Exercise 2 : Cells

There are two different types of cells: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. Karyon (nut) referring to a cells nucleus. Prokaryotic cells: do not have a membrane bound nucleus and their DNA is loosely confined to a nuclear area in the cell, they lack membrane bound organelle. Ex. Bacteria & Cyanobacteria (blue green algae) Eukaryotic cells: true membrane bound nuclei containing their DNA. They are larger and have membrane bound organelles. Ex. Fungi, Protistans, Plantae and Animalia

Examining Cyanobacteria (Blue Green Algae)

Cyanobacteria are photosynthetic prokaryotes. It has chlorophyll a within thylakoid membranes dispersed throughout the cytoplasm. They contain other accessory pigments including yellow and orange carotenoids and the phycobilins. (phycoerythrins-red, phycocyanins-blue).

Examining Bacterial Cells

Bacteria are extremely small (1 to 2 um). Most are heterotrophic, organism that cannot synthesize its own food. They are either round (coccus), rod shaped (bacillus), or spiral shaped (spirillum). To view them OIO (100x) must be used.

Examining Plant Cells

1. Hyrdilla Leaf

2. Onion Lugols solution (I2KI)

Staphylococcus

Bacillus species

3. Potato I2KI

Spirilla

Happiness Notes

4. Tomato

d. Volvox a colony of biflagellated green algal cells

The smallest bacterial cells (myocoplasmas) are about 0.1 um in diameter. Most other bacteria are 1 to 2 um in diameter. A human ovum is about 100 um in diameter; ostrichs ovum is 1000 times the size of a human ovum. a. Nerve Cell a highly specialized cell body containing the nucleus and long cytoplasmic extensions for transmission of nerve impulse.

e. Human sperm cell a highly differentiated sex cell consisting of three different regions the head containing the nucleus, the midpiece with mitochondrion, and the tail composed of flagellum.

Frog Sperm cell

f. b. Strentor a ciliated single celled eukaryote belonging to the Kingdom Protista.

Chicken Egg, house lizard & Cockroach

c. Acetabularia an unusually large single celled green alga possessing a foot containing the nucleus, a stalk, and a cap.

Happiness Notes

Execise 3 : Cellular and Membrane Transport

The Law of Diffusion is the movement of molecules from areas of higher chemical potential to areas of low chemical potential.

Diffusion of a liquid in a liquid

The rate of diffusion is determined by the magnitude of difference in the concentrations of a diffusing substance in two different substance in two different locations, the area of origin and the area of destination.

Adding a drop or two of Potassium permanganate (KMNO4)

Chemical Potential is a measure of free energy available to do work of moving a mole of molecules from one location to another sometimes through a barrier as the cell membrane. In a solution, the greater the concentration of molecules of the solute the higher the chemical potential of the substance. Osmosis is a special type of diffusion, in cells it is the movement of the water from regions of high water potential to regions of low water potential across a selectively permeable membrane. Water potential is a measure of free energy per mole of water molecule. The more solute dissolved in water the lower the water potential.

Osmosis: The Osmometer

The Osmometer is used to demonstrate how changes in pressure potential can affect the water potential of a solution. A thistle tube is filled with 40% sucrose solution covered with cellophane a selectively permeable membrane. Water will move into the sucrose solution into the glass tubing until the water potential on both sides of the membrane is equal. Osmotic pressure is developed in the solution and the net movement of water into the thistle tube stops.

Brownian Movement
In order to understand how substances pass through a membrane, molecules at temperature above absolute zero are in constant motion. Molecular motion is a form of energy: transitional, vibrational, and rotational kinetic energies. Their existence is seen by the jiggling (Brownian Movement) of minute particles suspended in water.

Happiness Notes

Osmosis in a Living System

If a plant cell is immerses in a solution that has a higher solute concentration that that of the cell then the water will leave the cell, moving from an area of higher water potential to an area of lower water potential. The loss of water from the cell will cause the cell to loss turgor thus becoming flaccid on plasmolized. Under the microscope such becomes visible as withdrawal of the protoplast from the cell wall (plasmolysis) and decrease the size of the vacuole.

Exercise 4: Mitosis
The cell theory states that all cells come from pre-existing cells. New cells are formed by the process of cell division which involves both division of the cells nucleus (karyokinesis) and the division of the cytoplasm (cytokinesis). Mitosis is the production of two daughter cells that are identical and resembles the parent cell. It happens in the somatic cells and vegetative cells. Meiosis is the reduction in chromosome number in the daughter cells to half that of the parent cell. Gametes (sex cells) in animal and sores in plants are produced in meiotic division.

Interphase
In G1, the cell doubles in size as well as its enzymes and organelles.
Rhoeo discolour on water

In S phase, two strands of DNA helix unwind, separate, and each duplicate (replication), now composed of 3 chromatids attached by a centromere and are called chromosomes, with its DNA molecules structurally interact. Proteins are synthesized. In G2, spindle fibers assemble will become attached to the chromosome that will guide their movement. In animal cells a pair of centrioles divide while it is lacking in higher in plants.
In NaCl

Happiness Notes

Prophase
Chromosomes condenses the pairs of centriole separate and migrate to opposite poles of the nucleus, spindle fibers form, nuclear membrane, nucleoli disappear and the spindle fibers attach to the centromere of each chromosome.

Telophase
The spindle apparatus disappears and the nucleus, nucleoli, and nuclear membrane appears, chromosomes decondenses and reform diffuse chiasmatin. There are now two nuclei.

Cytokinesis
Metaphase
The centromere regions of sister chromatids are attached by the spindle fibers to the opposite centrioles and chromosomes line up at the middle equator. In animal cells the spindle apparatus consists of astral fibers but none in higher plant cells. In animal cells, microtubules are involved in the formation of the furrow that constricts the cytoplasmic mass into two daughter cells. In plant cells, a cell plant is formed along the midplane as many vesicles from golgi bodies become joined together. Membranes on either side of the cell plate fuse with the cell membrane to separate the two daughter cells, then pectin forms the middle lamella and cell walls synthesize.

Anaphase
Centromere regions of sister chromatids separate and the daughter chromosomes move to opposite ends of the cell towards the centriole.

Happiness Notes