Io este unul dintre cei patru satelii galileeni ai planetei Jupiter.

Dintre salteliii lui Jupiter, Io este al treilea ca mrime i al patrulea din Sistemul solar. Este puin mai mare dect Luna (satelitul natural al Terrei), avnd un diametru de 3,642 kilometri. El a fost denumit n cinstea lui Io, iubita lui Zeus, transformat de acesta ntr-o juninc (vac tnr) cu scopul de a o ascunde de Hera. Io mai este poreclit planeta pizza deoarece este colorat ca atare. Io are peste 400 de vulcani activi, fiind din punct de vedere geologic cel mai activ obiect din Sistemul solar.[6][7] Aceast activitate geologic este rezultatul nclzirilor mareice generate de forele de frecare interioare sub influena atraciei variabile a lui Jupiter i a celorlali satelii galileeni - Europa, Ganymede i Callisto. Caiva vulcani produc nori de sulfur i dioxid de sulf ce ating i 500 km nlime. Suprafaa lui Io este de asemenea pictat cu 100 de muni ce au fost ridicai de compresia puternic a scoarei silicate a satelitului. Unele vrfuri sunt mai nalte ca Muntele Everest.[8] Spre deosebire de majoritatea sateliilor ce sunt compui din ap ngheat, Io este format din piatr silicat ce nvelete un miez de fier topit sau sulfit de fier topit. Suprafaa sa este caracterizat de ntinderi de sulf i dioxid de sulf ngheat. Din cauza vulcanismului Io are multe trsturi unice. Norii si vulcanici i scurgerile de lav produc mari schimbri ale suprafeei i o vopsesc n diverse nuane de rou, galben, alb, negru i verde, n principal din cauza compuilor de sulf. Multe curgeri de lav extinse, unele de peste 500km lungime, de asemenea marcheaz suprafaa. Din cauza acestor caracteristici, Io este cunoscut ca planeta pizza. Io a jucat un rol semnificativ n dezvoltarea astronomiei n secolele XVII i XVIII. EL a fost descoperit 1610 de Galileo Galilei, mpreun cu ceilali satelii Galileeni. Aceast descoperire a ncurajat adoptarea sistemului solar Copernican, dezvoltarea legilor de micare ale lui Kepler i msurarea vitezei luminii. De pe Pmnt, Io nu a rmas dect un punct luminos pn spre sfritul sec. XIX cnd a devenit posibil s-i fie observate trsturile la scar mare, cum ar fi regiunile polare i ecuatoriale de culoare rou nchis. n 1979, cele dou nave Voyager au descoperit c este o lume vulcanic activ, cu muni i o suprafa relativ nou fr cratere de impact vizibile. Nava Galileo a fcut cteva zboruri prin apropiere n 1990 i 2000, colectnd date despre interiorul i suprafaa satelitului. Aceste nave de asemenea au descoperit legtura dintre satelit i magnetosfera lui Jupiter i existena unei centuri de radiaii centrat pe orbita lui Io. Acesta primete zilnic o radiaie de 3600 rem.[9] Mai trziu, observaii asupra satelitului au efectuat sonda spaial CassiniHuygens n 2000 i Noi Orizonturi n 2007, precum i telescoapele de pe Pmnt i telescopul spaial Hubble.
Prim observaie raportat a lui Io a fost fcut de ctre Galileo Galilei la 7 ianuarie 1610 folosind un telescop refractant de la Universitatea din Padova. Cu toate acestea, n aceast observaie, Galileo nu a putut s separe satelitul Io de Europa din cauza puterii reduse a telescopului su, astfel nct cei doi satelii au fost nregistrai ca un singur punct de lumin. Io i Europa au fost observate pentru prima dat ca obiecte separate n timpul observaiilor lui Galileo a sistemului lui Jupiter n ziua urmtoare, 8 [1] ianuarie 1610. Descopeirea lui Io i a celorlali satelii galileeni ai lui Jupiter a fost publicat [10] n Sidereus Nuncius a lui Galileo n martie 1610. [modificare]Pioneer Primele nave spaiale care au trecut pe lng Io au fost Pioneer 10 i Pioneer 11 pe 3 decembrie [11] 1973 i respectiv 4 decembrie 1974. Datorit scanrii radio, s-a estimat masa aproximativ a satelitului, care, pe lng informaiile privind dimensiunile lui Io, sugereaz c acesta era cel mai dens

dintre cei 4 sateliti galileeni i c este format din piatr silicat n loc de ghea. Cele dou nave Pioneer au nregistrat de asemenea o atmosfer| subire i o intens centur de radiaii n apropierea orbitei lui Io. Camera foto de pe bordul lui Pioneer 11 a fcut o singur poz, destul de bun a [13] satelitului, pe care este reprezentat zona nordic a satelitului. S-a plnuit s se fac poze mai [11] apropiate cu Pioneer 10, dar acestea au fost pierdute din cauza nivelului mare de radiaii. [modificare]Voyager Cnd navele spaiale Voyager 1 i Voyager 2 au trecut pe lng Io n 1979, sistemul lor de fotografiat mai avansat a permis captarea unor imagini mult mai detaliate. Voyager 1 a zburat pe lng satelit pe [14] data de 5 martie 1979 la o distan de 20.600 km. Imaginile fcute n timpul apropierii au relevat un [15][16] peisaj ciudat, multi-color i fr cratere de impact. Imaginile cu o rezoluie mai ridicat au artat o suprafa relativ tnr, punctat cu gropi de o form ciudat, muni mai nali ca vrful Everest i caracteristici asemntoare fluxurilor de lav vulcanic. Imediat dup ntlnire, s -a observat un nor imens ridicdu-se de pe suprafaa satelitului, indicnd faptul c este geologic activ. Voyager 2 a trecut pe lng acesta pe data de 2 iulie 1979 la o distan de 1,130,000 km. Chiar dac nu s-a apropiat la fel de mult ca Voyager 1, comparnd pozele fcute de ambele nave spaiale s-a observat o schimbare a suprafaei terestre ce s-a petrecut n numai 4 luni. [modificare]Galileo Galileo a ajuns n apropierea lui Jupiter n 1995, dup o cltorie de 6 luni, pentru a continua descoperirile celor dou nave Voyager. Io se afl ntr-una din cele mai mari centuri de radiaii ale lui Jupiter i nu a permis apropierea sondei. Dei nu s-au fcut poze, s-au extras nite informaii preioase n timp ce pe 7 decembrie 1995 Galileo se afla n apropierea satelitului, cum ar fi descoperirea unui centru de fier asemntor planetelor stncoase din interiorul sistemului solar (ntre [17] Soare i centura de asteroizi). Galileo a mai observat efectele unei erupii majore la Pillan Patera i a confirmat c erupiile vulcanice sunt compuse din magme silicate, cu compoziii mafice i ultra mafice bogate n magneziu, cu sulfur i dioxid de sulf ce servesc un rol asemntor apei i dioxidului de carbon pe Pmnt. [modificare]Observaiile

[12]

ulterioare

Dup prbuirea navetei Galileo n atmosfera planetei Jupiter n septembrie 2003, alte observaii asupra vulcanismului lui Io au fost fcute cu telescoapele terestre. n particular, imaginile fcute prin optica adaptiv de la telescopul Keck din Hawaii i imaginile fcute de telescopul Hubble le-au [18][19] permis astronomilor s monitorizeze vulcanii activi de pe Io. Vulcanii activi pot fi monitorizii i fr ca o nav spaial s fie n apropierea acestui satelit. Sonda spaial Noi Orizonturi n drumul su spre Pluto i Centura Kuiper de asemenea a captat numeroase poze cu Io pe 28 februarie 2007. Aceste imagini includ un nor imens n Tvashtar, oferind primele observaii detaliate ale celei mai mari clase de nori vulcanici ionieni de la observarea lui Pelle [20] n 1979. Noi Orizonturi a captat imagini ale unui vulcan n Girru Patera aflat n stadiile iniiale unei [20] erupii i cteva erupii vulcanice care au avut loc dup prbuirea lui Galileo. [modificare]Orbit

i rotaia

Io l orbiteaz pe Jupiter de la o distan de 421.700 km de la centrul planetei i 350.000 km de la nori. Acesta este cel mai apropiat satelit galileean al lui Jupiter, aflndu-se ntre Thebe i Europa. Incluznd sateliii interiori, Io este al 5-lea satelit dup Jupiter. O micare de revoluie se face n 42,5 ore. Acesta se afl ntr-o rezonan orbital de 2:1 cu Europa i 4:1 cuGanymede. Aceast rezonan ajut la pstrarea excentricitii (0,0041), care este de altfel i motivul activitii geologice a satelitului (a se [21] vedea nclzirea mareic pentru o explicaie mai detaliat a procesului).

