesin deningtheresponseof thestructure.
Inprincipleaninnitenumber of thesecoordinatesisavailablefor adistributed-parameter system,
but in practice only a few modes, usually those of lower frequencies, will provide a signicant
contribution to theoverall response. Thus, theproblem of adistributed-parameter system can be
converted to adiscretesystemformin which only alimited number of modal coordinatesisused to
describetheresponse.
Flexural Vibrationof Beams
Themotionof thedistributedmasssystemisbest illustratedbyaclassical exampleof auniform
beamwith aspan length L and exural rigidity EI and aself-weight of m per unit length, asshown
in Figure2.133a. Thebeam is freeto vibrateunder itsself-weight. From Figure2.133b, dynamic
equilibriumof asmall beamsegment of length dx requires:
V
x
dx = mdx
2
y
t
2
(2.391)
in which
2
y
x
2
=
M
EI
(2.392)
and
V =
M
x
,
V
x
=
2
M
x
2
(2.393)
FIGURE2.133: (a) Beamin exural vibration; (b) equilibriumof beamsegment in vibration.
SubstitutingtheseequationsintoEquation2.391leadstotheequationof motionof theexural beam:
4
y
x
4
+
m
EI
2
y
t
2
= 0 (2.394)
Equation2.394canbesolvedfor beamswithgivensetsof boundaryconditions. Thesolutionconsists
of afamilyof vibration modeswithcorrespondingnatural frequencies. Standardresultsareavailable
in Table2.6 to computethenatural frequenciesof uniform exural beamsof different supporting
conditions. Methodsarealso availablefor dynamicanalysisof continuousbeams[ 21] .
Shear Vibrationof Beams
Beamscan deform by exureor shear. Flexural deformation normally dominatesthedefor-
mation of slender beams. Shear deformation is important for short beams or in higher modes of
slender beams. Table2.7givesthenatural frequenciesof uniformbeamsin shear, neglectingexural
deformation. Thenatural frequenciesof thesebeamsareinversely proportional to thebeam length
L rather than L
2
, and thefrequenciesincreaselinearly with themodenumber.
CombinedShear andFlexure
The transverse deformation of real beams is the sum of exure and shear deformations. In
general, numerical solutions are required to incorporate both the shear and exural deformation
in the prediction of natural frequency of beams. For beams with comparable shear and exural
deformations, thefollowingsimplied formulamay beused to estimatethebeamsfrequency:
1
f
2
=
1
f
2
f
+
1
f
2
s
(2.395)
wheref isthefundamental frequency of thebeam, and f
f
and f
s
arethefundamental frequencies
predicted by theexureand shear beamtheory [ 50] .
TABLE2.6 Frequenciesand ModeShapesof Beamsin Flexural Vibration
TABLE2.7 Frequenciesand ModeShapesof Beamsin Shear Vibration
Natural Frequencyof MultistoryBuildingFrames
Tall buildingframesoften deform morein theshear modethan in exure. Thefundamental
frequenciesof many multistory buildingframeworkscan beapproximated by [32, 48]
f =
B
H
(2.396)
where isapproximatelyequal to11
m/s, B isthebuildingwidth in thedirection of vibration, and

