Basic Mechanical TVS

TCE, Dept. Mech. Engineering Basic Mechanical Engg.
Course material (Private Circulation only)
THIAGARAJAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, MADURAI 625 015.

(A Govt. Aided Autonomous Institution Affiliated to Anna University) DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
COURSE PLAN
Degree: B.E./B.Tech. Semester: I Branch: All Branches Section: All Sub. Code: H15 Subject Name: Basics of Mechanical Engineering Dept. of Staff: Mechanical Engineering OBJECTIVE: To impart knowledge on basic concepts of energy sources, I.C.Engines, packaged power plant and design and manufacturing of automotive transmission system. Sl.No. Topics No. of Periods 1. History and Evolution of Mechanical Engineering 2. 3. Introduction Stress, strain, factor of safety Elements of Transmission Systems Fundamentals 4. 5. 6. 7. Clutch - Concept design Clutch - Manufacturing Gear Box - Concept design Gear Box ( Housing ) - Manufacturing TEST - I 8. 9. Propeller Shaft Concept design Propeller Shaft - Manufacturing 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 TEST - II 16. Laws of Conservation of Energy & Sources of Energy 1 BB BB BB BB BB BB BB BB BB 1 1 2 1 BB BB BB BB 1 1 BB BB 1 BB Methodology Dates engaged
10. Final Drive - Concept design 11. Final Drive - Manufacturing 12. Differential - Concept design 13. Differential - Manufacturing 14. Axle - Concept design 15. Axle - Manufacturing
Page 1 of 77
TCE, Dept. Mech. Engineering Basic Mechanical Engg. Course material (Private Circulation only)
17. IC Engine - 2 Stroke IC Engine (Petrol & Diesel) 18. IC Engine - 4-Stroke IC Engine (Petrol & Diesel) 19. Packaged Power Plant 20. Petrol / Diesel Engine Power Plant 21. Electrical Generator TEST - III
BB
BB
1 1 1
BB BB BB
* - ( BB- Black board; OHP Over Head Projector; PP-Power Point;)
OUTCOME: At the end of the course the students should be able to, Explain the history and evolution of mechanical engineering Design the transmission system of an automobile Suggest a suitable method of manufacture of automotive transmission elements Explain the construction and operation of packaged power plant.
REFERENCES: 1. N.K. Giri, Problems in Automotive Mechanics, Khanna Publishers, New Delhi, 2004 2. N.K. Giri , Automotive Mechanics, Khanna Publishers, New Delhi, 1989 3. Kirpal Singh, Automobile Engineering, Volume I, Standard Publishers, New Delhi, 1997 4. V. Ganesan, Internal Combustion Engines, Second Edition, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Co Ltd, New Delhi, 2003 5. B.L. Theraja, Elements of Electrical and Mechanical Engineering, S. Chand & Co Ltd, India, January 1999. 6. Shanmugam G. and Palanichamy M.S., Basic Civil and Mechanical Engineering, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Co., New Delhi 1996. 7. Mohan Sen, Basic Mechanical Engineering, Laxmi Publications ( P ) Ltd, New Delhi, 2006 8. Hajra Choudhury, Elements of Workshop Technology, Vol.I and II, Khanna Publishers, New Delhi, 1988.
Page 2 of 77
1. History of Mechanical Engineering The words engine and "ingenious" are derived from the same Latin root, "ingenerate", which means "to create". The early English verb engine meant "to contrive". Thus the early "engineers" were the people who contrived (i.e. invented) new things. The history of mechanical engineering can be traced directly to the ancient world, to the designers and inventors of the first mechanisms which were powered by human or animal labour, water or wind energy, or a combination of these. Although many of the mechanisms had a purely peaceful application, such as for flight, irrigation or building, the word "engineer" originally meant "military engineer" because it was derived from the term "engines of war". These were machines such as catapults, floating bridges and assault towers. The invention of the steam engine in the latter part of the 18th century provided a key source of power for the Industrial Revolution and gave enormous impetus to the development of machinery of all types. As a result, a new major classification of engineering dealing with tools and machines, namely mechanical engineering, received formal recognition in 1847. Today's mechanical engineer is heavily involved in the development and use of new materials and technologies, especially in computer aided engineering. A rapidly growing field for mechanical engineers is environmental control, comprising the development of machines and processes that will produce fewer pollutants, as well as the development of new equipment and techniques to reduce or remove existing pollution. Although mechanical engineers may occasionally work alone on a small project, they are more likely to be working on large, multi-disciplinary projects, liaising with specialists from other areas. In almost every sphere of modern life, from the air-conditioned office or home to the modern industrial plant or mode of transport, one sees the work of mechanical engineers who continue to develop and apply new knowledge and technology to improve the quality of life for society as a whole. What Does a Mechanical Engineer Do? The professional discipline of mechanical engineering is concerned with the design, development and manufacture of machines and mechanical engineering systems. These Page 3 of 77
include engines and turbines of various kinds, land transport vehicles, ships, aircraft, pumps and fans, air-conditioning and refrigeration systems, building services, industrial plants, and manufacturing processes. However, practically all areas of engineering make use of the skills of the mechanical engineer to some extent. Mechanical engineers offer expertise in the fields of energy technology, combustion, acoustics, noise and vibration control, biomedical engineering, fluid mechanics and aeronautics, automatic control, manufacturing, robotics, quality management, plant layout and process simulation. Good mechanical engineering is built on a strong foundation of theory, reinforced by an amalgam of experience and innovation. Today's mechanical engineer is heavily involved in the management of people and resources as well as the development and use of new materials and technologies, especially computer-aided engineering. A rapidly growing field for mechanical engineers is environmental control, comprising the development of machines and processes that will produce fewer pollutants, as well as the development of new equipment and techniques to reduce or remove existing pollution. Mechanical Engineers are committed to the use of technology to improve the quality of life for society as a whole.
2. AUTOMOBILE TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS - DESIGN Introduction Stress and Strain All machine parts are subjected to forces, which arise due to one or more of the following: Self weight, External forces, Energy transmission, Frictional resistance, Inertia of parts and change of temperature. Stress can be described as a measurement of intensity of force. As all engineers know, if this intensity increases beyond a limit known as yield, the component's material will undergo a permanent change in shape or may even be subjected a to dramatic failure. When forces act on a body, resisting forces are set-up within the body. These forces per unit area are called Stresses. It is essential to determine the values of internal stresses set-up so as to ensure an adequate factor of safety. Stresses due to tensile force, compressive force, shear, bending moment and thermal effects are discussed here.
Page 4 of 77
Tensile Stress When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite axial pulling forces, F-F as shown in fig. , the stress induced at any section A-A of the body is known as tensile stress and the corresponding strain, the tensile strain.
Compressive Stress When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite axial pushing forces, F-F as shown in fig. , the stress induced at any section A-A of the body is known as compressive stress and the corresponding strain, the compressive strain. F F
F Shear Stress
When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite forces, F-F acting tangentially across the resisting section as a result of which of the body tends to shear off at the section; the stress induced is known as shear stress and the corresponding strain, the shear strain.
Page 5 of 77
TCE, Dept. Mech. Engineering Basic Mechanical Engg. Course material (Private Circulation only) F F F F F Q=F
Thermal Stress Changes in temperature will produce the thermal effects on materials. Some of these thermal effects include thermal stress, strain, and deformation. The first effect we will consider is thermal deformation. Thermal deformation simply means that as the "thermal" energy (and temperature) of a material increases, so does the vibration of its atoms/molecules; and this increased vibration results in what can be considered a stretching of the molecular bonds - which causes the material to expand. Of course, if the thermal energy (and temperature) of a material decreases, the material will shrink or contract. For a long rod the main thermal deformation occurs along the length of the rod, and is given by:
where,
(alpha) is the linear coefficient of expansion for the material, and is the
fractional change in length per degree change in temperature.
Some values of the linear coefficient of expansion are: Steel = 12 x 10-6/oC = 6.5 x 10-6/oF; Brass = 20 x 10-6/oC = 11 x 10-6/oF; Aluminum = 23 x 10-6/oC = 13 x 10-6/oF. The term is the temperature change the material experiences, which represents
(Tf - To), the final temperature minus the original temperature. If the change in temperature is positive we have thermal expansion, and if negative, thermal contraction. The term 'L' represents the initial length of the rod. Stress Strain Diagram Very useful information concerning the behavior of material and its usefulness for engineering applications can be obtained by making tensile test and plotting a curve showing the variation of stress with respect to strain. Tensile test is one of the simplest and basic tests and determines values of number of parameters concerned with mechanical properties of materials like strength, ductility and toughness. Page 6 of 77
The specimen used in tensile test can be circular, square or rectangular cross section. The standard gauge length is given by:
5.65 A
where, A is the cross-sectional area of the specimen. = 5 d for circular cross section. In tensile test, the specimen is subjected to axial tensile force which is gradually increased and corresponding deformation is measured. Initially the gauge length is marked on the specimen and initial dimensions d and are measured before starting the test. The specimen is then mounted on the machine and gripped in the jaws. It is then subjected to axial tensile force which is increased by suitable increments. After each increment, the amount by which the gauge length increases. The procedure of measuring the tensile force and corresponding deformation is continued till fracture occurs and the specimen is broken into two pieces. The tensile force divided by the original cross-sectional area of the specimen gives stress, while the deformation divided by gauge length gives the strain in the specimen.
Page 7 of 77
Factor of Safety Factor of safety is defined as the ratio of maximum stress to working stress. Working stress is defined as safe stress which the machine part is subjected to. It is usually lower that the maximum stress at which failure of the material takes place. For ductile materials, Factor of safety is defined as the ratio of Yield point stress to working stress. For brittle materials Factor of safety is defined as the ratio of ultimate stress to working stress. Selection of factor of safety depends on: 1. Material type 2. Mode of manufacture 3. Type of stress 4. Working or Service conditions 5. Shape of the part 6. Assumptions made in the design
ELEMENTS OF TRANSMISSION Front Engine Rear Wheel Drive Vehicle
Page 8 of 77
Power train of front engine rear wheel drive passenger car:
CLUTCH Location It lies between the engine and the gear box. Need of the Clutch To disconnect the engine from the remaining part of the power transmission system. To permit gradual taking up of the load To prevent jerky motion of the car in starting To facilitate smooth shifting of gears
Components of Clutch Engine flywheel Clutch plate Pressure plate Cover plate
Page 9 of 77
Parts of a single Plate Clutch
Operation: Engine flywheel and pressure plate through cover plate drive clutch plate by friction during engaged position. When the clutch is disengaged by clutch pedal, pressure plate is moved away from clutch plate, thus contact between flywheel and clutch plate is lost. Therefore, clutch shaft which is splined to clutch plate stops or its speed decreases.
Page 10 of 77
Single Plate Clutch
Design criteria: Clutch is designed to transmit the engine torque without slip Friction surface to have reasonable coefficient of friction Friction material to absorb the heat generated To have reasonable thermal conductivity to dissipate heat The force required by the clutch to separate the drive should not be excessive Friction material to have adequate surface area to absorb and transfer the heat Radial width ( r2 r1 ) is designed to transmit the torque
Clutch Manufacturing Pressure plate is made up of cast iron material. The surfaces are accurately machined and pressed against the driven plate. The pressure plate is made with milling process.