[modificare]Interaciunea

cu magnetosfera lui Jupiter

Io joac un rol important n meninerea cmpului magnetic jovian. Magnetosfera lui Jupiter culege praf [22] i gaze din atmosfera subire a lui Io cu o rat de 1 ton pe secund . Acest material este format din sulfur ionizat i atomic, oxigen i clor,sodiu i potasiu atomic, sulfur i dioxid de sulf molecular i [22][23] praf de clorur de sodiu. Aceste materiale ajung ca nori n centurile de radiaii joviene: plasm thorus, un nor neutru i un tub de flux. [modificare]Structura Io este puin mai mare dect Luna. Are o raz de 1.821,3 km (cu 5% mai mare dect a Lunii) i o masa de 8.9319 1022 kg (cu 21% mai mare dect a Lunii). Forma sa este elipsoidal, cu partea bombat nspre Jupiter. Printre sateliii galileeni, dup n mas i volum, Io este n urma lui Ganymede i Callisto, dar naintea lui Europa. [modificare]Interiorul Compus n mare parte din pietre silicate i fier, Io este mai asemntor dup compoziie cu planetele terestre dect cu sateliii Sistemului solar, care de obicei sunt compui dintr -un amestec de ap, ghea i silicai. Acesta are o densitate de 3,5275 g/cm3, cea mai mare dintre toi sateliii din Sistemul solar; cu mult mai mare dect a celorlali satelii galileeni i a lunii. Modelele bazate pe msurtorile fcute de sondele spaiale Voyager i Galieo asupra masei, radiusului i a coeficienilor gravitaionali a satelitului indic faptul c crusta i mantaua este bogat n silicai, iar interiorul este format din fier sau [17] [24] sulfat de fier. Miezul metalic reprezint 20% din masa lui Io. Depinznd de cantitatea de sulf, centrul are o raz de 350-650 km dac este compus n principal din fier, sau 550-900 km dac conine i sulf. Magnetometrul lui Galileo nu a depistat nici un cmp magnetic, ce indic faptul c miezul [25] satelitului nu se rotete. Mantaua este alctuit 75% din mineralul bogat n magneziu fosterit. Pentru a suporta fluxul de cldur observat pe Io, 10-20% din mantaua lui Io poate fi topit, dei regiunile n care a fost observat [26] vulcanismul cu o temperatur ridicat poat avea fracii mai mari de topire. Litosfera lui Io, este [24][27] compus din bazalt i sulfura depozitat de vulcanismul extrem i are o grosim e de 12-40 km. [modificare]nclzirea

mareic

Spre deosebire de Pmnt i Lun, principala surs de caldur a lui Io provine din disiparea mareic, [21] rezultatul rezonanei orbitale cu Europa i Ganymede. Aceast nclzire depinde de distana satelitului de la Jupiter, de excentricitatea orbital, de compoziia interiorului su i de stare sa [26] fizic. Datorit rezonanei LaPlace, Io i menine excentricitatea i oprete disiparea mareic din el s fie captat de orbita sa. Orbita rezonant l ajut s -i menin distana fa de Jupiter, altfel acesta [28] ar fi aruncat n exteriorul sistemului planetar. Frecarea produs n interiorul satelitului datorit atraciei mareice variabile creeaz o nclzire mareic, topind o cantitate semnificativ de manta i miez. Aceast cldur este eliberat sub forma activitilor vulcanice.

Suprafaa

Harta suprafeei lui Io

Savanii, obinuii cu Luna, Marte i Mercur, se ateptau s vad numeroase cratere n primele imagini ale lui Voyager 1. Densitatea craterelor ar fi indicat vrsta satelitului. Spre surprinderea lor, suprafaa nu avea aproape deloc cratere, fiind acoperit de cmpii ntinse, muni nali i curgeri de [15] lav. Comparativ cu cele mai multe lumi observate la acel punct, suprafaa lui Io a fost acoperit ntr-o varietate de materiale colorate (Io fiind comparat cu o portocal sau o pizza) de la diveri [29] compui sulfuroai. Lipsa acestor cratere arat c suprafaa este geologic nou, vulcanii astupnd orice crater imediat dup ce se produce. Acest fapt a fost confirmat de Voyager 1 ce a surprins cel [30] puin 9 erupii vulcanice. [modificare]Compoziia suprafeei nfiarea sa colorat este rezultatul materialelor produse de vulcanism. Aceste materiale [31] includ silicai (de exemplu ortopiroxenii), sulf i dioxid de sulf. Dioxidul de sulf ngheat este omniprezent formnd regiuni ntinse acoperite cu materiale de culoare alb sau gri. Sulful este de asemenea ntlnit pe suprafaa sa, formnd regiuni de la culoarea galben la galben-verzui. Vulcanismul exploziv picteaz suprafaa cu materiale sulfuroase i silicatice. Depozitele de cenu de pe Io au culoarea roie sau alb, n dependen de cantitatea de dioxid de sulf i de sulf din cenu. Cartarea compoziional a lui Io ne arat c Io are foarte puin ap, sau chiar deloc, dei s-au gsit regiuni mici cu ap ngheat i minerale hidratate, mai ales pe flancul de nord -vest a muntelui Gish [32] Bar Mons. [modificare]Vulcanismul

O secven n cinci imagini fcute de Noi Orizonturi n care se arat cum vulcanul lui Io, Tvashtar arunc materie la 330 km deasupra suprafeei sale.

nclzirea mareic produs de excentricitatea oribtal a satelitului, a fcut ca acesta s devin una din cele mai vulcanic active lumi din Sistemul solar, cu sute de centre vulcanice i curgeri de lav extinse. n timpul unei erupii puternice, se pot produce scurgeri de lav lungi de zeci sau sute de kilometri lungime, fiind de cele mai multe ori din lav silicat-bazaltic fie cu compoi mafici sau ultra-mafici (bogai n magneziu). Un alt produs al acestei activti este sulful, gazul de dioxid de sulf i materiale piroclastice din silicai (cum ar fi cenu) sunt aruncate la o nlime de 200 km n spaiu, producnd nori largi n form de umbrel, care picteaz terenul nconjurtor n rou, negru sau alb, i produce materie prim pentru atmosfera neregulat a lui Io sau magnetosfera extensiv a lui Jupiter.

Suprafaa lui Io este punctat cu depresiuni vulcanice numite paterae. Acestea reprezint calderele terestre, dar nu se tie dac s-au produs prin prbuire sau prin golirea camerei magmatice. Acestea [33] au un diametru aproximativ 41 km, cu cea mai mare fiind Loki Pateraavnd 202 km . Oricare ar fi mecanismul de formare, morfologia i distribuia de paterae multe sugereaz c aceste caracteristici [33] sunt controlate structural, cu cel puin jumtate limitate de defecte sau de muni . Acestea deseori sunt locul unde se produc erupii, fie prin curgeri de lava ce se ntind de -a lungul paterei, cum a fost [7][34] erupia din 2001 n Gish Bar Patera, sau sub forma unui lac de lav. Lacuri de lav de pe Io au fie o crusta de lava n continue rsturnare, cum ar fi de la Pele, sau o crust cu o rsturnare episodic, [35][36] cum ar fi de la Loki. Imaginile din Galileo arat c multe din curgerile de lav majore ale lui Io, cum sunt cele din Prometheus i Amirani, sunt produse de acumularea lavei i expulzarea ei peste curgeri mai [37] vechi. De asemenea au fost observate focare mari de lav pe Io. De exemplu, muchia frontal a fluxului Prometeu sa mutat de la 75 km la 95 km ntre misiunia lui Voyager din 1979 i cea a 2 lui Galileo din 1996. O erupie mare din 1997 a produs mai mult de 3500 km de lav proaspt i a [38] inundat planeul adiacent Pillan Patera. Cunoatem tipul de lav datorit msurtorilor temperaturii hotspot-urilor sau zonelor de emisie [39] termic ce sugereaz o temperatur de cel puin 1300 K i adesea mai mare de 1600 K. [modificare]Munii

[33]