H isthebuildingheight. Thisempirical formulasuggeststhat ashear beammodel with f inversely
proportional to H is more appropriate than a exural beam for predicting natural frequencies of
buildings.
2.13.8 Portal Frames
A portal frame consists of a cap beam rigidly connected to two vertical columns. The natural
frequencies of portal frames vibrating in the fundamental symmetric and asymmetric modes are
shown in Tables2.8and 2.9, respectively.
Thebeamsin theseframesareassumed to beuniformand sufciently slender so that shear, axial,
andtorsional deformationscan beneglected. Themethodof analysisof theseframesisgiven in [ 68] .
The vibration is assumed to be in the plane of the frame, and the results are presented for portal
frameswith pinned and xed bases.
If thebeamisrigidandthecolumnsareslender anduniform, but not necessarilyidentical, thenthe
natural fundamental frequency of theframecan beapproximated usingthefollowingformula[49] :
f =
1
2
_
12
E
i
I
i
L
3
_
M +0.37
M
i
_
_
1/2
Hz (2.397)
whereM isthemassof thebeam, M
i
isthemassof thei-th column, andE
i
I
i
aretheexural rigidity
of thei-th column. Thesummation refersto thesumof all columns, and i must begreater or equal
to 2. Additional resultsfor frameswith inclined membersarediscussed in [11] .
2.13.9 Damping
Dampingisfoundtoincreasewiththeincreasingamplitudeof vibration. It arisesfromthedissipation
of energyduringvibration. Themechanismscontributingtoenergydissipationarematerial damping,
frictionat interfacesbetweencomponents, andenergydissipationduetofoundationinteractingwith
soil, among others. Material damping arisesfrom thefriction at bolted connectionsand frictional
interaction between structural and non-structural elementssuch aspartitionsand cladding.
The amount of damping in a building can never be predicted precisely, and design values are
generally derived based on dynamicmeasurementsof structuresof acorrespondingtype. Damping
canbemeasuredbasedontherateof decayof freevibrationfollowinganimpact; byspectral methods
basedonanalysisof responsetowindloading; or byforceexcitationbymechanical vibrator at varying
frequency to establish theshapeof thesteady stateresonancecurve. However, thesemethodsmay
not beeasily carried out if several modesof vibration closein frequency arepresented.
Table2.10 givesvaluesof modal damping that areappropriatefor usewhen amplitudesarelow.
Higher valuesareappropriateat larger amplitudeswherelocal yieldingmay develop, e.g., in seismic
analysis.
TABLE2.8 Fundamental Frequenciesof Portal Framesin Asymmetrical Modeof Vibration
TABLE2.9 Fundamental Frequenciesof Portal Framesin Asymmetrical Modeof Vibration.
TABLE2.10 Typical Structural DampingValues
Structural type Dampingvalue, (%)
Unclad welded steel structures 0.3
Unclad bolted steel structures 0.5
Floor, compositeand non-composite 1.5-3.0
Clad buildingssubjected to sidesway 1
2.13.10 Numerical Analysis
Many less complex dynamic problems can be solved without much difculty by hand methods.
For more complex problems, such as determination of natural frequencies of complex structures,
calculation of response due to time-varying loads, and response spectrum analysis to determine
seismic forces, may requirenumerical analysis. Theniteelement method hasbeen shown to bea
versatiletechniquefor thispurpose.
Theglobal equationsof an undamped force-vibration motion, in matrix form, may bewritten as
[M]{ x} +[K]{ x} = {F(t )} (2.398)
where
[K] =
n
i=1
[k
i
] [M] =
n
i=1
[m
i
] [F] =
n
i=1
[f
i
] (2.399)
aretheglobal stiffness, mass, and forcematrices, respectively. [k
i
], [m
i
], and {f
i
} arethestiffness,
mass, and forceof thei
th
element, respectively. Theelementsareassembled usingthedirect stiffness
methodtoobtain theglobal equationssuch that intermediatecontinuityof displacementsissatised
at common nodesand, in addition, interelement continuity of acceleration isalso satised.
Equation 2.398 is thematrix equation discretized in space. To obtain solution of theequation,
discretizationintimeisalsonecessary. Thegeneral methodusediscalleddirect integration. Thereare
two methodsfor direct integration: implicit or explicit. Therst, and simplest, isan explicit method
known asthecentral differencemethod[ 9] . Thesecond, moresophisticatedbut moreversatile, isan
implicit method known astheNewmark method [ 44] . Other integration methodsarealso available
in [ 7] .
Thenatural frequenciesaredetermined by solvingEquation 2.398in theabsenceof forceF(t ) as
[M]{ x} +[K]{x} = 0 (2.400)
Thestandard solution for x(t ) isgiven by theharmonicequation in time
{x(t )} = {X}e
it
(2.401)
where{X} isthepart of thenodal displacement matrix called natural modes, which areassumed to
beindependent of time, i istheimaginary number, and isthenatural frequency.
DifferentiatingEquation 2.401twicewith respect to time, wehave
x(t ) = {X}
_
2
_
e
it
(2.402)
Substitutingof Equations2.401and 2.402into Equation 2.400yields
e
it
_
[K]
2
[M]
_
{X} = 0 (2.403)
Sincee
it
isnot zero, weobtain
_
[K]
2
[M]
_
{X} = 0 (2.404)
Equation 2.404isaset of linear homogeneousequationsin termsof displacement mode{X}. It has