Milling Process Milling is a cutting process that uses a multi-edge cutting tool to remove material while traveling along various axes with respect to the workpiece, able to generate complex shapes and profiles. Milling is a process where a work part is shaped and sized by feeding material past a rotating multiple tooth cutter that removes material during each pass. Material may be feed vertically or horizontally. The machined surface may be flat, angular, or curved. The Page 11 of 77
shaped in nearly any fashion. Milling is a versatile process that allows large amounts of material to be removed quickly. By milling operation a large variaty of flat surfaces-horizontal, vertical or inclined, are performed. Generaly, milling machines are destinated for 1. Facing 2. Profiling 3. Pocketing 4. Slot cutting 5. Hole machining 6. 3-D surface machining At all types of milling machines, the cutting tool has to have o rotation motion, that is cutting motion. The rotation axe of the tool could be horizontal or vertical, dependoing of machine tool version. The feeding motion is achieved either by part or tool, or both, usualy on three perpendicular directions. In this respect a large variety of milling machine were developed. Conventional Milling Machine are generally classified with Horizontal milling machine Vertical milling machine
Page 12 of 77
Horizontal milling machine architecture
3D view of Horizontal milling machine Milling Operations
Page 13 of 77
Face Milling: Process where the cutter is mounted having an axis of rotation perpendicular to the workpiece surface. -- used to create flat surfaces -- leaves cutting marks on the machined surface End Milling: Process where the cutter usually rotates on an axis perpendicular to the workpiece, although it can be tilted. -- used to create various profiles in a part. -- may have tapered or ball nose tools to produce tapered or rounded features.
Page 14 of 77
Vertical Milling machine architecture
The work piece which is to be machined is clamped on the table and the cutting tool is held on the spindle. The suitable feed and speed is chosen to perform the operation. T- Slots are provided on the top of the table to hold the work piece. Clutch plate is clamped on the table by any one of the work holding device from clamp, bolts and nuts, etc. To get the perfect smooth surface the correct speed and feed is to be selected. To remove the heat which produced during machining is to be removed by applying a suitable coolant.
Page 15 of 77
GEAR BOX (Manual Transmission) Need: To move the vehicle from rest To change the speed of the vehicle To move the vehicle in reverse direction
Fundamentals of Gear Operation
Power flow in pair of gears
For a single pair of gear wheels (Refer Diagram A) Gear ratio = No. of teeth in driven gear / No. of teeth in driving gear (TB / TA) For multi pairs (Compound gears) (Refer Diagram B ), Gear ratio = product of number of teeth in driven gears = (TB * TD / TA * TC) Product of number of teeth in driving gears
Diagram C refers to power flow in reverse gear using idler gear (I). Page 16 of 77
Components of a 4-Speed Constant Mesh Gear Box
Operation & Construction
The pairs AB, CD, EF, GH are always in mesh. The gears C, E, G are rotating on bearings, without transmitting power to main shaft.
The dog clutch or hub and main shaft are splined to each other, ie, they rotate as a single unit.
The lay shaft (or) Counter-shaft has integral gears (B, D, F, and H) with it. i.e) the speed of the lay shaft is the speed of all these gears. (B, D, F, H).
Main shaft is connected to propeller shaft through universal joint.
Page 17 of 77
Power Flow in each Gear A - B H G HUB SHAFT A B F E HUB SHAFT A - B D C HUB SHAFT
First Gear: Second Gear: Third Gear:
Fourth or Top Gear: A HUB SHAFT Note: The total number of teeth in each pair is same. ie, TA+TB = TC+ TD
SIMPLE PROBLEMS (Design of Gear Box) (1) Calculate the number of teeth in each gear wheel, for a 4 Speed gear box, if the gear ratios are 1:1, 1.38:1, 2.24: 1, 3.8:1, approximately. Assume counter shaft speed is half that of the engine speed and the smallest gear is not to have less than 15 teeth. Solution: TA = TH = 15 (Assumption) TB/TA = 2 = NA/NB TB = 30, First Gear: A - B H G HUB SHAFT Exact Gear ratio = TB * TG / TA * TH = 30 * 30 / 15 *15 = 4 Second Gear: A - B F E HUB SHAFT Second Gear ratio = 2.24 = TB * TE / TA * TF = 2 * TE / TF TE / TF = 1.12 TA+TB = TE+ TF = 45, TF = 21.22 = 22, Therefore TE = 23 Exact Gear ratio = TB * TE / TA * TF = 30 * 23 / 15 *22 = 2.09 Third Gear: A - B D C HUB SHAFT Third Gear ratio = 1.38 = TB * TC / TA * TD = 2 * TC / TD TC / TD = 0.69 TA+TB = TC+ TD = 45, TD = 26.62 = 27, Therefore TC = 18 Exact Gear ratio = TB * TC / TA * TD = 30 * 18 / 15 *27 = 1.33 Page 18 of 77 TA+TB = TG+ TH = 45, Therefore, TG = 30
EXERCISE PROBLEMS: (1) Evolve a design for spur gears to be used in an ordinary gear box that give the following speed ratios: 1.0, 1.43, 2.29, 3.91
The smallest pinion in the system is to have a minimum of 15 teeth. Answer: (TA = 15, TB = 30, TC = 15, TD = 30, TE = 21, TF = 24, TG = 26, TH = 19) (2) Gear ratios for a small passenger car are 1st gear 2nd gear 3 gear Top gear
rd
: : : :
4.2: 1 2.56: 1 1.52: 1 1: 1
The smallest pinion in the gear train must have at least 15 teeth. Speed of the engine shaft = 1.52 * speed of lay shaft. Calculate number of teeth in each gear wheel and actual gear ratios on the basis of the above result.
GEAR BOX It is common experience that a high torque is required at the driving wheels when a vehicle is starting from rest, climbing a hill or accelerating. Due to the variable nature of resistance because of load and gradient changes, it is imperative that the engine power should be available over a wide range of road speeds.
For this purpose the transmission or gear set is provided to permit the engine crankshaft to revolve at a relatively high speed while the wheels turn at slower speeds. The gear set is enclosed in a metal box called GEAR BOX.
Page 19 of 77
The gear box is fitted between the clutch and the rear axle and helps the road wheels to get the power of the engine in varying ratios. The sliding mesh type gearbox is the simplest type of gearbox. Gearbox is of streamlined design, rugged in construction, made of graded cast iron. It is completely oil-tight, dust proof and capable of being installed in the open without a separate cover. The faces and bores are accurately bored and machined on latest precision machines to ensure perfect alignment and interchangeability. Gearbox consists of the following main elements: 1. Gear box outer case 2. Input power clutch assembly gears 3. Constant mesh gears 4. Splined main shaft 5. Gear lever Manufacturing process of Gear Box outer Case: Casting Process
METAL CASTING PROCESS The following block diagram shows the outline of production steps in sand casting process.
Pattern
Pouring Into Mold
Mould Sand
Mold
Melting of Metal
casting
Inspection
Cleaning and Finishing
1. Patterns A pattern is a model or a replica of the object to be manufactured. 2. Types of Pattern There are many types of mould patterns available. Few types of widely used patterns are listed below: 1) Single solid pattern or single piece pattern Page 20 of 77
2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8)
Split pattern Match plate pattern Loose piece pattern Skeleton pattern Sweep pattern Gated pattern Cope and Drag pattern
3. Pattern Allowances To compensate the Shrinkage during solidification and for better surface finish, easy removal of pattern from the mold cavity. 1. Shrinkage allowance 2. Finishing allowance or Machining allowance 3. Draft allowance or Taper allowance 4. Distortion allowance or Camber allowance 5. Shaking allowance or Rapping allowance 4. Moulding Sand Mould sand is the medium in which the cavity is made for the casting. The main ingredients of Mould Sand: 1. Silica or River Sand 2. Clay 3. Water Properties of mould sand: 1. Refractoriness 2. Permeability 3. Adhesiveness 4. Flowability 5. Types of Moulding 1. Green sand Moulding: Green sand is a mixture of silica, clay moisture (6-8%) and additives. 2. Dry sand Moulding Additive 5. Strength 6. Cohesiveness 7. Collapsibility
Page 21 of 77
The additive includes binders and special ingredients to get some specific properties. Mould sand mixing device The mould sand is needs to be mixed well before using it for preparing the mould. A special mechanical mixing device is used called Sand Muller. 6. Tools Required 1. Mould Boxes i) Cope Box ii) Drag Box 2. Bottom board 3. Riddle 4. Rammer 5. Runner and Riser pins 6. Trowel 7. Lifter 8. Mallet 9. Shovel 10. Strike-off bar 11. Vent wire 12. Draw spike 13. Slick 14. Gate cutter
Page 22 of 77
7. MOULDING PROCEDURE The following procedure can be used for making Gear box. The required gear box pattern is to be prepared first, then using the following procedure it can be produced. The following steps explain the casting procedure with split pattern as an example: 1. Select the required pattern for making gear box. One half of the pattern is placed on the moulding board. The moulding box (drag) is placed with the dowel pins down position as shown in the following figure.
2. Apply facing sand over the pattern. Molding sand is filled in the molding box up the pattern is fully covered by the moulding sand. Then, the pattern is to be pressed firmly around the surfaces of the pattern with fingers.
3. The drag box is completely filled with sand up to the top and ram it by hand rammers. Then the excess sand is leveled by a strike off bar as shown in the following figure.
23
4. Then make many, small vent holes on the top of the mould as shown in the figure.
5. Now title the drag box upside down position as shows in the following figure.
6. Then sprinkle the dry parting sand such a way that the pattern and top sand surface have been completely covered. 7. Then place cope box over the drag box correctly using the dowel pins available on the side of the mould boxes. 8. Then, place another half of the split pattern over the first half in correct position using the locator pins available in the split pattern itself as shown in the figure.
24
9. Place the Sprue pin on the side of the pattern and Riser pin on the top of the pattern as shown in the following figure.
10. Fill the cope box with moulding sand and ram the sand firmly using the same procedure which is followed in drag box and made few vent holes on the top surface of the mould as shown in the following figure.
11. Remove the sprue and riser pins carefully ad then lift the cope box then, place it on the surface table with upside down position. 12. Carefully remove the split patterns available on the box boxes using draw spike immediately after moistening the edges of the pattern. 13. Then, a small passage known as gate is cut in order to connect the sprue basin and the mold cavity. 14. The cope is placed over the drag carefully again to get the two halves of the mold together as shown in the following figure.
25
15. Now the mold is ready for pouring the hot molten metal.
8. Casting Process for Gear Box production After preparing the gear box mould cavity, the molten metal (Grade Cast Iron) will be poured through the pouring basin. It flows through the sprue hole, sprue basin, runner and gate and fills the entire cavity and raise up through the riser hole. Then the hot metal available in the molding cavity is allowed to cool. Finally the gear box case is removed from the sand casting mould. Then it may require certain finishing and secondary machining operation depends upon the functional requirements.
PROPELLER SHAFT Propeller shaft connects gear box to the final drive gears of the vehicle through universal joint. A universal joint allows the drive to the transmitted through a variable angle.
26
A tubular section propeller shaft is normally used because of its low weight, torsional strength.
Design of propeller shaft Since propeller shafts of road vehicles are sufficiently long and operate in general at high speed, whirling may occur at certain critical speed. This produces bending stress in the material. Critical speed of the P.S. varies directly as the diameter of the shaft and inversely as the square of the length. Therefore diameters are selected as large as possible and lengths as short as possible. Propeller shafts are so designed that the critical speed is about 60% higher than the engine speed at maximum power.
Propeller shaft - Manufacturing Propeller shaft is a driving shaft that connects the gear box to the differential. It consists mainly three parts a. Shaft This to withstand mainly torsional loads. It is made of tubular cross section. Solid shafts are also used. b. Universal Joints- One or two joints are used based depends upon the type of rear axle drive. The universal joints account for the up and down movements of the rear axle when the vehicle is running c. Slip Joint or Telescopic joint Depending upon the type of drive, one slip joint may be there in shaft. It serves to adjust the length of the propeller shaft when demanded by the rear axle movements.
27