Imagine n nuane de gri a lui Tohil Mons, un munte nalt de 5.4 km fcut de Galileo

Io are ntre 100 i 150 de muni. Aceste structuri au n jur de 6 km altitudine cu un maxim de 17.5 1.5 [8] km la Bosaule Montes de Sud. Munii apar ca structuri mari (cu o mrime medie de 157 km) i [8] izolate fr modele aparente tectonice globale delimitate, cum sunt pe Pmnt . n ciuda vulcanismului de pe Io, majoritatea munilor ce-i confer lui Io nfisarea specific, sunt structuri tectonice i nu sunt formaii de vulcani. De fapt, majoritatea vulcanilor de pi Io sunt rezultatul [40] forelor de compresiune de la baza litosferei. Fora de compresiune, la rndul ei, este rezultatul [40] subsidenei cauzat de ngroparea continu a materialului vulcanic . Distribuia global a munilor pare s fie opus structurilor vulcanice; munii domin zonele unde sunt mai puini vulcani i [41] viceversa. Acest lucru sugereaz c n regiuni la scar mare din litosfera satelitului compresiunea [42] (suport formarea de muni) i extensia (suport formarea de patere) domin. Pe plan local, cu

toate acestea, muni i paterae sunt adesea unul lng altul, ceea ce sugereaz c magma [33] exploateaz adesea defectele formate n timpul formrii muntelui pentru a ajunge la suprafa . Munii de pe Io (n general, structuri ce se ridic deasupra cmpiilor din jur) au o varietate de [8] morfologii. Podiurile sunt cele mai comune. Aceste structuri sunt nalte, plate i fr vrf, cu suprafaa frnt. Ali muni par a fi blocuri de crust nclinate cu o pant puin abrupt. Foarte puini muni de pe Io au origine vulcanic. Aceti muni se aseamn vulcani scut mici, cu pante abrupte (6 [43] 7) n apropierea unei caldere mici, central i pante puin adnci de-a lungul marjele lor. Aceti muni vulcanici sunt de obicei mici, cu o nlime cuprins ntre 1 i 2 km i o lime ntre 40 i 60 km.

Atmosfera
Io are o atmosfer extrem de subire, coninnd n principal dioxid de sulf (SO 2), i n cantiti [44] mici monoxid de sulf (SO), clorur de sodiu (NaCl) i sulf i oxigen atomic. Radiaiile golesc atmosfera n mod constant. Sursa cea mai important de SO 2 este vulcanismul, care 4 pompeaz n mediu 10 kg de dioxid de sulf n atmosfera lui Io pe secund, dei o mare parte din [22] acesta se condenseaz napoi la suprafa. O mare parte din dioxid de sulf din atmosfera lui Io este [45] ntreinut i de topirea de SO2 ngheat cu ajutorul luminii solare. Atmosfera este cel mai bine [46] subliniat la ecuator, unde suprafaa este cald i cea mai activ vulcanic . n timp ce Io trecea printr-un fenomen de eclips, imaginile de nalt rezoluie dezvluie o [47] luminescen asemntoare aurorei. Ca i pe Pmnt, acest fenomen se ntmpl datorit radiaiilor ce lovesc atmosfera. Aurorele de obicei au loc la polii magnetici ai planetelor, dar pe Io acestea au loc la ecuator. Io nu are un cmp magnetic, drept urmare, electronii si cltoresc de -a lungul cmpului magnetic al lui Jupiter, lovind direct atmosfera lui Io.

Volcanism
Main article: Volcanism on Io See also: List of volcanic features on Io

Active lava flows in volcanic region Tvashtar Paterae(blank region represents saturated areas in the original data). Images taken by Galileo in November 1999 and February 2000.

The tidal heating produced by Io's forced orbital eccentricity has led the moon to become one of the most volcanically active worlds in the Solar System, with hundreds of volcanic centres and extensive lava flows. During a major eruption, lava flows tens or even hundreds of kilometres long can be produced, consisting mostly of basalt silicate lavas with either maficor ultramafic (magnesium-rich) compositions. As a by-product of this activity, sulfur, sulfur dioxide gas and silicatepyroclastic material (like ash) are blown up to 200 km (120 mi) into space, producing large, umbrella-shaped plumes, painting the surrounding terrain in red, black, and white, and providing material for Io's patchy atmosphere and Jupiter's extensive magnetosphere. Io's surface is dotted with volcanic depressions known as paterae. Paterae generally have flat floors bounded by steep walls. These features resemble terrestrial calderas, but it is unknown if they are produced through collapse over an emptied lava chamber like their terrestrial cousins. One hypothesis suggests that these features are produced through the exhumation of volcanic sills, and the overlying [78] material is either blasted out or integrated into the sill. Unlike similar features on Earth and Mars, these depressions generally do not lie at the peak of shield volcanoes and are normally larger, with an [77] average diameter of 41 km (25 mi), the largest being Loki Patera at 202 km (126 mi). Whatever the formation mechanism, the morphology and distribution of many paterae suggest that these features [77] are structurally controlled, with at least half bounded by faults or mountains. These features are often the site of volcanic eruptions, either from lava flows spreading across the floors of the paterae, [8][79] as at an eruption at Gish Bar Patera in 2001, or in the form of a lava lake. Lava lakes on Io either have a continuously overturning lava crust, such as at Pele, or an episodically overturning crust, such [80][81] as at Loki.
[77]

Five-image sequence of New Horizonsimages showing Io's volcano Tvashtar spewing material 330 km above its surface.

Lava flows represent another major volcanic terrain on Io. Magma erupts onto the surface from vents on the floor of paterae or on the plains from fissures, producing inflated, compound lava flows similar to those seen at Kilauea in Hawaii. Images from the Galileospacecraft revealed that many of Io's major lava flows, like those at Prometheus and Amirani, are produced by the build-up of small breakouts of [82] lava flows on top of older flows. Larger outbreaks of lava have also been observed on Io. For example, the leading edge of the Prometheus flow moved 75 to 95 km (47 to 59 mi) between Voyager in 1979 and the first Galileo observations in 1996. A major eruption in 1997 2 produced more than 3,500 km (1,400 sq mi) of fresh lava and flooded the floor of the adjacent Pillan [41] Patera. Analysis of the Voyager images led scientists to believe that these flows were composed mostly of various compounds of molten sulfur. However, subsequent Earth-based infrared studies and measurements from the Galileo spacecraft indicate that these flows are composed of basaltic lava with mafic to ultramafic compositions. This hypothesis is based on temperature measurements of Io's "hotspots", or thermal-emission locations, which suggest temperatures of at least 1300 K and some as [83] [41] high as 1600 K. Initial estimates suggesting eruption temperatures approaching 2000 K have since proven to be overestimates since the wrong thermal models were used to model the [83] temperatures. The discovery of plumes at the volcanoes Pele and Loki were the first sign that Io is geologically [33] active. Generally, these plumes are formed when volatiles like sulfur and sulfur dioxide are ejected skyward from Io's volcanoes at speeds reaching 1 km/s (0.6 mps), creating umbrella-shaped clouds of gas and dust. Additional material that might be found in these volcanic plumes include [84][85] [86] sodium,potassium, and chlorine. These plumes appear to be formed in one of two ways. Io's largest plumes are created when dissolved sulfur and sulfur dioxide gas are released from erupting magma at volcanic vents or lava lakes, often dragging silicate pyroclastic material with them. These plumes form red (from the short-chain sulfur) and black (from the silicate pyroclastics) deposits on the surface. Plumes formed in this manner are among the largest observed at Io, forming red rings more than 1,000 km (620 mi) in diameter. Examples of this plume type include Pele, Tvashtar, and Dazhbog. Another type of plume is produced when encroaching lava flows vaporize underlying sulfur dioxide frost, sending the sulfur skyward. This type of plume often forms bright circular deposits

consisting of sulfur dioxide. These plumes are often less than 100 km (62 mi) tall, and are among the most long-lived plumes on Io. Examples include Prometheus, Amirani, and Masubi. [edit]Mountains See also: List of mountains on Io

Galileo greyscale image of Tohil Mons, a 5.4 km tall mountain

Io has 100 to 150 mountains. These structures average 6 km (4 mi) in height and reach a maximum of [9] 17.5 1.5 km (10.9 0.9 mi) at South Bosaule Montes. Mountains often appear as large (the average mountain is 157 km or 98 mi long), isolated structures with no apparent global tectonic [9] patterns outlined, as is the case on Earth. To support the tremendous topography observed at these [87] mountains requires compositions consisting mostly of silicate rock, as opposed to sulfur. Despite the extensive volcanism that gives Io its distinctive appearance, nearly all its mountains are tectonic structures, and are not produced by volcanoes. Instead, most Ionian mountains form as the result of compressive stresses on the base of the lithosphere, which uplift and often tilt chunks of Io's [88] crust through thrust faulting. The compressive stresses leading to mountain formation are the result [88] of subsidence from the continuous burial of volcanic materials. The global distribution of mountains appears to be opposite that of volcanic structures; mountains dominate areas with fewer volcanoes [89] and vice versa. This suggests large-scale regions in Io's lithosphere where compression (supportive [90] of mountain formation) and extension (supportive of patera formation) dominate. Locally, however, mountains and paterae often abut one another, suggesting that magma often exploits faults formed [77] during mountain formation to reach the surface. Mountains on Io (generally, structures rising above the surrounding plains) have a variety of [9] morphologies. Plateaus are most common. These structures resemble large, flat-topped mesas with rugged surfaces. Other mountains appear to be tilted crustal blocks, with a shallow slope from the formerly flat surface and a steep slope consisting of formerly sub-surface materials uplifted by compressive stresses. Both types of mountains often have steep scarps along one or more margins. Only a handful of mountains on Io appear to have a volcanic origin. These mountains resemble small shield volcanoes, with steep slopes (67) near a small, central caldera and shallow slopes [91] along their margins. These volcanic mountains are often smaller than the average mountain on Io, averaging only 1 to 2 km (0.6 to 1.2 mi) in height and 40 to 60 km (25 to 37 mi) wide. Other shield

volcanoes with much shallower slopes are inferred from the morphology of several of Io's volcanoes, [91] where thin flows radiate out from a central patera, such as at Ra Patera. Nearly all mountains appear to be in some stage of degradation. Large landslide deposits are common at the base of Ionian mountains, suggesting that mass wasting is the primary form of degradation. Scalloped margins are common among Io's mesas and plateaus, the result of sulfur [92] dioxide sapping from Io's crust, producing zones of weakness along mountain margins. [edit]Atmosphere