anon-trivial solution if thedeterminant of thecoefcient matrix {X} isnon-zero; that is
[K]
2
[M] = 0 (2.405)
In general, Equation 2.405 is a set of n algebraic equations, where n is the number of degrees of
freedomassociated with theproblem.
2.14 DeningTerms
Arch: Principal load-carryingmember curvedin elevation; resistancetoappliedloadingdevel-
oped by axial thrust and bending.
Beam: A straight or curved structural member, primarily supporting loads applied at right
anglesto thelongitudinal axis.
Bendingmoment: Bending moment dueto a forceor a system of forcesat a cross-section is
computed asthealgebraicsumof all momentsto onesideof thesection.
Built-in beam: A beamrestrained at itsendsagainst vertical movement and rotation.
Cables: Flexiblestructureswith no moment-carryingcapacity.
Cantilever: Abeamrestrained against movement and rotation at oneend and freeto deect at
theother end.
Continuousbeam: A beamthat extendsover several supports.
Deection: Movement of astructureor partsof astructureunder applied loads.
Element: Part of across-section formingadistinct part of thewhole.
Grillage: Structuresin which themembersall liein oneplanewith loadsbeingapplied in the
direction normal to thisplane.
Hoggingmoment: Bendingmoment causingupward deection in abeam.
Inuenceline: An inuencelineindicatestheeffect at agiven section of aunit load placed at
any point on thestructure.
Member: Any individual component of astructural frame.
Moment of inertia: Thesecond moment of areaof asection about theelasticneutral axis.
Plasticanalysis: Analysisassumingredistribution of momentswithin thestructurein acontin-
uousconstruction.
Plastichinge: Position at which amember hasdeveloped itsplasticmoment of resistance.
Plasticmoment: Moment capacity allowingfor redistribution of stresswithin across-section.
Plasticsection: A cross-section that can develop a plastic hingewith sufcient rotational ca-
pacity to allowredistribution of bendingmomentswithin thesection.
Portal frame: A single-story continuousplaneframederivingitsstrength from bendingresis-
tanceand arch action.
Reaction: Theload carried by each support.
Rigid frame: An indeterminateplaneframeconsistingof memberswithxedendconnections.
Saggingmoment: An applied bendingmoment causingasaggingdeection in thebeam.
Second-order analysis: Analysis considering the equilibrium formulated based on deformed
structural geometry.
Semi-rigid connection: A connection that possessesamoment capacity intermediatebetween
thesimpleand rigid connection.
Shear force: Aninternal forceactingnormal tothelongitudinal axis; givenbythealgebraicsum
of all forcesto onesideof thesection chosen.
Simplebeam: A beamrestrained at itsend only against vertical movement.
Spaceframe: A three-dimensional structure.
Span: Thedistancebetween thesupportsof abeamor atruss.
Staticload: A noncyclicload that producesno dynamiceffects.
Statically determinatestructure: A structure in which support reactions may be found from
theequationsof equilibrium.
Statically indeterminatestructure: A structurein which equationsof equilibrium arenot suf-
cient to determinethereactions.
Thin plate: A at surfacestructurein which thethicknessissmall compared to theother di-
mensions.
Thin shell: A curved surfacestructurewith athicknessrelatively small compared to itsother
dimensions.
Truss: Acoplanar systemof structural membersjoinedat their endstoformastableframework.
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Further Reading
The Structural EngineeringHandbook by E. H. Gaylord and C. N. Gaylord provides a reference
work on structural engineering and deals with planning, design, and construction of a variety of
engineeringstructures.
TheFiniteElement Handbookby H. Kardestuncer and D. H. Norriepresentstheunderlyingmath-
ematical principles, thefundamental formulations, and both commonly used and specialized appli-
cationsof theniteelement method.

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, and thedistanceof thecentroidal axisfrom thecenter

M = 0. Moresectionscan betaken in the

isafunction of thetwo coordinates(x, y) in theplaneof theplate. Thisfunction hasto satisfy a

canbecalculatedfromEquation 2.102if theradii r

and R into Equation 2.104

arealwaysnegative. Thus, thereisacompression along themeridians

arealsonegativefor small angles. Thestresses

can becalculated independently.

isequal to theweight of theliquid in theconical part mno

istaken by thereinforcingringprovided alongtheupper edgeof

in addition to normal forcesN

will act on the

. Substitutingthisvaluein thesecond of the

areconstant along thecircumference. From symmetry,

areconstant along thecircumference. Under such conditionsof symmetry threeof

} isthenodal parametersand [C] istherelevant nodal coordinates. Theundetermined

} representsconcentrated loadsat nodesand {q} representsthedistributed

} to constants{A}. Thelast equation

resultingfrom theshiftingof plastic neutral axisfrom tension zone

, themoment conditionscan bewritten as

(L) = 0, Equation 2.265gives

m/s, B isthebuildingwidth in thedirection of vibration, and

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