Propeller shafts are normally made by extrusion process under metal forming process. In this the metals are deformed to the required shape by means of plastic deformation. Plastic Deformation As with other metallurgical practices, differences between hot and cold working are not easy to define. When metal is hot worked, the forces for deformation are less and the mechanical properties are relatively unchanged. When a metal is cold worked, greater forces are required and the strength of the metal is increased. In hot working the thickness of the material is changed substantially, but in some cold working operations, such as the finish rolling of sheet metal, the thickness remains approximately the same. In the manufacture of metal components, the basic alternatives available for the production of a designed shape include casting, machining, welding, and deformation process. Hot working is a deformation process. Metal deformation exploits and interesting fact of metals: their ability to flow plastically in the solid state without accompanying deterioration of properties. Moreover, in forcing the metal into a desired shape there is little or no waste of material. Hot working is the plastic deformation of metals above their recrystallization temperature, which varies with different materials. Hot working does not necessarily imply high absolute temperature. For example, lead and tin are hot worked at room temperature. Recrystallization temperatures of common metals are given as; Recrystallization Temperature of Metals Metal Aluminium Copper Gold Iron Lead Magnesium Nickel Silver Tin 300 (150) 390 (200) 390 (200) 840 (450) Below room temperature 300 (150) 1100 (590) 390 (200) Below room temperature F (C)
28
Zinc
At room temperature
Although hot working causes plastic deformation above the recrystallization temperature, it does not produce strain hardening. Also, the hot worked metal does not possess a greater elastic limit or become stronger, and the metal usually experiences a decrease in yield strength; that is, a point where additional strain occurs without any increase in stress load on the material. Ductility, which is the ability of material to be deformed plastically without fracture, is impaired. Thus, it is possible to alter the shape of the metals
drastically with moderated forces by hot working and without causing fracture. The recrystallization temperature of a metal determines whether or not hot or cold working is being accomplished. For steel, recrystallization starts around 950 to 1300F (500 to 700C), although most hot working of steel is at temperatures considerably above this range. Various alloying effects cause variations. There is no tendency for hardening by mechanical work until the lower limit of the recrystalline temperature range is reached. Some metals, such as lead and tin, have a low recrystalline range and can be hot worked at room temperature. Most commercial metals, however, require heating. Alloy composition of these metals influences the proper working temperature range. The typical result raises the recrystalline range temperature; prior cold working also increases this range. During hot working operations the metal is in a plastic state and is formed readily by pressure. In addition hot working has the following advantages: Porosity in the metal is largely eliminated. Most ingots contain many small blowholes. These are pressed together and eliminated. Impurities in the form of inclusion are broken up and distributed throughout the metal. Course are columnar grains are refined. Since this hot work is in the recrystalline temperature range, it should be continued until the low limit is reached to provide a fine grains structure. Physical properties are generally improved owing principally to grain refinement. Ductility and resistance to impact are improved, strength is increased, and greater
29
homogeneity is developed in the metal. The greatest strength of rolled steel exists in the direction of metal flow. The amount of energy necessary to change the shape of the steel in the plastic state is fare less than that required when the steel is cold. Hot working processes present a few disadvantages that cannot be ignored. Because of the high temperature of the metal, there is rapid oxidation or scaling of the surface with accompanying poor surface finish. As a result of scaling, close tolerances are not practical. Hot working equipment and maintenance costs are high, but the process is economical if compared to working metals at low temperatures and the objective of the operation is similar. The term hot finished refers to steel bars, plates, or structural shapes that are purchased in the as rolled condition from the hot working operation. Some descaling is done but, otherwise, the steel is ready for bridges, ships, railroad, cars, and other applications where does dimensional tolerances are not required. The material has good weldability and machinability because the carbon content is less than 0.25% for these products. Extrusion: In extrusion there is no hammer blow but instead the metal is slowly squeezed by a punch through a die. Since squeezing action is required, press forging machines, such as mechanical forging press or hydraulic press is used. The squeezing actions of a tooth paste tube is a good example to illustrate the concept of extrusion. In this case the material is squeezed out under pressure through openings called die. In the case of tooth paste or cream tubes the mouth acts as the die.
30
Figure 1 Extrusion Process The figure 2 illustrates the different types of extrusion. The concept in all extrusions is that, the punch slides inside a cylinder. When the punch presses the metal, the hot metal is forced out through the opening. The shape and size of the extruded part depends upon the shape and size of the die. Depending on how the metal flows out, the different types of extrusion are classified as follows.
Figure 2 Different Types of Extrusion Methods Depending on the shape of the die, different cross sections can be obtained as shown in figure 3.
31
Figure 3. Different types of cross sections Advantages of extrusion: The extruded part has a very dense structure. Process is cheaper. Complicated sections that are impossible to produce by other methods can be produced easily. Very thin sections can be sections can be produced easily. Surface finish is good. Dimensional accuracy is good. Used for mass production of uniform cross section. Seamless tubes can be produced ( i.e. tubes which do not have joints along its length) Very fast production. Limitations: Equipment is complicated. Initial investment needed for the press is high.
Universal joints Universal joints are used to make a flexible connection between two rigid shafts at an angle with each other. They permit the transmission of power not only at an angle, but also while this angle is being varied constantly. In motor vehicles they are used not only to permit power to be transmitted from the horizontal transmission main shaft to the propeller shaft which is normally at an
32
angle with the horizontal because the rear axle is usually lower than the transmission main shaft, but also while the flexing of the springs caused by the road irregularities is constantly changing this angle. Without such a flexible device the transmission of power under these conditions would be impossible.
Final Drive Need: To turn the power flow at a right angle from propeller shaft to the rear axle. To provide mechanical advantage (to increase torque) from the propeller shaft to the rear axle.
Rear Axle Ratio: (Final drive ratio) Rear Axle ratio (a) =
No.of teeth on crown wheel No.of teeth on bevel pinion
33
Overall Gear Ratio Overall gear ratio (G) = Gear ratio (in Gear box) * rear axle ratio G=gxa
Linear Speed of Wheels (v): V = Angular speed of wheels * Circumference of wheels V = N w * 2r
Problem: (1) A 4 teeth drive pinion is driven by a propeller shaft at 2500 rpm and meshes with a crown wheel on the rear axle shafts. The crown wheel has 21 teeth. Calculate the speed of the vehicle in km/h if the diameter of the road wheels is 0.7m. Solution: Rear axle ratio (a) = 21/4 = 5.25 Angular speed of road wheel =
propeller shaft speed rear axle ratio
= 2500 / 5.25 = 476 rpm Linear speed of wheels = (476 x x 0.7 x 60) / 1000 = 62.83 km/h.
34
(2) A vehicle has a third gear ratio of 1.5 to 1 and a rear axle ratio of 4.5 to 1. Calculate (a) The overall gear ratio and (b) The number of revolution made by the crown wheel per minute if the engine speed is 2700 rpm. Solution:
a. Overall gear ratio (G) = g x a = 1.5 x4.5 = 6.75: 1
b. Speed of the crown wheel = Engine speed = 2700/ 6.75 = 400 rpm
G
Exercise Problem: (1) At an engine speed of 2250 rpm, a torque of 50 Nm is applied to the gearbox. If the gearbox and final drive ratios are 3.4 : 1 and 5 : 1 respectively, and the vehicle is traveling in a straight line, Calculate, (a) The speed of each road wheel and (b) The torque applied to each road wheel if the efficiency is 100% Ans: (a) 150 rpm (b) 425 Nm (2) In a certain axle, the final drive ratio is 6.5 : 1. When the pinion is turned by a torque of 200 Nm, it is found that the torque produced at the crown wheel is 1170 Nm. Calculate the torque ratio and the percentage efficiency of the axle. Ans: 5.85 : 1, 90% Final Drive Generally the final drive consists of a bevel pinion and a crown wheel or alternatively worm and worm wheel arrangement. Three types of bevel gears are used for the final drive gearing: 1. Straight bevel gears These contain the straight teeth. They are simplest and cheapest for all types. In this type at one instant only one pair of teeth of pinion and the crown wheel will be in contact. An uneven transmission of motion will take place here. As a result these gears are noisy and suffer from high wear. 2. Spiral bevel gears 35
The spiral bevel gears have curved teeth which result in greater contact of the teeth. Because of which gears are silent running and stronger than the straight bevel gear. 3. Hypoid Gears These types of gears are widely used for final drive these days. In these gears, the basic surface on which the teeth are cut is hyperboloid, which is a solid obtained by rotating a hyperbola about an offset axis. Such gears are employed to connect shafts at right angles to each other, but not lying in the same plane. Both the pinion and the crown wheel are usually made from nickel-chrome alloy steel, machined by any one of the gear cutting process and carburised after which they are case hardened by quenching in oil. Worm and wheel type of final drive is particularly useful in heavier vehicles where the final reduction is greater than about 6. This gives a quiet, efficient and very strong drive. Further, larger gear reductions are possible with worm and wheel drive in single reduction as compared to the bevel pinion type where double reduction has to be employed. Worm is usually made of nickel steel and is case hardened, whereas phosphor bronze is used for the worm wheel.
Differential
36
When a car turns around a corner, the distance traveled by the out side wheels is greater than that traveled by the inside wheels. If the wheels are mounted on the dead axles so that they turn independently of each other, like the front wheels of an ordinary passenger vehicle, they will turn at different speeds to compensate for the difference in travel. But, if the wheels are driven positively by the engine, a device is necessary to permit them to revolve at different speeds without interfering with the propulsion of the car. To accomplish this purpose a system of Gears called the Differential is provided.
37
The above figure shows diagrammatically a simple bevel gear differential. The Differential Pinion G is mounted on short axle or stud F, which is carried by the differential frame or case E. The Case is driven by the final gear drive gears in this instance gears C and B. The differential pinion G meshes with the side of Gears H and H1, which drive the rear wheels through the axles K and K1.When the final drive ring Gear C turns in the direction shown, the differential case E turns with it, carrying the Stud F and Pinion G in the same way as indicated in the connection with fig. Any difference in the rotation of rear wheel is compensated by the rotation of the differential pinion G on the Stud F while revolving bodily about the X-Y axis. If the differential Pinion G rotates, it must roll on one of the differential side gears H or H1, and the amount of motion in rolling on the one side gear is transmitted to the other as an additional turning and driving effort. Any retarded motion of one wheel results in accelerated motion of the other. The rotation of the engine is thus transmitted to the rear wheels in the proportion to the distance each wheel travels. In figure only one differential pinion is shown, and the differential case, is merely a frame bolted to the ring gear. In the actual differentials a number of differential pinions, usually two are employed and usually the differential case partially encloses the differential gears.
38
Note: Speed of the outer wheel + Speed of the inner wheel = 2 * Speed of the crown wheel. i.e., Reduction in speed of the inner wheel = increase in speed of outer wheel.
Problem: (1) The steering set of a vehicle provides a turning circle radius of 6.6 m with a wheel track (distance between left & right wheels) width of 1.2 m. The effective road wheel-rolling diameter is 0.72 m. Calculate the number of revolutions made by the inner and outer wheels for one turning circle. Solution: Mean turning radius (Rm) = 6.6 m Outer wheel turning radius (Ro) = 6.6 + (1.2/ 2) = 7.2 m Inner wheel turning radius (Ri) = 6.6 - (1.2/ 2) = 6.0 m Rolling circumference of road wheel = x D = 0.72 m Distance traveled by outer wheel for one complete turning circle = 2Ro =14.4 m Distance traveled by inner wheel for one complete turning circle = 2Ri =12 m Therefore revolutions completed by outer wheels =