Auroral glows in Io's upper atmosphere. Different colors represent emission from different components of the atmosphere (green comes from emitting sodium, red from emitting oxygen, and blue from emitting volcanic gases like sulfur dioxide). Image taken while Io was in eclipse.

Io has an extremely thin atmosphere consisting mainly of sulfur dioxide (SO2), with minor constituents [93] including sulfur monoxide(SO), sodium chloride (NaCl), and atomic sulfur and oxygen. The atmosphere has significant variations in density and temperature with time of day, latitude, volcanic activity, and surface frost abundance. The maximum atmospheric pressure on Io ranges from 5 4 3.3 10 to 3 10 pascals (Pa) or 0.3 to 3 nbar, spatially seen on Io's anti-Jupiter hemisphere and along the equator, and temporally in the early afternoon when the temperature of surface frost [93][94][95] 4 peaks. Localized peaks at volcanic plumes have also been seen, with pressures of 5 10 to 4 [37] 40 10 Pa (5 to 40 nbar). Io's atmospheric pressure is lowest on the moon's night-side, where 7 7 [93][94] the pressure dips to 0.1 10 to 1 10 Pa (0.0001 to 0.001 nbar). Io's atmospheric temperature ranges from the temperature of the surface at low altitudes, where sulfur dioxide is in vapor pressure equilibrium with frost on the surface, to 1800 K at higher altitudes where the thinner atmospheric density permits heating from plasma in the Io plasma torus and from Joule heating from [93][94] the Io flux tube. The low pressure limits the atmosphere's effect on the surface, except for temporarily redistributing sulfur dioxide from frost-rich to frost-poor areas, and to expand the size of [93][94] plume deposit rings when plume material re-enters the thicker dayside atmosphere. The thin Ionian atmosphere also means any future landing probes sent to investigate Io will not need to be encased in an aeroshell-style heatshield, but instead will require retrorockets for a soft landing. The thin atmosphere also necessitates a rugged lander capable of enduring the strong Jovian radiation, which a thicker atmosphere would attenuate. Gas in Io's atmosphere is stripped by Jupiter's magnetosphere, escaping to either the neutral cloud that surrounds Io, or the Io plasma torus, a ring of ionized particles that shares Io's orbit but co-rotates

with the magnetosphere of Jupiter. Approximately one ton of material is removed from the atmosphere [52] every second through this process so that it must be constantly replenished. The most dramatic 4 source of SO2 are volcanic plumes, which pump 10 kg of sulfur dioxide per second into Io's [52] atmosphere on average, though most of this condenses back onto the surface. Much of the sulfur dioxide in Io's atmosphere sustained by sunlight-driven sublimation of SO2 frozen on the [96] surface. The day-side atmosphere is largely confined to within 40 of the equator, where the surface [97] is warmest and most active volcanic plumes reside. A sublimation-driven atmosphere is also consistent with observations that Io's atmosphere is densest over the anti-Jupiter hemisphere, [93][96][98] where SO2 frost is most abundant, and is densest when Io is closer to the Sun. However, some contributions from volcanic plumes are required as the highest observed densities have been seen [93] near volcanic vents. Because the density of sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere is tied directly to surface temperature, Io's atmosphere partially collapses at night or when the satellite is in the shadow of Jupiter. The collapse during eclipse is limited somewhat by the formation of a diffusion layer of sulfur monoxide in the lowest portion of the atmosphere, but the atmosphere pressure of Io's nightside [94][99] atmosphere is two to four orders of magnitude less than at its peak just past noon. The minor constituents of Io's atmosphere, such as NaCl, SO, O, and S derive either from: direct volcanic outgassing; photodissociation, or chemical breakdown caused by solar ultraviolet radiation, from SO2; [96] or thesputtering of surface deposits by charged particles from Jupiter's magnetosphere. High-resolution images of Io acquired while the satellite is experiencing an eclipse reveal an aurora[85] like glow. As on Earth, this is due to radiation hitting the atmosphere, though in this case the charged particles come from Jupiter's magnetic field rather than the solar wind. Aurorae usually occur near the magnetic poles of planets, but Io's are brightest near its equator. Io lacks an intrinsic magnetic field of its own; therefore, electrons traveling along Jupiter's magnetic field near Io directly impact the satellite's atmosphere. More electrons collide with the atmosphere, producing the brightest aurora, where the field lines are tangent to the satellite (i.e., near the equator), since the column of gas they pass through is longer there. Aurorae associated with these tangent points on Io are observed to [100] rock with the changing orientation of Jupiter's tilted magnetic dipole. Fainter aurora from oxygen atoms along the limb of Io (the red glows in the image at right), and sodium atoms on Io's night-side [85] (the green glows in the same image) have also been observed.

Volcanology of Io
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Io, with two plumes erupting from its surface

Volcanology of Io, a moon of Jupiter, is the scientific study of lava flows, volcanic pits, and volcanism (volcanic activity) on the surface of Io. Its volcanic activity was discovered in 1979 by Voyager 1 imaging scientists.[1] Observations of Io by passing spacecraft (theVoyagers, Galileo, Cassini, and New Horizons) and Earth-based astronomers have revealed more than 150 active volcanoes. Up to 400 such volcanoes are predicted to exist based on these observations.[2] Io's volcanism makes the satellite one of only five known currently volcanically active worlds in the solar system (the other four being Earth, Venus, Saturn's moon Enceladus, and Neptune's moon Triton). First predicted shortly before the Voyager 1 flyby, the heat source for Io's volcanism comes from tidal heating produced by its forcedorbital eccentricity.[3] This differs from Earth's internal heating, which is derived primarily from radioactive isotope decay and primordial heat of accretion.[4] Io's eccentric orbit leads to a slight difference in Jupiter's gravitational pull on the satellite between its closest and farthest points on its orbit, causing a varying tidal bulge. This variation in the shape of Io causes frictional heating in its interior. Without this tidal heating, Io might have been similar to the Earth's moon, a world of similar size and mass, geologically dead and covered with numerous impact craters.[3] Io's volcanism has led to the formation of hundreds of volcanic centres and extensive lava formations, making the moon the most volcanically active body in the Solar System. Three different types of volcanic eruptions have been identified, differing in duration, intensity, lava effusion rate, and whether the eruption occurs within a volcanic pit (known as a patera). Lava flows on Io, tens or hundreds of kilometres long, have primarily basaltic composition, similar to lavas seen on Earth at shield volcanoes such

as Klauea in Hawaii.[5]While most lavas on Io are made of basalt, a few lava flows consisting of sulfur and sulfur dioxide have been seen. In addition, eruption temperatures as high as 1,600 K (1,300 C; 2,400 F) were detected, which can be explained by the eruption of high-temperatureultramafic silicate lavas.[6] As a result of the presence of significant quantities of sulfurous materials in Io's crust and on its surface, some eruptions propel sulfur, sulfur dioxide gas, and pyroclastic material up to 500 kilometres (310 mi) into space, producing large, umbrella-shaped volcanic plumes.[7] This material paints the surrounding terrain in red, black, and/or white, and provides material for Io's patchy atmosphere and Jupiter's extensive magnetosphere. Spacecraft that have flown by Io since 1979 have observed numerous surface changes as a result of Io's volcanic activity.[8]
Contents
[hide]

1 Discovery 2 Heat source 3 Composition 4 Eruption styles

o o o

4.1 Intra-patera eruptions 4.2 Flow-dominated eruptions (Promethean Volcanism) 4.3 Explosion-dominated eruptions (Pillanian Volcanism)

5 Plumes 6 See also 7 References 8 External links

[edit]Discovery

Discovery image of active volcanism on Io

Before the Voyager 1 encounter with Io on March 5, 1979, Io was thought to be a dead world much like the Earth's Moon. The discovery of a cloud of sodium surrounding Io led to theories that the satellite would be covered in evaporites.[9] Hints of discoveries to come arose from Earth-based infrared observations taken in the 1970s. An anomalously high thermal flux, compared to the otherGalilean satellites, was discovered during measurements taken at an infrared wavelength of 10 m while Io was in Jupiter's shadow.[10] At the time, this heat flux was attributed to the surface having a much higher thermal inertia than Europa and Ganymede.[11] These results were considerably different from measurements taken at wavelengths of 20 m which suggested that Io had similar surface properties to the other Galilean satellites.[10] It has since been determined that the greater flux at shorter wavelengths was due to the combined flux from Io's volcanoes and solar heating, while solar heating provides a much greater fraction of the flux at longer wavelengths.[12] A sharp increase in Io's thermal emission at 5 m was observed on February 20, 1978 by Witteborn, et al.. The group considered volcanic activity at the time, in which case the data was fit into a region on Io 8,000 square kilometres (3,100 sq mi) in size at 600 K (300 C; 600 F). However, the authors considered that hypothesis unlikely, and instead focused on emission from Io's interaction with Jupiter's magnetosphere.[13] Shortly before the Voyager 1 encounter, Stan Peale, Patrick Cassen, and R. T. Reynolds published a paper in the journal Science predicting a volcanically modified surface and adifferentiated interior, with distinct rock types rather than a homogeneous blend. They based this prediction on models of Io's interior that took into account the massive amount of heat produced by the varying tidal pull of Jupiter on Io caused by the moon's slightly eccentric orbit. Their calculations suggested that the amount of heat generated for an Io with a homogeneous interior would be three times greater than the amount of heat generated by radioactive isotope decay alone. This effect would be even greater with a differentiated Io.[3]

Voyager 1 observation of Loki Patera and nearby lava flows and volcanic pits

Voyager 1's first images of Io revealed a lack of impact craters, suggesting a very young surface. Craters are used by geologists to estimate the age of a planetary surface; the number of impact structures increase

with the age of the planetary surface. Instead, Voyager 1 observed a multi-coloured surface, pockmarked with irregular-shaped depressions, which lacked the raised rims characteristic of impact craters. Voyager 1 also observed flow features formed by low-viscosity fluid and tall, isolated mountains that did not resemble terrestrial volcanoes. The surface observed suggested that, just as Peale and colleagues had theorized, Io was heavily modified by volcanism.[14] On March 8, 1979, three days after passing Jupiter, Voyager 1 took images of Jupiter's moons to help mission controllers determine the spacecraft's exact location, a process called optical navigation. While processing images of Io to enhance the visibility of background stars, navigation engineer Linda Morabito found a 300-kilometre (190 mi) tall cloud along the moon's limb.[1] At first, she suspected the cloud to be a moon behind Io, but no suitably sized body would have been in that location. The feature was determined to be a plume generated by active volcanism at a dark depression later named Pele.[15] Following this discovery, seven other plumes were located in earlier Voyager images of Io.[15] Thermal emission from multiple sources, indicative of cooling lava, were also found.[16] Surface changes were observed when images acquired by Voyager 2 were compared to those taken four months previously by Voyager 1, including new plume deposits at Aten Patera and Surt.[17]

[edit]Heat

source

Io's main source of internal heat comes from the dissipation of tidal forces generated by Jupiter's gravitational pull.[3] This external heating differs from the internal heat source for volcanism on Earth, which is a result of radioactive isotope decay and residual heat from accretion.[4][18] In the Earth, these internal heat sources drive mantle convection, which in turn causes volcanism through plate tectonics.[19] The tidal heating of Io is dependent on the moon's distance from Jupiter, its orbital eccentricity, the composition of its interior, and its physical state.[20] Its Laplace orbital resonance with Europa and Ganymede maintains Io's eccentricity and prevents tidal dissipation within Io from circularizing its orbit. The eccentricity leads to vertical differences in Io's tidal bulge of as much as 100 metres (330 ft) as Jupiter's gravitational pull varies between the periapsis and apoapsis points in Io's orbit. This varying tidal pull also produces friction in Io's interior, enough to cause significant tidal heating and melting. Unlike Earth, where most of its internal heat is released by conduction through the crust, on Io internal heat is released via volcanic activity and generates the satellite's high heat flow (global total: 0.61.6 1014 W). Models of its orbit suggest that the amount of tidal heating within Io changes with time, and that the current heat flow is not representative of the long-term average.[20] The observed release of heat from Io's interior is greater than estimates for the amount presently generated from tidal heating, suggesting that Io is cooling after a period of greater flexing.[21]

[edit]Composition

Voyager 1 image of volcanic pits and lava flows near Ra Patera

Analysis of Voyager images led scientists to believe that the lava flows on Io were composed mostly of various forms of molten elemental sulfur.[22] The colouration of the flows was found to be similar to its various allotropes. Differences in the lava colour and brightness are a function of the temperature of polyatomic sulfur and the packing and bonding of its atoms. An analysis of the flows that radiate out fromRa Patera revealed differently colored materials, all associated with liquid sulfur, at different distances from the vent: dark albedo material close to the vent at 525 K (252 C; 485 F), red material in the central part of each flow at 450 K (177 C; 350 F), and orange material at the farthest ends of each flow at 425 K (152 C; 305 F).[22] This colour pattern corresponds to flows radiating out from a central vent, cooling as the lava travels away from it. In addition, temperature measurements of thermal emission at Loki Patera taken by Voyager 1's Infrared Interferometer Spectrometer and Radiometer (IRIS) instrument were consistent with sulfur volcanism.[16] However, the IRIS instrument was not capable of detecting wavelengths that are indicative of higher temperatures. This meant that temperatures consistent with silicate volcanism were not discovered by Voyager. Despite this, Voyager scientists deduced that silicates must play a role in Io's youthful appearance, from the moon's high density and the need for silicates to support the steep slopes along patera walls.[23] The contradiction between the structural evidence and the spectral and temperature data following the Voyager flybys led to a debate in the planetary science community regarding the composition of Io's lava flows, whether they were composed of silicate or sulfurous materials.[24] Earth-based infrared studies in the 1980s and 1990s shifted the paradigm from one of primarily sulfur volcanism to one where silicate volcanism dominates, and sulfur acts in a secondary role.[24] In 1986, measurements of a bright eruption on Io's leading hemisphere revealed temperatures of at least 900 K(600 C; 1,200 F). This is higher than the boiling point of sulfur (715 K or 442 C; 827 F), indicating a silicate composition for at least some of Io's lava flows.[25] Similar temperatures were also observed at the Surt eruption in 1979 between the two Voyager encounters, and at the eruption observed by Witteborn and colleagues in 1978.[13][26] In addition, modeling of silicate lava flows on Io suggested that they cooled rapidly,

causing their thermal emission to be dominated by lower temperature components, such as solidified flows, as opposed to the small areas covered by still molten lava near the actual eruption temperature.[27]

Thermal emission map of Io by Galileo

Silicate volcanism, involving basaltic lava with mafic to ultramafic (magnesium-rich) compositions, was confirmed by the Galileospacecraft in the 1990s and 2000s from temperature measurements of Io's numerous hot spots, locations where thermal emission is detected, and from spectral measurements of Io's dark material. Temperature measurements from Galileo's Solid-State Imager (SSI) and Near-Infrared Mapping Spectrometer (NIMS) revealed numerous hot spots with high-temperature components ranging from at least1,200 K (900 C; 1,700 F) to a maximum of 1,600 K (1,300 C; 2,400 F), like at the Pillan Patera eruption in 1997.[5] Initial estimates during the course of the Galileo mission suggesting eruption temperatures approaching 2,000 K (1,700 C; 3,100 F)[28] have since proven to be overestimates since the wrong thermal models were used to calculate the temperatures.[5] Spectral observations of Io's dark material suggested the presence of orthopyroxenes, such as enstatite, magnesium-rich silicate minerals common in mafic and ultramafic basalt. This dark material is seen in volcanic pits, fresh lava flows, and pyroclastic deposits surrounding recent, explosive volcanic eruptions.[29] Based on the measured temperature of the lava and the spectral measurements, some of the lava may be analogous to terrestrial komatiites.[30] Compressional superheating, which could increase the temperature of magma during ascent to the surface during an eruption, may also be a factor in some of the higher temperature eruptions.[5] While temperature measurements of Io's volcanoes settled the sulfur-versus-silicates debate that persisted between the Voyager and Galileo missions at Jupiter, sulfur and sulfur dioxide still play a significant role in the phenomena observed on Io. Both materials have been detected in the plumes generated at Io's volcanoes, with sulfur being a primary constituent of Pele-type plumes.[31] Bright flows have been identified on Io, at Tsi Goab Fluctus, Emakong Patera, and Balder Patera for example, that are suggestive of effusive sulfur or sulfur dioxide volcanism.[32]