2R o D
= 20 revolutions
Revolutions completed by inner wheels =
2R i D
= 16.6 revolutions
Differential Lock out The Objection to the Bevel gear differential is that, whichever wheel offers the less resistance is turned faster, causing a loss of traction. If one wheel gets in the mud or loose sand, the wheel on the solid ground will not be driven while other spins around due to Differential action. For this reason some of truck differentials are provided with devices to lock out the differential to provide better traction under difficult driving conditions. In addition several designs of the differential have been developed that will not permit differential action unless both wheels have traction.
39
Exercise Problem: 1. A Six cylinder 4-s cycle engine develops a brake power of 44.67 kW. If the final drive ratio is 5.2:1 and the transmission efficiency in top gear is 90%, determine the power at the road wheels when top gear is engaged. If this vehicle is negotiating a road bend, and the inside road wheels are making 230 rpm, Calculate the rpm of the outer wheels and the torque and power at both outer and inner wheels. DIFFERENTIAL Differential contains two sun gears mesh with the two or four planet pinions. Axle half shafts are splined to each of these sun gears. The crown wheel is free to rotate on the half shaft. The main components of the differential are bevel gears. The bevel gears are manufactured by different machining processes. The both final drive and the differential are mainly contains different types of gears only. Manufacturing of Gears Gear cutting is a highly complex and specialised art and that is why most of the gear machines are single purpose machines. The following are the most commonly used methods of manufacturing gears. 1. Casting: Gears can be cast in sand moulds. Sand casting is particularly used for making heavy gears of cast iron and steel. Gears made by this process have poor accuracy. These are mostly used for slow speed drives. This is not efficient for power transmission. This gear may be machined for a good finish or left as cast for rough machinery. 2. Hot rolling: Gears are made by forcing a master gear into a hot blank and the two are then rolled together until the teeth of the master have penetrated for enough to form a complete gear. The teeth are then machined. This method is little used as present, but has possibilities for future. 3. Stamping: Stamped gears are made from sheet metals. Materials up to 3mm thickness are practical for this process. These gears may be shaved after stamping to improve the accuracy and finish.
40
4. Powder metallurgy: In this process, a master gear of hard material is rolled against a heated gear blank, thereby forming the teeth on the hot blank. Bakelite and other plastic materials are the commonly used materials for manufacture of gears by this method. 5. Extruding: In this process the brass and aluminium bar is extruded through the die having the shape of the desired tooth element and thus the material can finally be extruded to obtain gear form on its surfaces, and the extruded gear bar is then hacksawed. 6. Coining: Gears are coined from blanks in a hydraulic press or forging hammer. Gears manufactured by this process require a light machining or may be used as such. 7. Machining: Gears are machined from the blanks, usually by a roughing and a finishing operation. The various methods used for machining are described below. (i) Milling: in the milling machine the cutter is mounted on the spindle and rotates while the work piece is mounted on the table and reciprocated under the cutter. Once the cutter finishes the tooth profile, the work piece is indexed to the next position, and again the tooth profile is finished and so on. Using this process spur, helical, bevel and worm gears can be manufactured. (ii) Broaching: In this process, full form finished gears are produced in one pass by a circular broach having inward facing teeth. The broaching tool consists of a series of full form finishing rings at the end of a series of generating ring. All the rings are keyed and assembled in octagon shaped broach holder. This is mainly used in mass production and no separate finishing operation is required. (iii)Gear Planning: In gear planning process, the cutter consists of true involute rack which reciprocates across the face of the blank and the blank rotates in the correct relationship to the longitudinal movement of the cutter as if both roll together as a rack and pinion. This is used for producing external spur and helical gears.
41
(iv)Gear Hobbing: in this process the gears are generated by a rotating cutter called hob. This process is a continuous indexing process in which both the cutting tool and work piece rotate in a constant speed while the hob is being fed into work.
Bevel Gear Generators: Since the teeth of bevel gears constantly change in form from the large to the small end, it is impossible to form the bevel teeth but these have to be generated. There are two common types of bevel gear generators. 1. Straight Bevel Gear Generator which cuts Straight teeth 2. Spiral Bevel Gear Generator which cuts spiral teeth. Gear Finishing: even though the gears are satisfactorily manufactured by the gear cutting processes, some additional finishing operations may be required which depends on the application in which the gears are used. All the mechanical finishing operations are commonly used for finishing gears which are listed below. 1. Gear Shaving: it is cold working process. The rolling gear is in contact and under pressure with three hardened burnishing gears. This process is ideal for automotive gear box gears after hobbing and before hardening. 2. Gear Grinding: Heat treated gears can be finished either by grinding or by lapping. This process is obsolete one. But when the high accuracy associated with profile grinding is required, it is the only process to be used.
After the finishing operation the gears are to be tested. In the testing process the factors such as concentricity, size, noise, tooth bearing, spacing etc. are to be considered.
42
Axle Shaft: Axle shafts are splined to the side gears in differential They are subjected to bending stress and torsional stress It is designed to withstand severe torsional stresses arising during power transmission The radius of the solid cylindrical axle shaft depends on torque transmitted, weight of vehicle supported by one wheel, wheel radius, coefficient of friction between tyre and road, safe shear stress of the material selected. AUTOMOBILE REAR AXLE Rear axle is the last element of the power transmission chain. Power generated in the engine passes on to the gear box through a clutch. From the gear box it goes to the propeller shaft through universal joints and from the propeller shaft it goes to the rear axle to be ultimately delivered to the road wheels. One kind of automobile axle is shown in the following picture.
Manufacturing Process The automobile rear (or) front axle is manufactured through forging process. Forging is the operation where the metal is heated and then a force (impact or squeeze type) is applied to manipulate the metal in such a way that the required final shape is obtained. Forging enhances the mechanical properties of metals and improves the grain flow, which in turn increases the strength and toughness of the forged components such as automobile axle. Forging temperature For forging, the metal piece is heated to a proper temperate to attain plastic properties before deformation which is essential for satisfactory forging. The following table shows the forging temperature ranges for various metals and alloys.
43
Forging Temperature in o C
S.No.
Metal / Alloy
Starting 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Mild steel Wrought iron Medium carbon steel High Carbon steel Copper, brass and Bronze Aluminium and magnesium alloys 1300 1275 1250 1150 950 500
Finishing 800 900 750 825 600 350
Types of forging process 1. Smith forging (Open Die Forging): The process of reducing a metal billet between open dies to obtain the required shape are called smith forging. In this process Pneumatic hammers are used. a) b) Hand forging: It is used to produce small numbers of light forged components. Power forging: Power press is used here to apply force on the heated base material and it is used to produce large number of components in medium (or) large size. The sketch of the pneumatic hammer is shown in the following figure.
44
2.
Impression - Die Forging: The process of reducing a metal billet between closed impression dies to obtain the required shape is called impression die forging. It is used to make more complex shaped products with greater accuracy.
a) Drop forging: The drop hammer is used to apply more impact force on the base metals. The ram of the drop hammer is raised to a certain height and then it is allowed to drop freely under its own weight.
b)
Press forgingThe metal is shaped not by means of a series of blows as in drop forging, but by means of continuous squeezing action. The hydraulic press (OR) mechanical press may used for applying the required pressure on the metals. The sketch of the hydraulic press is shown in the following figure.Usually the power forging and press forging techniques are used for making automobile front (or) rear axle.
45
Relationship between engine speed and vehicle speed N / V = 2.65 * G / r Where, N = Engine Speed in RPM V= Vehicle speed in km/h G = Overall gear ratio (g * a = reduction in gear box * reduction in final drive) r = wheel radius in m
PART - B
ENERGY Definition: Energy is the ability to do work. Energy is a property or characteristic of matter that makes things happen, or, in the case of stored or potential energy, has the "potential" to make things happen. Energy has a number of different forms, all of which measure the ability of an object or system to do work on another object or system. In other words, there are different ways that an object or a system can possess energy.
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY The law of conservation of energy states that the total amount of energy in any isolated system remains constant but cannot be recreated, although it may change forms, e.g. friction turns kinetic energy into thermal energy. In thermodynamics, the first law of thermodynamics is a statement of the conservation of energy for thermodynamic systems, and is the more encompassing version of the conservation of energy. In short, the law of conservation of energy states that energy can not be created or destroyed; it can only be changed from one form to another.
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY Conservation of energy is not saving energy. The law of conservation of energy says that energy is neither created nor destroyed. When we use energy, it does not disappear. We change it from one form of energy into another.
46
A car engine burns gasoline, converting the chemical energy in gasoline into mechanical energy. Solar cells change radiant energy into electrical energy. Energy changes form, but the total amount of energy in the universe stays the same. Scientists at the Department of Energy think they have discovered a mysterious new form of energy called "dark energy" that is actually causing the universe to grow. We use all these energy sources to generate the electricity we need for our homes, businesses, schools, and factories. Electricity "energizes" our computers, lights, refrigerators, washing machines, and air conditioners, to name only a few uses. We use energy to run our cars and trucks. Both the gasoline used in our cars, and the diesel fuel used in our trucks are made from oil. The propane that fuels our outdoor grills and makes hot air balloons soar is made from oil and natural gas.
The Different Basic Forms of Energy KINETIC ENERGY Kinetic energy is motion of waves, electrons, atoms, molecules, substances, and objects. Radiant Energy is electromagnetic energy that travels in transverse waves. Radiant energy includes visible light, x-rays, gamma rays and radio waves. Light is one type of radiant energy. Solar energy is an example of radiant energy. Thermal Energy, or heat, is the internal energy in substances the vibration and movement of the atoms and molecules within substances. Geothermal energy is an example of thermal energy. POTENTIAL ENERGY Potential energy is stored energy and the energy of position gravitational energy. There are several forms of potential energy Stored Mechanical Energy is energy stored in objects by the application of a force. Compressed springs and stretched rubber bands are examples of stored mechanical energy.
The classification of Energy: CONVENTIONAL (Non-Renewable) Oil(Petroleum) NON-CONVENTIONAL (Renewable) Solar
47
Natural Gas Coal Uranium (Nuclear)
Wind Geothermal Biomass Hydro Ocean (Tidal Energy)
CONVENTIONAL Fossil Fuels -Conventional Energy sources Fossil fuels are used for a variety of domestic and industrial purposes. These fuels contain high percentages of carbon and generate huge amount of energy when heated. These non-renewable sources of energy are formed as deposits within the inner layers of earth. The remains of animals and vegetations that died millions of years ago formed the reserves of fossil fuels in different parts of the world. Fossil fuels are mostly found in three basic types namely natural gas, coal, and petroleum. Advantages:

Depending on fuel, good availability Simple combustion process can directly heat or generate electricity Inexpensive Easily distributed Disadvantages Probable contributor to global warming Questionable availability of some fuels...major price swings based on politics of oil regions
Cause of acid rain
Coal Coal has been the most common source of energy. Modern steam boilers burn coal in any of its forms as a primary fuel. Trees and plants failing into water decayed and produced peat bogs. Gigantic geological upheavals buried these bogs under layers of silt. Soil pressure, heat and movement of the earths curst distilled off some the bogs gaseous matter to form brown coal, or lignite different from; peat lignite, bituminous and anthracite.
48
The largest power plant is located on the west bank at Hardeo river near korba in Bilaspur district of Madhya Pradesh. Other power plants in India are located in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka,Maharashtra. Thermal Power Station, a 4 X 110 MW plant located in Uttar Pradesh.
Oil: Almost 40% of the energy needs of the world are fed by oil. Refining petroleum or crude oil produces our fuel oils. India is not particularly rich in petroleum reserves. The potential oil bearing areas are located in Assam, Tripura,
Manipur, West Bengal, Ganga valley, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Kutch, eastern and western coastal area (in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala). Andaman and
Nicobar Islands,Lakshadweep,and in the continental shelves adjoining these areas. Diesel power plants in India are installed in isolated places and the total installed capacity is estimated as 0.35 million kW i.e. Less than 2% of the total installed capacity in the country. No addition to this is expected in near future. GAS: Gas is incompletely utilized at present and huge quantities are burnt off in the oil production process because of the non-availability of ready market. The reason may be the high transportation cost of the gas. To transport gas is costlier than transporting oil. Large reserves are estimated to be located in inaccessible areas. Gaseous fuels can be classified as: (1) Gases of fixed composition such as acetylete, ethylene, methane etc., (2) Composite industrial gases such as producer gas, coke oven gas, water gas, blast furnace gas etc., Thermal Power Current installed base of Thermal Power is 92,216.54 MW which comes to 64.6% of total installed base.Current installed base of Coal Based Thermal Power is 76,298.88 MW which comes to 53.3% of total installed base. Current installed base of Gas Based Thermal Power is 14,716.01 MW which comes to 10.5% of total installed base. Current installed base of Oil Based Thermal Power is 1,201.75 MW which comes to 0.9% of total installed base.
49
Nuclear Power: According to modern theories of atomic structure, matter consists at minute particles known as atoms. These atoms represent enormous concentration of binding energy. Controlled fission of heavier unstable atoms such as U235, Th232 and artificial element Pu230, liberate large amount of heat energy. This enormous release of energy from a relatively small mass of nuclear fuels makes this source of energy of great importance. The energy released by the complete fission of one kg of U 236, is equal to the heat energy obtained by burning 4500 tones of high grade coal or 2200 tones of oil. The heat produced b nuclear fission of the atoms of fissionable material is utilized in special heat exchangers for the production of steam which is then used to drive turbo generators as in the conventional power plants. Kaiga NPCIL Karnataka, Kakrapar NPCIL Gujarat, Kalpakkam NPCIL Tamil Nadu,Narora NPCIL Uttar Pradesh, Rawatbhata NPCIL Rajasthan, Taapur NPCIL Maharastra.Currently, seventeen nuclear power reactors produce 4,120.00 MW (Some under construction). Non-Conventional Solar Energy: The sun has produced energy for billions of years. Solar energy is the suns rays (solar radiation) that reach the earth. Solar energy can be converted into other forms of energy, such as heat and electricity. Solar energy can be converted to thermal (or heat) energy and used to:

Heat water for use in homes, buildings, or swimming pools. Heat spaces inside greenhouses, homes, and other buildings. Photovoltaic (PV devices) or solar cells change sunlight directly into electricity. PV systems are often used in remote locations that are not connected to the electric grid. They are also used to power watches, calculators, and lighted road signs.
Solar energy can be converted to electricity in two ways:
Solar Power Plants - indirectly generate electricity when the heat from solar thermal collectors is used to heat a fluid which produces steam that is used to power generator. Out of the 15 known solar electric generating units operating in the United States at the end of 2006, 10 of these are in California and 5 in
50
Arizona. No statistics are being collected on solar plants that produce less than 1 megawatt of electricity, so there may be smaller solar plants in a number of other states. Applications of Solar Energy: Solar Water Heating, Space heating, Space cooling, Solar Energy: Thermal Electric Conversion, Solar Energy: Photovoltaic electric Conversion, Solar distillation, Solar pumping, Agriculture and Industrial process heat, Solar Furnace, Solar Cooking, Solar production of Hydrogen, Solar Green house. The major disadvantages of solar energy are:
The amount of sunlight that arrives at the earth's surface is not constant. It depends on location, time of day, time of year, and weather conditions.
Because the sun doesn't deliver that much energy to any one place at any one time, a large surface area is required to collect the energy at a useful rate.
Wind Energy: Energy extracted from the wind is initially energy in the form of rotary, translational, or oscillatory mechanical motion. This mechanical motion can be used to pump fluids or can be converted to Electricity. Wind energy which is an indirect of source solar energy conversion can be utilized to run wind mill, which in turn drives the generator to produce electricity. Energy of wind can be economically used for the generation of electrical energy. Winds are caused from tow main factors: 1. Heating and cooling of the atmosphere which generates convection currents. Heating is caused by the absorption of solar energy on the earths surface and tin the atmosphere. 2. The rotation of the earth with respect to atmosphere, and its motion around the sun. The potential of wind energy as a source of a power is large. The energy available in the wind over the earth surface is estimated to be 1.6 X 107 Mega Watts. Which is of the same order magnitude has present energy consumption on the earth.
51
Applications: Applications of some what more powerful turbines, up to about 50kW, are for operating irrigation pumps, offshore oil drilling platforms. Aero generators in the intermediate power range, roughly 100 to 250 kW, can supply electricity to isolated populations (e.g. on Island), to small Industries. In larger wind mills the electric power ranges from 2000 to 5000 kW or 2 to 5 megawatts. Windmills are located in Tamil Nadu , Karnataka, Rajasthan. Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh.
Tidal Energy: The periodic rise and fall of the water level of sea is called tide. These tides can be used to produce electrical power which is known as tidal power. When the water is above the mean sea level, it is called flood tide. When the level is below the mean sea level it is called ebb tide. A tidal basin is formed which gets separated from the sea, by dam. The
difference in water level is obtained between the basin and sea. The constructed basin is filled during high tide and emptied during low tide passing through turbine respectively. By using reversible water turbines, turbines can be run continuously, both during high tide and low tide. The turbine is coupled to generator, potential energy of the water stored in the basin as well as energy during high tide, is used to drive the turbine, which is coupled to generator, generating electricity. Tidal power plants have been constructed in Western part of India.
Geothermal Energy: The word geothermal comes from the Greek words geo (earth) and therme (heat). So, geothermal energy is heat from within the earth. Geothermal energy is obtained from the internal heat of the planet and can be used to generate steam to run a steam turbine. This in turn generates electricity, which is a very useful form of energy. Geothermal energy is a renewable energy source because the water is replenished by rainfall and the heat is continuously produced inside the earth. NHPC to set up pilot geothermal power plant in Chhattisgarh. Indian has 400 medium to high enthalpy geothermal springs, clustered in seven provinces shown in
52
Figure 1. The most promising provinces are Cambay,
i)
The Himalaya, ii) Sohana, iii)
iv) Son-Narmada-Tapi (SONATA) and v) the Godavari. With the recent
volcanic eruption, the Barren Island, a part of the Andaman-Nicobar chain of islands, is added to the above list. Most of them are liquid dominated systems with one or two having both liquid and gas dominated systems. Biomass: Biomass is organic material made from plants and animals. Biomass contains stored energy from the sun. Plants absorb the sun's energy in a process called photosynthesis. The chemical energy in plants gets passed on to animals and people that eat them. Biomass is a renewable energy source because we can always grow more trees and crops, and waste will always exist. Some examples of biomass fuels are wood, crops, manure, and some garbage. When burned, the chemical energy in biomass is released as heat. If you have a fireplace, the wood you burn in it is a biomass fuel. Wood waste or garbage can is burned to produce steam for making electricity, or to provide heat to industries and homes. Biomass can be converted in to biogas as fuel by means of conversion technologies. Biomass Conversion Technologies Thermochemical Conversion, gasification and Liquefaction, Biochemical Conversion Fermentation, Hydrogenation. Renewable Power Current installed base of Renewable Power is 12194.57 MW which comes to 7.7% of total installed base. Power production status of non-conventional energy in India --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Renewable Power Potential Achieved
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Wind Power Small Hydro Power Biomass Solar photovoltaic Power 20,000 MW 10,000 MW 20,000 MW 20 MW/sq.km 1,000 MW 172 MW 141 MW 810 KW
53
Packaged Diesel Power Plant Diesel electric plants in the range of 2 to 50 MW capacities are used as central stations for small supply authorities and works and they are universally adapted to supplement hydroelectric or thermal power stations where standby generating plants are essential for starting from cold or under emergency conditions
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES Definition of Engine: An engine is a device which transforms one form of energy into another form. Definition of Heat Engine Heat engine is a device which transforms the chemical energy of a fuel in to the thermal energy and utilizes this thermal energy to perform useful work. Heat engines can be broadly classified into two categories: (i) (ii) Internal Combustion Engines (IC Engines) External Combustion Engines (EC Engines)
Engine Components Cylinder: It is a cylindrical vessel or space in which the piston makes a reciprocating motion. The varying volume created in the cylinder during the operation of the engine is
54
filled with the working fluid and subjected to different thermodynamic process. The cylinder is supported in the cylinder block. Piston: It is a cylindrical component fitted into the cylinder forming the moving boundary of the combustion system. It fits perfectly in to the cylinder providing a gas-tight space with the piston rings and the lubricant. It forms the first link in transmitting the gas forces to the output shaft.
Combustion Chamber: The space enclosed in the upper part of the cylinder, by the cylinder head and the piston top during the combustion process, is called the combustion chamber. The combustion of fuel and the consequent release of thermal energy results in the building up of pressure in this part of the cylinder.
Inlet Manifold: The pipe which connects the intake system to the inlet valve of the engine and through which air or air-fuel mixture is drawn in to the cylinder is called the inlet manifold. Exhaust Manifold: The pipe which connects the exhaust system to the exhaust valve of the engine and through which the products of combustion escape into the atmosphere is called the exhaust manifold.
Inlet and Exhaust Valves: Valves are commonly mushroom shaped poppet type. They are provided either on the cylinder head or on the side of the cylinder for regulating the charge coming into the cylinder (inlet valve) and for discharging the products of combustion (exhaust valve) from the cylinder. Spark Plug: It is a component to initiate the combustion process in Spark Ignition (SI) engines and is usually located on the cylinder head.
55
Connecting Rod: It connects the piston and the crankshaft and transmits the gas forces the piston to the crankshaft. Crankshaft: It converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into useful rotary motion of the output shaft. In the crankshaft of a single cylinder engine there is a pair of crank arms and balance weights. The balance weights are provided for static and dynamic balancing of the rotating system. The crankshaft is enclosed in a crankcase. Piston Rings: Piston rings, fitted into the slots around the piston, provide a tight seal between the piston and the cylinder wall thus preventing leakage of combustion gases. Camshaft: The camshaft and its associated parts control the opening and closing of the two valves. The associated parts are push rods, rocker arms, valve springs and tappets. This shaft also provides the drive to the ignition system. The camshaft is driven by the crankshaft through timing gears. Cams: These are made as integral parts of the camshaft and are designed in such a way to open the valves at the correct timing and to keep them open for the necessary duration. Fly Wheel: It is an inertia mass in the form of a wheel is attached to the output shaft of engine and this wheel is called the flywheel.
Engine Nomenclature Cylinder Bore (d): The nominal inner diameter of the working cylinder is called the cylinder bore and is designated by the letter d and is expressed in millimeter (mm). Piston Area (A): The area of a circle of diameter equal to the cylinder bore is called the piston area and is designated by the letter A and is usually expressed in square centimeter (cm2)
56
Stroke (L): The nominal distance through which a working piston moves between two successive reversals of its direction of motion is called the stroke and is designated by the letter L and expressed is usually in millimeter (mm). Dead Centre: The position of the working piston and the moving parts which are mechanically connected to it, at the moment when the direction of the piston motion is reversed at either end of the stroke is called the dead centre. There are two dead centres in the engine as indicated, (i) Top Dead Centre (i) Top Dead Centre (TDC): It is the dead centre when the piston is farthest from the crankshaft. designated as TDC. It is also called the Inner Dead Centre (IDC). It is (ii) Bottom Dead Centre
(ii) Bottom Dead Centre (BDC): It is the dead centre when the piston is nearest to the crankshaft. It is designated as BDC. It is also called the Outer Dead Centre (ODC) Displacement or Swept Volume (Vs): The nominal volume swept by the working piston when traveling from one dead centre to the other is called the displacement volume. It is expressed in terms of cubic centimeter. Clearance Volume (Vc): The nominal volume of the combustion chamber above the piston when it is at the top dead centre is the clearance volume. It is designated as VC and expressed in cubic centimeter (cc). Compression Ratio (r) : It is the ratio of the total cylinder volume when the piston is at the bottom dead centre, VT, to the clearance volume, VC. It is designated by the letter r.
57
FOUR STROKE CYCLE PETROL ENGINE Petrol engine is also known as Spark Ignition (S.I.) engine. It requires four strokes of the piston to complete one cycle of operation in the engine cylinder. It is known as Otto Cycle. 1. Suction Stroke During suction stroke, the inlet valve (I) opens and air and fuel (petrol) mixture is sucked into the cylinder. The piston moves downward from top dead centre (TDC) till it reaches bottom dead centre (BDC). During suction stroke exhaust valve (E) is closed.
2. Compression Stroke During this stroke, both the inlet and exhaust valves are closed. The air-fuel mixture is compressed as the piston moves upwards from BDC to TDC. compression, pressure and temperature of the charge are increased. Shortly before the piston reaches TDC, the charge is ignited by means of a spark plug. It suddenly increases the pressure and temperature of the products of combustion, but the volume practically remains constant. 3. Expansion or Working Stroke As a result of
During this stroke, both the valves remain closed. Due to the rise in pressure, piston is pushed down with a great force. The hot burnt gases expand pushing the piston from TDC to BDC. It is also called working stroke as work is done by the expansion of hot gases.
58
4. Exhaust Stroke During suction stroke, the exhaust valve opens, as piston moves from BDC to TDC. This movement of the piston pushes out the hot gases from the cylinder. The exhaust gases are exhausted through the exhaust valve into the atmosphere. This completes the cycle. Again the inlet valve opens and the same operations are repeated.
FOUR STROKE CYCLE DIESEL ENGINE:
1.
Suction Stroke
During suction stroke, the inlet valve (I) opens and the exhaust valve (E) remains closed. The piston travels downwards from TDC. Air is drawn in, from outside to enter the cylinder through the inlet valve till the piston reaches BDC. The air taken in is at atmospheric pressure. 2. Compression Stroke At the end of the suction stroke, both the inlet and the exhaust valves remain closed. The piston moves upwards from BDC to TDC. The air sucked in during suction stroke is compressed to a high pressure and temperature with a decrease in volume. 3. Expansion or Power Stroke Just before the beginning of this stroke, fuel (diesel) is injected in the form of fine spray into the cylinder through fuel injector. At this moment, the fuel is ignited by the temperature of the hot compressed air as compression ratio of diesel engine is high (16 to 20), and it starts burning at constant pressure. The ignited mixture of air fuel
59
(diesel) expands and forces the piston downwards from TDC to BDC. During the expansion stroke, both the valves remain closed. 4. Exhaust Stroke During the exhaust stroke, the inlet valve is closed and the exhaust valve is opened. The piston is on its upstroke from BDC to TDC, forcing the burnt gases out of the cylinder through the exhaust valve. This completes the cycle and the engine cylinder is ready to suck the fresh air once again.
TWO STROKE CYCLE PETROL ENGINE
1.
First Stroke
The fig.(a) shows the position of the piston at the end of compression. The spark is produced by the spark plug as the piston reaches TDC. The pressure and temperature of the gases are increased and hence the gases push the piston downwards producing the power stroke. When the piston opens the exhaust port (fig.b) during the downward stroke, the burnt gases leave the cylinder through the exhaust port. A little later, the piston uncovers the transfer port and the crank case is directly connected to the cylinder through the transfer port (fig.c). The downward stroke of the piston compresses the charge in the crank case by the underside of the piston. In this position, the compressed mixture of petrol and air is transferred through the transfer port to the upper part of the cylinder. The exhaust gases are pushed out, with the help of
60
compressed charge. This is known as scavenging. This is continued until the piston reaches BDC. 2. Second Stroke As the piston moves upwards, it covers the transfer port. Hence, flow of charge into the cylinder is stopped. The upward motion of the piston lowers the pressure in the crank case below atmosphere and fresh air is induced in the crank case below atmosphere and fresh air is induced in the crank case through the inlet port as it is uncovered. A little later, the piston covers the exhaust port (fig.d) and actual compression of the charge starts as shown in the Fig. The compression is continued until the piston reaches TDC. The cycle is thus completed within two strokes.
TWO STROKE CYCLE DIESEL ENGINE:
1. First Stroke The fig.(a) shows the position of the piston at the end of compression. Diesel is injected using fuel injector just before completing the compression. It starts burning. The high pressure, high temperature gases push the piston downwards, producing the power stroke. As the piston moves little down, the supply of diesel stops. When the piston opens the exhaust port (fig.b) during the downward stroke, the burnt gases leave the cylinder through the exhaust port. A little later, the piston uncovers the transfer port (fig.c). Now, the crank case is directly connected to the cylinder through the transfer port. Air in the crank case is
61
compressed by underside of the piston and the compressed air is transferred to the cylinder through transfer port. The exhaust gases are pushed out with the help of fresh air until the piston reaches BDC. 2. Second Stroke The piston moves upwards. It first covers the transfer port and stops the flow of air into the cylinder. A little later, the piston covers the exhaust port (fig.d) and actual compression of air starts. The upward motion of the piston lowers the pressure in the crank case below atmosphere and fresh air is induced in the crank through the inlet port as it is uncovered. The compression of air is continued until the piston reaches TDC. The fuel supply starts just before the piston reaches TDC and the cycle is completed.
Comparison of Four and Two-Stroke Cycle S. No Four-Stroke Engine Two-Stroke Engine
1.
The
thermodynamic
cycle
is The thermodynamic cycle is completed
completed in four strokes of the piston in two strokes of the piston or in one or in two revolutions of the revolution of the crankshaft. Thus one
crankshaft. Thus, one power stroke is power stroke is obtained in each obtained in every two revolutions of revolution of the crankshaft. the crankshaft. 2. Turning moment is not so uniform and Turning moment is more uniform and hence a heavier flywheel is needed. 3. hence a lighter flywheel can be used.
Power produced for same size of Power produced for same size of engine engine is less, or for the same power is more, or for the same power the the engine is heavier and bulkier. engine is is lighter and more compact.
4.
Lesser
cooling
and
lubrication Grater cooling and lubrication greater
requirements. Lower rate of wear and cooling and lubrication requirements. tear. 5. The four-stroke engine Higher rate of wear and tear. contains Two-stroke engines have no valves but
valves and actuating mechanisms to only ports.
62
open and close the valves. 6. Because of the heavy weight and Because of light weight and simplicity complicated valve mechanism, the due to the absence of valve mechanism, initial cost of the engine is more. 7. initial cost of the engine is less.
Volumetric efficiency is more due to Volumetric efficiency is low due to more time for induction. lesser time for induction.
8.
Thermal efficiency is higher; part load Thermal efficiency is lower; part load efficiency is better than two-stroke efficiency is poor compared to a four cycle engine. stroke cycle engine.
9.
Used where efficiency is important, Used where low cast, compactness and viz., in cars, buses, trucks, tractors, light weight are important, viz., in industrial engines, aero planes, power mopeds, scooters, motorcycles, hand generation etc. sprayers etc.
Comparison of SI and CI Engines
Description
SI Engine
CI Engine
Basic Cycle
Otto cycle or constant volume heat Diesel cycle or constant addition cycle. pressure heat addition cycle.
Fuel
Gasoline, a highly volatile fuel. Self- Diesel oil, a non-volatile ignition temperature is high. fuel. temperature comparatively low. Self-ignition is