[edit]Eruption

styles

See also: List of volcanic features on Io

Observations of Io by spacecraft and Earth-based astronomers have led to the identification of differences in the types of eruptions seen on the satellite. The three main types identified include intra-patera, flowdominated, and explosion-dominated eruptions. They differ in terms of duration, energy released, brightness temperature (determined from infrared imaging), type of lava flow, and whether it is confined within volcanic pits.[6]

[edit]Intra-patera

eruptions

Tupan Patera, an example of a volcanic depression

Intra-patera eruptions occur within volcanic depressions known as paterae,[33] which generally have flat floors bounded by steep walls. Paterae resemble terrestrial calderas, but it is unknown whether they form when an empty lava chamber collapses, like their terrestrial cousins. One hypothesis suggests that they are produced through the exhumation of volcanic sills, with the overlying material either being blasted out or integrated into the sill.[34] Some paterae display evidence for multiple collapses, similar to the calderas atopOlympus Mons on Mars or Klauea on Earth, suggesting that they may occasionally form like volcanic calderas.[33] Since the formation mechanism is still uncertain, the general term for these features uses the Latin descriptor term employed by the International Astronomical Union in naming them, paterae. Unlike similar features on Earth and Mars, these depressions generally do not lie at the peak of shield volcanoes and are larger, with an average diameter of 41 kilometres (25 mi).[33] Patera depths have been measured for only a few paterae and typically exceed 1 km.[35] The largest volcanic depression on Io is Loki Patera at 202 kilometres (126 mi) across. Whatever the formation mechanism, the morphology and distribution of many paterae suggest that they are structurally controlled, with at least half bounded by faults or mountains.[33]

Infrared image showing night-time thermal emission from the lava lake Pele

This eruption style can take the form of either lava flows, spreading across the floor of the paterae, or lava lakes.[2][36] Except for observations by Galileo during its seven close flybys, it can be difficult to tell the difference between a lava lake and a lava flow eruption on a patera floor, due to inadequate resolution and similar thermal emission characteristics. Intra-patera lava flow eruptions, such as the Gish Bar Patera eruption in 2001, can be just as voluminous as those seen spreading out across the Ionian plains.[36] Flow-like features have also been observed within a number of paterae, like Camaxtli Patera, suggesting that lava flows periodically resurface their floors.[37] Ionian lava lakes are depressions partially filled with molten lava covered by a thin solidified crust. These lava lakes are directly connected to a magma reservoir lying below.[38] Observations of thermal emission at several Ionian lava lakes reveal glowing molten rock along the patera margin, caused by the lake's crust breaking up along the edge of the patera. Over time, because the solidified lava is denser than the stillmolten magma below, this crust can founder, triggering an increase in thermal emission at the volcano.[39] For some lava lakes, like the one at Pele, this occurs continuously, making Pele one of the brightest emitters of heat in the near-infrared spectrum on Io.[40] At other sites, such as at Loki Patera, this can occur episodically. During an overturning episode at these more quiescent lava lakes, a wave of foundering crust spreads out across the patera at the rate of about 1 kilometre (0.6 mi) per day, with new crust forming behind it until the entire lake has been resurfaced. Another eruption would only begin once the new crust has cooled and thickened enough for it to no longer be buoyant over the molten lava.[41] During an overturning episode, Loki can emit up to ten times more heat than when its crust is stable.[42]

[edit]Flow-dominated

eruptions (Promethean Volcanism)

Culann Patera, an example of a flow-dominated eruption

Flow-dominated eruptions are long-lived events that build up extensive, compound lava flows. The extent of these flows makes them a major terrain type on Io. In this style of eruption, magma emerges onto the surface from vents on the floor of paterae, vents surrounding paterae, or from fissures on the plains, producing inflated, compound lava flows similar to those seen at Klauea in Hawaii .[37] Images from the Galileo spacecraft revealed that many of Io's major flows, like those at Prometheus and Amirani, are produced by the build-up of small breakouts of lava on top of older flows.[37] Flow-dominated eruptions differ from explosion-dominated eruptions by their longevity and their lower energy output per unit of time.[6] Lava erupts at a generally steady rate, and flow-dominated eruptions can last for years or decades. Active flow fields more than 300 kilometres (190 mi) long have been observed on Io at Amirani and Masubi. A relatively inactive flow field named Lei-Kung Fluctus covers more than 125,000 square kilometres (48,000 sq mi), an area slightly larger than Nicaragua.[43] The thickness of flow fields was not determined by Galileo, but the individual breakouts on their surface are likely to be 1 m (3 ft) thick. In many cases, active lava breakouts flow out onto the surface at locations tens to hundreds of kilometres from the source vent, with low amounts of thermal emission observed between it and the breakout. This suggests that lava flows through lava tubes from the source vent to the breakout.[44] While these eruptions generally have a steady eruption rate, larger outbreaks of lava have been observed at many flow-dominated eruption sites. For example, the leading edge of the Prometheus flow field moved 75 to 95 kilometres (47 to 59 mi) between observations by Voyager in 1979 and Galileo in 1996.[45] While generally dwarfed by explosion-dominated eruptions, average flow rate at these compound flow fields is much greater than what is observed at similar contemporary lava flows on Earth. Average surface coverage rates of 3560 square metres (380650 sq ft) per second were observed at Prometheus and Amirani during the Galileo mission, compared to 0.6 square metres (6.5 sq ft) per second at Klauea.[46]

[edit]Explosion-dominated

eruptions (Pillanian Volcanism)

Galileo images of active lava flows and fountains at Tvashtar Paterae in 1999

Explosion-dominated eruptions are the most pronounced of Io's eruption styles. These eruptions, sometimes called "outburst" eruptions from their Earth-based detections, are characterized by their short duration (lasting only weeks or months), rapid onset, large volumetric flow rates, and high thermal emission.[47] They lead to a short-lived, significant increase in Io's overall brightness in the near-infrared. The most powerful volcanic eruption observed in historical times was an "outburst" eruption at Surt, observed by Earth-based astronomers on February 22, 2001.[48] Explosion-dominated eruptions occur when a body of magma (called a dike) from deep within Io's partially molten mantle reaches the surface at a fissure. This results in a spectacular display of lava fountains.[49] During the beginning of the outburst eruption, thermal emission is dominated by strong, 1 3 m infrared radiation. It is produced by a large amount of exposed, fresh lava within the fountains at the eruption source vent.[50] Outburst eruptions at Tvashtar in November 1999 and February 2007 centred around a 25-kilometre (16 mi) long, 1-kilometre (0.62 mi) tall lava "curtain" produced at a small patera nested within the larger Tvashtar Paterae complex.[49][51] The large amount of exposed molten lava at these lava fountains has provided researchers with their best opportunity to measure the actual temperatures of Ionian lavas. Temperatures suggestive of an ultramafic lava composition similar to Pre-Cambrian komatiites (about 1,600 K or 1,300 C; 2,400 F) are dominant at such eruptions, though superheating of the magma during ascent to the surface cannot be ruled out as a factor in the high eruption temperatures.[5]

Two Galileo images showing the effects of an explosion-dominated eruption at Pillan Patera in 1997

While the more explosive, lava-fountaining stage may last only a few days to a week, explosion-dominated eruptions can continue for weeks to months, producing large, voluminous silicate lava flows. A major eruption in 1997 from a fissure north-west of Pillan Pateraproduced more than 31 cubic kilometres (7.4 cu mi) of fresh lava over a two and a half to five and a half month period, and later flooded the floor of Pillan Patera.[52] Observations by Galileo suggest lava coverage rates at Pillan between 1,000 and 3,000 square metres (11,000 and 32,000 sq ft) per second during the 1997 eruption. The Pillan flow was found to be 10 m (33 ft) thick, compared to the 1 m (3 ft) thick flows observed at the inflated fields at Prometheus and Amirani. Similar, rapidly emplaced lava flows were observed by Galileoat Thor in 2001.[2] Such flow rates are similar to those seen at Iceland's Laki eruption in 1783 and in terrestrial flood basalt eruptions.[6]

Explosion-dominated eruptions can produce dramatic (but often short-lived) surface changes around the eruption site, such as large pyroclastic and plume deposits produced as gas exsolves from lava fountains.[50] The 1997 Pillan eruption produced a 400 km (250 mi) wide deposit of dark, silicate material and bright sulfur dioxide.[52] The Tvashtar eruptions of 2000 and 2007 generated a 330 km (210 mi) tall plume that deposited a ring of red sulfur and sulfur dioxide 1,200 km (750 mi) wide.[53] Despite the dramatic appearance of these features, without continuous resupply of material, the vent surroundings often revert back to their pre-eruption appearance over a period of months (in the case of Grian Patera) or years (as at Pillan Patera).[8]