Introduction of A gaseous mixture of fuel and air is Fuel is injected directly into fuel introduced during the suction stroke. the combustion chamber at A carburetor is necessary to provide high pressure at the end of the mixture. the compression stroke. A fuel pump and injector are necessary. Load control Throttle controls the quantity of The quantity of fuel is
63
mixture introduced.
regulated in the pump. Air quantity is not controlled.
Ignition
Requires an ignition system with spark Self-ignition occurs due to plug in the combustion chamber. high temperature of air Primary voltage is provided by a because battery or a magneto. of the high Ignition
compression.
system and spark plug are not necessary. Compression ratio 6 to 10. Upper limit is fixed by 16 to 20. Upper limit is limited by weight increase of the engine. Speed Due to light weight and also due to Due to heavy weight and homogeneous combustion, they are also due to heterogeneous high speed engines. combustion, they are low speed engines. Thermal efficiency Because of the lower CR, the Because of higher CR, the
antiknock quality of the fuel.
maximum value of thermal efficiency maximum value of thermal that can be obtained is lower. efficiency that can be
obtained is higher. Weight Lighter due to lower peak pressures. Heavier due to higher peak pressures.
ENGINE PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS Indicated Thermal Efficiency (ith) Indicated thermal efficiency is the ratio of energy in the indicated power to the input fuel energy in appropriate units. Brake Thermal Efficiency (bth) Brake thermal efficiency is the ratio of energy in the brake power to the input fuel energy in appropriate units.
64
Mechanical Efficiency (m) Mechanical efficiency is defined as the ratio of brake power (delivered power) to the indicated power (power to the piston). It can also be defined as the ratio of the brake thermal efficiency to the indicated thermal efficiency. Volumetric Efficiency (v) Mass of charge actually inducted v = ------------------------------------------------------Mass of charge represented by swept volume at ambient temperature and pressure
Volume of charge aspirated per stroke at ambient conditions = ------------------------------------------------------Swept volume Relative Efficiency or Efficiency Ratio (rel) Relative efficiency or efficiency ratio is the ratio of thermal efficiency of an actual cycle to that of the ideal cycle. Mean Effective Pressure (Pm) Mean effective pressure is the average pressure inside the cylinders of an internal combustion engine based on the calculated or measured power output. Specific Fuel Consumption (s f c) The fuel consumption characteristics of an engine are generally expressed in terms of specific fuel consumption in kilograms of fuel per kilowatt-hour. It is an important parameter that reflects how good the engine performance is. It is inversely proportional to the thermal efficiency of the engine. Fuel consumption per unit time SFC = ------------------------------------------------------Power
65
Multi-point fuel injection Multi-point fuel injection injects fuel into the intake port just upstream of the cylinder's intake valve, rather than at a central point within an intake manifold, referred to as SPFI, or single point fuel injection. MPFI (or just MPI) systems can be sequential, in which injection is timed to coincide with each cylinder's intake stroke, batched, in which fuel is injected to the cylinders in groups, without precise synchronization to any particular cylinder's intake stroke, or Simultaneous, in which fuel is injected at the same time to all the cylinders.
PACKAGED POWERPLANT The working principle of packaged Petrol and Diesel power plant are same. Packaged petrol power plant are used for small applications for generating power for less
consumption of power at shops ,home appliances. Which can generate power for usage to give supply for few electric bulbs, fans etc. Nowadays we use inverters for the backup of small applications which is cost efficient and saves the fuel consumption for power generation.
66
Packaged Diesel Power Plants are used for large applications for generating power for more consumption of power for big building, Colleges, hospitals, Industries etc. Diesel Engines are widely used because its cost efficient and used for large applications. The cost of petrol is high hence it is used for small applications. The disadvantage of Diesel Generators is more noise and more pollution comparing to petrol generators.
CONSTRUCTION The construction and parts are same for both Power Plants Parts of the System: The Schematic arrangement shows all the parts of the power plant. The difference is according to the Engine used Petrol Engine or Diesel Engine and the fuel used Petrol or Diesel Packaged petrol power plants are mostly portable type which generates power from 2 KW to 25 KW. Packaged diesel power plants are used, which can generate from 2 to 50 MW.
67
68
Main Parts of a Diesel Plant 1. Engine: It is the main component of the plant and is directly coupled to the generator. 2. Air intake system: It conveys fresh air through air filters that removes dirt and dust particles and supplies air to the engine inlet through the inlet manifold. 3.Exhaust system: It discharges the engine exhaust to atmosphere .The exhaust manifold connects the engine cylinder exhaust outlet to a exhaust pipe which is provided with a muffler or silence to reduce pressure on the exhaust line and eliminate most of the noise which may result if gas are discharged directly to the atmosphere 4. Fuel system: the fuel used is DIESEL which is supplied to the engine by the
following processes: a) Filter the fuel. b) Meter the correct quantity of fuel to be injected. c) Timing for injection. d) Regulate the fuel supply. e) Secure fine atomization of fuel oil. f) Distribute the atomized fuel properly in the combustion chamber. 5. Cooling system and Lubricating System: cooling system and lubricating system of engine is necessary for the following: a) To maintain the working temperature of the engine by lubricating oil. b) To avoid more thermal stress, this will decrease wear and tear. c) To avoid Pre-Ignition, detonation or knocking. d) To reduce friction between moving parts in the engine. The engine and the lubricating oil can be cooled by a) Air cooling: Air cooling is used for small engines. b) Water cooling: Water cooling is used for big engines. 6. Generator: Generator is directly coupled with the engine which converts the mechanical energy produced by the diesel engine in to Electrical energy (electricity).
Applications of Diesel Engines in Power Field The diesel electric power plants are chiefly used in the following field: a) Peak load plant: Diesel plants can be used in combination with thermal or hydroplants as peak load units. They can be easily started or stopped at a short notice to meet the peak demand
69
b) Mobile plant: Diesel plants mounted on trailers can be used for temporary or emergency purposed such as for supplying power to large civil engineering works c) Standby unit: If the main unit fails or cannot cope up with the demand a diesel plant can supply the necessary power. For example, if water available in a hydroplant is not adequately available due to less rainfall, the diesel station can operate in parallel to generate the short fall in power. d) Emergency plant: During power interruption in a vital unit like a key industrial plant or a hospital, a diesel electric plant can be used to generate the needed power. e) Nursery station: In the absence of main grid, a diesel plant can be installed to supply power in a small town. In course of time, when electricity from the main grid becomes available in the town, the diesel unit can be shifted to some other area which needs power on a small scale. Such a diesel plant is called a nursery station f) Starting stations: Diesel units can be used to run the auxiliaries (like FD, and ID fans, BFP, etc) for starting a large steam power plant. g) General stations: Diesel electric plants can be used as central station where the capacity required is small Advantages and Disadvantages of Diesel Engine power plant Following are the advantages of diesel electric stations: a) It is easy to design and install these electric stations b) They are easily available in standard capacities c) They can respond to load changes without much difficulty d) There are less standby losses e) They occupy less space f) They can be started and stopped quickly g) They require less cooling water h) Capital cost is less i) Less operating and supervising staff required j) High efficiency of energy conversion from fuel to electricity k) Efficiency at part loads is also higher
70
l) Less of civil engineering work is required m) They can be located near the load centre n) There is no ash handling problem o) Easier lubrication system
Following are some of the disadvantages in installing diesel units for power generation a) High operating cost b) High maintenance and lubrication cost c) Capacity is restricted. Cannot be of very big size d) Noise problem e) Cannot supply overload f) Un-hygienic emissions
Types of Diesel Plants In a diesel engine, air is fist compressed to a high pressure and a small volume (volumetric compression ratio varying between 13 and 22) at which the hot air temperature is more than the self ignition temperature of the fuel oil, which is sprayed into the compressed air in fine atomized form. The combustion products expand doing work on the piston till the exhaust valve opens. Exhaust of the products then takes place, at the end of which fresh air is again taken into the cylinder and the cycle repeats itself. There is no spark plug. Fuel oil spray burns in the hot compressed air. Hence, a diesel engine is also called a compression ignition or C. I. engine Diesel engines can be fourstroke and two-stroke, horizontal and vertical, single-cylinder and multi-cylinder, naturally aspirated and supercharged.
Specification of Diesel Power Plant: Tier 2! New 2007 3516C Caterpillar 2000kW Sound Attenuated Diesel Generator Packages - Brand new Tier 2 units available in 60Hz 3 Phase 1800rpm 480 volt. Full packages include radiator, jacket water heater, 3200 Amp Breaker, EMCP 3.3 Control Panel, and more. Fully sound attenuated enclosures complete with choice of fuel tank type and size.
71
Specification of Petrol Power Plant or Generator: 5.5 Kw petrol Generator (6KVA) Brand new in box 5.5 kw petrol generator, Electric Start S. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Type Voltage Regulate AC Frequnency (Hz) AC Output Voltage (V) Cont. AC Output (VA) Max. AC Output (VA) DC Output (V/A) Engine Model Type Starting System Fuel/Lub Capacity (L/in.) Fuel/Lub.oil Operating Noise Level (at 7m) Revolving field type 2 poles generator Capacitance & AVR 50 220;230;115/230 5000 5500 12 / 8.3 186F Single cylinder, Air-cooled, 4-stroke vertical Recoil / Electric Start 15(3.96) / 1.65(0.44) 0# in summer,-10# or -20# in winter/SAE10W30 67dB(A)
9. 10. 11.
12.
GENERATOR A generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. Generators can be subdivided into two major categories depending on whether the electric current produced is alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC). The basic principle on which both types of generators work is the same. Principle of operation The scientific principle on which generators operate: electromagnetic induction. By reversing the work of Oersted and extending the work of Ampere, Faraday reasoned that if a current running through a coiled wire could produce a magnetic field, then a magnetic field could induce (generate) a current of electricity in a coil of wire. By
72
moving a magnet back and forth in or near a coil of wire, he created an electrical current without any other source of voltage feeding the wire. Words to Know: Alternating current (AC): Electric current in which the direction of flow changes back and forth rapidly and at a regular rate. Armature: A part of a generator consisting of an iron core around which is wrapped a wire. Commutator: A slip ring that serves to reverse the direction in which an electrical current flows in a generator. Direct current (DC): Electrical current that always flows in the same direction. Electromagnetic induction: The production of an electromotive force (something that moves electricity) in a closed electrical circuit as a result of a changing magnetic field. Slip ring: The device in a generator that provides a connection between the armature and the external circuit.
Terminologies: The two main parts of a generator or motor can be described in either mechanical or electrical terms: Mechanical: Rotor: The rotating part of an alternator, generator, dynamo or motor. Stator: The stationary part of an alternator, generator, dynamo or motor. Electrical: Armature: The power-producing component of an alternator, generator, dynamo or motor. In a generator, alternator, or dynamo the armature windings generate the electrical current. The armature can be on either the rotor or the stator. Field: The magnetic field component of an alternator, generator, dynamo or motor. The magnetic field of the dynamo or alternator can be provided by either electromagnets or permanent magnets mounted on either the rotor or the stator. Since power transferred into the field circuit is much less than in the armature circuit, AC generators nearly always have the field winding on the rotor and the stator as the armature winding. Only a small amount of field current must be transferred to the moving
73
rotor, using slip rings. Direct current machines necessarily have the commutator on the rotating shaft, so the armature winding is on the rotor of the machine. Faraday also discovered that it makes no difference whether the coil rotates within the magnetic field or the magnetic field rotates around the coil. The important factor is that the wire and the magnetic field are in motion in relation to each other. In general, most AC generators have a stationary (fixed) magnetic field and a rotating coil, while most DC generators have a stationary coil and a rotating magnetic field. Electric generator types depends on the type of generating equipment employed, the electrical energy produced either alternating current or direct current. AC Generators are classified as single phase or poly phase. A single phase generator is usually limited to 25kW or less and generates AC power at specific utilization voltage. DC Generators are classified as either shunt, series, or compound-wounded. Most DC generators are compound wounded type. Shunt generators are usually used as battery chargers or exciters for AC generators. Series generators are sometimes used for street lights.
Alternating current (AC) generators A magnet creates magnetic lines of force on either side of it that moves in opposite directions. As the metal coil passes through the magnetic field in a generator, the electrical power that is produced constantly changes. At first, the generated electric current moves in one direction (as from left to right). Then, when the coil reaches a position where it is parallel to the magnetic lines of force, no current at all is produced. As the coil continues to rotate, it cuts through magnetic lines of force in the opposite direction, and the electrical current generated travels in the opposite direction (as from right to left). The ends of the coil are attached to metal slip rings that collect the electrical current. Each slip ring, in turn, is attached to a metal brush, which transfers the current to an external circuit. Thus, a spinning coil in a fixed magnetic field will produce an alternating current, one that travels first in one direction and then in the opposite. The efficiency of an AC generator can be increased by substituting an armature for the wire coil. An armature consists of a cylinder-shaped iron core with a long piece of wire
74
wrapped around it. The longer the piece of wire, the greater the electrical current that can be generated by the armature.
Commercial generators: One of the most important uses of generators is the production of large amounts of electrical energy for use in industry and homes. The two most common energy sources used in operating AC generators are water and steam. Both of these energy sources have the ability to drive generators at the very high speeds at which they operate most efficiently, usually no less than 1,500 revolutions per minute. In order to generate hydroelectric (water) power, a turbine is needed. A turbine consists of a large central shaft on which are mounted a series of fanlike vanes. As moving water strikes the vanes, it causes the central shaft to rotate. If the central shaft is then attached to a very large magnet, it causes the magnet to rotate around a central armature, generating electricity. Steam power is commonly used to run electrical generating plants. Coal, oil, or natural gas is burnedor the energy from a nuclear reactor is harnessedto boil water to create steam. The steam is then used to drive a turbine which, in turn, spins a generator.
Direct current (DC) generators An AC generator can be modified to produce direct current (DC) electricity also. This change requires a commutator. A commutator is simply a slip ring that has been cut in half, with both halves insulated from each other. The brushes attached to each half of the commutator are arranged so that at the moment the direction of the current in the coil reverses, they slip from one half of the commutator to the other. The current that flows into the external circuit, therefore, is always traveling in the same direction. This results in a steadier current. Vehicle-mounted generators Early motor vehicles until about the 1960s tended to use DC generators with electromechanical regulators. These were not particularly reliable or efficient and have now been replaced by alternators with built-in rectifier circuits. These power the electrical systems on the vehicle and recharge the battery after starting. Rated output will typically be in the range 50-100 A at 12 V, depending on the designed electrical load
75
within the vehicle - some cars now have electrically-powered steering assistance and air conditioning, which places a high load on the electrical system. Commercial vehicles are more likely to use 24 V to give sufficient power at the starter motor to turn over a large diesel engine without the requirement for unreasonably thick cabling. Vehicle alternators do not use permanent magnets and are typically only 50-60% efficient over a wide speed range. Motorcycle alternators often use permanent magnet stators made with rare earth magnets, since they can be made smaller and lighter than other types. See also hybrid vehicle. Some of the smallest generators commonly found power bicycle lights. These tend to be 0.5 ampere, permanent-magnet alternators supplying 3-6 W at 6 V or 12 V. Being powered by the rider, efficiency is at a premium, so these may incorporate rareearth magnets and are designed and manufactured with great precision. Nevertheless, the maximum efficiency is only around 60% for the best of these generators - 40% is more typical - due to the use of permanent magnets. A battery would be required in order to use a controllable electromagnetic field instead, and this is unacceptable due to its weight and bulk. Sailing yachts may use a water or wind powered generator to trickle-charge the batteries. A small propeller, wind turbine or impeller is connected to a low-power alternator and rectifier to supply currents of up to 12 A at typical cruising speeds.
Engine-generator An engine-generator is the combination of an electrical generator and an engine (prime mover) mounted together to form a single piece of self-contained equipment. The engines used are usually piston engines, but gas turbines can also be used. Many different versions are available - ranging from very small portable petrol powered sets to large turbine installations.
Human powered electrical generator A generator can also be driven by human muscle power (for instance, in field radio station equipment). Human powered direct current generators are commercially available, and have been the project of some DIY enthusiasts. Typically operated by means of pedal power, a
76
converted bicycle trainer, or a foot pump, such generators can be practically used to charge batteries as large as 12 volts, and in some cases are designed with an integral inverter. Portable radio receivers with a crank are made to reduce battery purchase requirements, see clockwork radio.
77