[edit]Plumes

Sequence of New Horizons images showing Io's volcano Tvashtar spewing material 330 kilometres (210 mi) above its surface

The discovery of volcanic plumes at Pele and Loki in 1979 provided conclusive evidence that Io was geologically active.[1] Generally, plumes form when volatiles like sulfur and sulfur dioxide are ejected skyward from Io's volcanoes at speeds reaching 1 kilometre per second (0.62 mi/s), creating umbrellashaped clouds of gas and dust. Additional materials that might be found in the volcanic plumes include sodium, potassium, and chlorine.[54][55] While striking in appearance, volcanic plumes are relatively uncommon. Of the 150 or so active volcanoes observed on Io, plumes have only been observed at a couple of dozen of them.[7][51] The limited area of Io's lava flows suggests that much of the resurfacing needed to erase Io's cratering record must come from plume deposits.[8] The most common type of volcanic plume on Io are dust plumes, or Prometheus-type plumes, produced when encroaching lava flows vaporize underlying sulfur dioxide frost, sending the material skyward.[56] Examples of Prometheus-type plumes include Prometheus,Amirani, Zamama, and Masubi. These plumes are usually less than 100 kilometres (62 mi) tall with eruption velocities around 0.5 kilometres per second (0.31 mi/s).[57] Prometheus-type plumes are dust-rich, with a dense inner core and upper canopy shock zone, giving them an umbrella-like appearance. These plumes often form bright circular deposits, with a radius ranging between 100 and 250 kilometres (62 and 160 mi) and consisting primarily of

sulfur dioxide frost. Prometheus-type plumes are frequently seen at flow-dominated eruptions, helping make this plume type quite long-lived. Four out of the six Prometheus-type plumes observed by Voyager 1 in 1979 were also observed throughout the Galileo mission and by New Horizons in 2007.[15][51] While the dust plume can be clearly seen in sunlit visible-light images of Io acquired by passing spacecraft, many Prometheus-type plumes have an outer halo of fainter, more gas-rich material reaching heights approaching that of the larger, Pele-type plumes.[7] Io's largest plumes, Pele-type plumes, are created when sulfur and sulfur dioxide gas exsolve from erupting magma at volcanic vents or lava lakes, carrying silicate pyroclastic material with them.[7] The few Pele-type plumes that have been observed are usually associated with explosion-dominated eruptions, and are shortlived.[6] The exception to this is Pele, which is associated with a long-lived active lava lake eruption, though the plume is thought to be intermittent.[7] The higher vent temperatures and pressures associated with these plumes generate eruption speeds of up to 1 kilometre per second (0.62 mi/s), allowing them to reach heights of between 300 and 500 kilometres (190 and 310 mi).[57] Pele-type plumes form red (from shortchain sulfur) and black (from silicate pyroclastics) surface deposits, including large 1,000 kilometres (620 mi)-wide red rings, as seen at Pele.[8] They are generally fainter than Prometheus-type plumes as a result of the low dust content, causing some to be called stealth plumes. These plumes are sometimes only seen in images acquired while Io is in the shadow of Jupiter or those taken in the ultraviolet range. The little dust that is visible in sunlit images is generated when sulfur and sulfur dioxide condense as the gases reach the top of their ballistic trajectories.[7] That is why these plumes lack the dense central column seen in Prometheus-type plumes, in which dust is generated at the plume source. Examples of Pele-type plumes have been observed at Pele, Tvashtar, and Grian.[7]

Io is similar in size to our own moon but that is the only way that they are similar. Pictures of our moon show no sign of recent volcanic activity. In fact, there has been no volcanic activity on our moon for several billion years. Io not only has active volcanoes, it is the most volcanically active of all the moons and planets in the solar system. Why does Io have active volcanoes while our moon does not? Jupiter is a giant planet and because it is so big it places a huge gravitational pull on its closest moon, Io, far greater than Earth's pull on our moon. Also, beyond Io there are three other moons in close orbit around Jupiter--Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. Although these moons are small, they too exert some gravitational pull on Io. Io is caught in the middle of this tugof-war. Jupiter pulls Io toward itself, while the outer moons pull it in the opposite direction. Because of this Io is squeezed and stretched. This causes its interior to heat up to very high temperatures. Eventually cracks form on Io's surface and molten (melted rock) material from below erupts onto the surface.

Some of the first images from Io showed material being thrown upward from the surface into space. At first scientists thought these might be similar to explosive volcanic eruptions on Earth such as the eruption of Mt. St. Helens. After further study, however, they decided that the eruptions are more closely related to geysers on Earth. Geysers are found in volcanically active regions on Earth such as in Iceland, New Zealand, and Yellowstone National Park in Wyoming. Geysers occur when water located in open spaces beneath the Earth's surface comes into contact with hot rocks. As the water heats up, pressure builds up within the confined space. Eventually the water expands and is forced upward through cracks in the overlying rock This results in an eruption of steam and water from the crack.

On Io, the process is similar but instead of water the material that comes in contact with the heat source is sulfur. These geyser-like features on Io are called plume eruptions. Compare this picture with the one above. The top picture is

of a geyser in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming. The second picture is of the Masubi plume eruption on Io.

With so much volcanic activity on Io, it is not surprising that its features have been given the names of gods and goddesses of fire and volcanoes from ancient mythologies of different cultures. The large, orange, ringshaped feature is called Pele, named for the Hawaiian volcano goddess. Another large feature on Io is a black horseshoe-shaped lava lake called Loki, named for the Norse god of fire and magic. Due to all the volcanic activity, Io's surface features change. You can see some of the changes that occurred between April 1997 and July 1999 at the volcanic center, Pele in these pictures. Notice in the second picture that a new, large, dark spot can be seen within Pele's red ring which cannot be seen in the first.

Many of the moons and planets in the solar system show signs of impact craters. These form when meteorites, chunks of interplanetary material, strike the surface of a planet or moon leaving behind a large hole in the ground. This picture shows a large impact crater on our moon. Although meteorites must also strike Io's surface, there are no signs of impact craters. Because material is constantly erupting from its interior onto the surface, impact craters are filled in soon after they appear.

In 1989, NASA sent another spacecraft to study Jupiter and its moons. This spacecraft was given the name Galileo in honor of the man who discovered Io and its neighboring moons. Since its arrival at Jupiter in 1995 Galileo has given us a tremendous amount of new information about Io, and still today is helping us to find answers to the many questions we have about this fascinating world!

Monitoring Ios Insane Volcanic Activity from the Comfort of Earth

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Press Release, October 17, 2012 Watching active volcanic eruptions should definitely be done from a distance, but a group of California researchers has figured out how to do it from the comfort of home. Using an ingenious combination of Earth-based telescopic surveys and archival data, they have gathered nearly 40 distinct snapshots of effusive volcanic eruptions and high temperature outbursts on Jupiters tiny moon, Io, showing details as small as 100 km (60 miles) on the moons surface. Io, the innermost moon of Jupiter, is an insanely active volcanic wonderland. Although the most detailed observations have come from spacecraft, the Galileo Jupiter orbiter mission ended in 2003 and no future mission capable of studying Io is planned until, at the earliest, 2030. However, there will be no large gap in the monitoring of Ios volcanoes, thanks to the efforts of teams like that led by Franck Marchis, a researcher at the Carl Sagan Center of the SETI Institute. Marchis will present results from ground-based telescopic monitoring of volcanic activity on Io over the past decade at the 2012 DPS Meeting in Reno, Nevada. Erupting volcanoes on Io cannot be directly seen from the ground using classical telescopes. Io is a relatively small satellite (3,600 km diameter or 2,300 miles), almost the same size as our moon, located much further away (4.2 times the distance between Earth and the sun, so 630 million kilometers or 390 million miles away). Due to the small apparent size of Io, the observation of details on its surface has traditionally been beyond the capabilities of ground-based telescopes on Earth. To overcome this limitation, engineers and planetary scientists designed spacecraft to visit the Jovian system, including Io. In 1979, Voyager 1 revealed Ios dynamic volcanic activity from the first close -up pictures of its surface, which captured bizarre volcanic terrains, active plumes and hot spots. The Galileo spacecraft remained in orbit in the Jovian system from 1995 to 2003 and observed more than 160 active volcanoes and a broad range of eruption styles. Several outstanding questions remained in the post-Galileo era, and the origin and long-term evolution of Ios volcanic activity is still not yet fully understood. In the meantime, planetary astronomers have designed instruments to break the seeing barrier and improve the image quality of ground-based telescopes. The blurring introduced by the constant motion of the Earths atmosphere can be corrected in real time using adaptive optics, which provides an image with a resolution close to the diffraction limit of the telescope. Since 2001, all large 8-10m class telescopes have been equipped with this technology.