Basic Mechanical TVS

Încărcat de

Informații document

Descriere originală:

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Basic Mechanical TVS

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

TCE, Dept. Mech. Engineering Basic Mechanical Engg.

Course material (Private Circulation only)

THIAGARAJAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, MADURAI 625 015.

* - ( BB- Black board; OHP Over Head Projector; PP-Power Point;)

fractional change in length per degree change in temperature.

ELEMENTS OF TRANSMISSION Front Engine Rear Wheel Drive Vehicle

Power train of front engine rear wheel drive passenger car:

Parts of a single Plate Clutch

Single Plate Clutch

Horizontal milling machine architecture

3D view of Horizontal milling machine Milling Operations

Vertical Milling machine architecture

Fundamentals of Gear Operation

Power flow in pair of gears

Components of a 4-Speed Constant Mesh Gear Box

Operation & Construction

Main shaft is connected to propeller shaft through universal joint.

First Gear: Second Gear: Third Gear:

4.2: 1 2.56: 1 1.52: 1 1: 1

Cleaning and Finishing

No.of teeth on crown wheel No.of teeth on bevel pinion

Linear Speed of Wheels (v): V = Angular speed of wheels * Circumference of wheels V = N w * 2r

propeller shaft speed rear axle ratio

a. Overall gear ratio (G) = g x a = 1.5 x4.5 = 6.75: 1

Revolutions completed by inner wheels =

Finishing 800 900 750 825 600 350

The classification of Energy: CONVENTIONAL (Non-Renewable) Oil(Petroleum) NON-CONVENTIONAL (Renewable) Solar

Natural Gas Coal Uranium (Nuclear)

Wind Geothermal Biomass Hydro Ocean (Tidal Energy)

Cause of acid rain

Solar energy can be converted to electricity in two ways:

Figure 1. The most promising provinces are Cambay,

The Himalaya, ii) Sohana, iii)

iv) Son-Narmada-Tapi (SONATA) and v) the Godavari. With the recent

FOUR STROKE CYCLE DIESEL ENGINE:

TWO STROKE CYCLE PETROL ENGINE

TWO STROKE CYCLE DIESEL ENGINE:

Comparison of Four and Two-Stroke Cycle S. No Four-Stroke Engine Two-Stroke Engine

is The thermodynamic cycle is completed

lubrication Grater cooling and lubrication greater

valves and actuating mechanisms to only ports.

Comparison of SI and CI Engines

regulated in the pump. Air quantity is not controlled.

antiknock quality of the fuel.

S-ar putea să vă placă și