Since our first observation of Io in 2001 using the W. M. Keck II 10m telescope from the top of Mauna Kea in Hawaii and its AO system, our group became very excited about the technology. We also began using AOs at the Very Large Telescope in Chile, and at the Gemini North telescope in Hawaii. The technology has improved over the years, and the image quality and usefulness of those complex instruments has made them part of the essential instrument suite for large telescopes, said Marchis. Since 2003, using their own observing programs and archival data, the team led by Marchis has gathered approximately 40 epochs of observations of Io in the near-infrared. These images show details as small as 100 km (60 miles) on the surface of the satellite. Their observations have revealed young and energetic eruptions called outbursts. These are easily detectable from their immense thermal emission at shorter wavelengths, implying a high eruption temperature. The team observed the awakening of the volcano Tvashtar simultaneously with the New Horizons spacecraft, which flew past Jupiter on its way to Pluto. From a combined survey based on three large telescopes, they report that the eruption was detectable from April 2006 to September 2007. Older observations from the Galileo spacecraft and the W.M. Keck observatory show that this volcano previously displayed a similar fire fountain eruptive style which started in November 1999 and lasted for 15 months. Similarly, Pillan, an energetic eruption detected with the Galileo spacecraft from 1996 to 1999, had sporadic activity again in August 2007 which was reported by the team using the W.M. Keck telescope. The episodicity of these volcanoes points to a regular recharge of magma storage chambers said Ashley Davies a volcanologist at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, and a member of the study. This will allow us to model the eruption process and understand the how heat is removed from Ios deep interior by this particular style of volcanic activity. Four additional young eruptions were detected during this survey including an extremely active volcano located at a region which had never showed activity in the past (planetocentric coordinates 17S, 5W) in May 2004. This new and sporadic outburst had a total output of 10% the average Io thermal output, so it was more energetic than Tvashtar in 2001, implying a fire fountain style eruption. Interestingly, the team did not observe any mega-outburst during this survey, with an energetic output similar to the eruption on Surt in 2001, the most energetic eruption ever witnessed in the solar system. They conclude that those outbursts should be extremely rare or very sporadic, lasting for a few days. The team and several others groups are still monitoring Ios volcanic activity. They noticed that since September 2010, Ios volcanic activity has been globally quiescent. A dozen permanent, low temperature eruptions, which represent effusive activity, are still detected across the surface of Io, but recent observations of the satellite reveal the absence of young bright eruptions and outbursts. The last one seen from the survey was the detection the Loki Patera eruption on July 24 2009, an active lava lake known for its episodic activity. "Spacecraft have only been able to capture fleeting glimpses of Io's volcanoes, Voyager for a few months, Galileo a few years, and New Horizons a few days. Ground-based observations, on the other hand, can continue to monitor Io's volcanoes over long time-scales. The more telescopes looking at Io, the better time coverage we can obtain." Said Julie Rathbun from Redlands University, a planetary scientist not directly involved in this study but who has conducted monitoring of Io with IRTF-3m telescope for more than 15 years. "AO observations from 8-10m class telescopes are a dramatic

improvement in spatial resolution over previous ground-based observations. Soon they will not only be our only way to monitor Io's volcanoes, but the best way. We should be making these observations more often." The monitoring of Io's volcanic activity will continue to build a timeline of volcanic activity and thermal emission variability, which will be further complemented by data obtained by other missions to the Jupiter system (such as the ESA mission JUICE, or a future dedicated Europa or Io mission). Until these missions, however, the task of monitoring Io's volcanic activity will be from large, AO-enabled ground-based telescopes. The next generation of AO systems will provide a better image quality and open the visible wavelength range to planetary astronomers. These systems are currently under development and will have their first light in the coming years. Colorful surface changes due to volcanic activity, such as plume deposits or lava flow fields, will be detectable from the ground. The next giant leap in the field of planetary astronomy is the arrival of Giant Segmented Mirror Telescopes, such as the Thirty Meter Telescope expected to be available in 2021. It will provide a spatial resolution of 35 km in the near-infrared, equivalent to the spatial resolution of global observations taken by the Galileo spacecraft. When pointed at Io, these telescopes will offer the equivalent of a spacecraft flyby of the satellite, Marchis said. Io was discovered by Galileo Galilei in January 1610, and the discovery announced in Sidereus Nuncius published in March 1610. Simon Marius claimed to have discovered Io and the other Galilean satellites (Europa, Ganymede, Callisto) independently and at the same time in Mundus Iovalis, published in 1614. The names of the moons of Jupiter, several lovers of the god Jupiter, were suggested by Johannes Kepler and proposed by S. Marius. The eruptive center detected in May 2004 has not yet received an official name. The coauthors of the DPS presentation are Franck Marchis of the Carl Sagan Center at the SETI Institute, CA and Ashley Davies of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, CA. The authors would like to thank Christian Marois of the National Research Council of Canada for providing the material needed for the TMT simulation. Parts of the data were extracted from the Keck Observatory Archive, the ESO Science Archive and the Gemini Science Archive. The Principal Investigators of these publically available observations are Seran Gibbard from Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Bruce Macintosh from Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Keith Matthew from Caltech, Mark Showalter from SETI Institute, Imke de Pater from University of California at Berkeley. The authors thank the NASA Outer Planets Research Program for support under Grant 202844.02.02.01.80 and the Center for Adaptive Optics, an NSF Science and Technology Center. IMAGES

Observations of several bright & young eruptions detected at short wavelength (~ 2.1 mm) on the top and longer wavelength (~ 3.2 mm) on the bottom since 2004 using the W.M. Keck 10m telescope (May 2004, Aug 2007, Sep 2007, July 2009), the Gemini North 8m Telescope (Aug 2007) and the ESO VLT-Yepun 8m telescope (Feb 2007) and their adaptive optics systems. The thermal signature of the Tvashtar outburst can be seen near the north pole on images collected in 2007. Because the awakening of volcanoe was seen from the ground using the Keck AO system in April 2006, we can conclude that the eruption remains vigorous and energetic for more that 1.5 year. The brightest outburst detected in our nine years survey is visible on the May 2004 image, it is still unnamed. A new eruption on Pillan Patera was seen in Aug 2007. A young and bright eruption was detected on Loki Pater in July 2009. This is the last bright eruption that was detected in our survey, since then Io volcanic activity is quiescent. (credit: F. Marchis) High resolution files: Fig1_brighteruptions.jpg Fig1_brighteruptions.tif Fig1_brighteruptions_nolabel.jpg Fig1_brighteruptions_nolabel.tif

Quiescent activity of Io observed in 2010 & 2011 showing the several quasi-permanent eruptions in Lp band (at ~3m) [bottom] and the absence of bright outbursts or young eruptions in K band (at ~2 m) [top]. (credit: F. Marchis) High resolution files: Fig2_noactivity20102011.jpg Fig2_noactivity20102011.tif Fig2_noactivity20102011_nolabel.jpg Fig2_noactivity20102011_nolabel.tif

Simulation of observations of Io using the W.M. Keck telescope and its current AO system, a next generation AO system mounted on the W.M. Telescope (KNGAO), and the Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT) equipped with its AO system named (NFIRAOS). The spatial resolution on the center of Io provided by these AO systems is respectively 140 km, 110 km and 35 km in H band (at 1.6 m). Two young eruptive centers labeled A & B can be detected only on the TMT observations. The KNGAO instrument is capable of detected the brightest eruption labeled A. The arrival of the TMT will provide an increase in angular resolution but also in sensitivity allowing astronomers to detect fainter and smaller eruptions. (credit: F.Marchis) High resolution files: simu_io_OA3.jpeg simu_io_OA3.tiff simu_io_OA3_notext.jpeg simu_io_OA3_notext.tiff

Galileo spacecraft observations: a three-color global scale view of Io obtained on 3 July 1999 (Orbit 21) with a resolution of 1.3 km per pixel is shown on the left. The corresponding infrared image on the right was taken at 4.7 m on October 16 2001 in da ytime and has a spatial resolution of 30 km/pixel obtained . The near infrared picture shows the active volcanoes glowing thermal radiation (NASA press release images PIA03534, credit: NASA/JPL/University of Arizona) High resolution files: PIA03534.jpeg PIA03534.tiff All images can be found on https://www.dropbox.com/sh/1hqwgyr2v9h3ntz/5Q2ewI9PCV

http://www.seti.org/node/1457 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanology_of_Io http://www.planetaryexploration.net/jupiter/io/io_for_kids.html