Virginia Donnell

Professor

Middle Tennessee State University

4726 Poplarwood Road, Smyrna TN 37167

(615) 459-2257
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LEGITIMATE PERIPHERAL PARTICIPATION:

A LEARNING PRACTICE BASED ON SITUATED COGNITION

INTRODUCTION

Learning through experience involves both explicit and implicit learning. Learning in

most educational institutions is designed as a solitary experience, involving isolation from other

learners, and without the interference of the world (Wenger,1998).The value of learning by doing

has been endorsed by notable learning theorists Piaget, Bruner, and Vygotsky. The placement of

learning in a situation for effective experience in the social and cultural aspects of a professional

field is a common practice for the high skilled fields of the arts, medicine, law and teaching

(Lave and Wenger, 1999). Theorists Lave and Wenger (1999) have developed a theory of

situated cognition that centers on the practice of learning through experience. Legitimate

peripheral participation is a process of situated cognition derived from the cognitive theory of

learning, and is a socio-cultural process for engaging students in a professional community of

practice.

COGNITIVE THEORY OF LEARNING

The cognitive theory of learning is based on a model of information processing in which

mental processes take in sensory information for learning (Driscoll,2000). Cognition is based on

a machine-modeled system of inputs through a registration of the senses processed through the

outputs of memory (Roblyer and Edwards, 2000). The cognitive theory of learning is concerned

with a change in the mental processes resulting in learning. The cognitive theory is the act of

processing information through which knowledge is gained by one’s perception. The process of

learning happens when the brain conceives a thought that involves a change of mental

association. Information in the learning process is gathered from the environment; it is

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processed, and put into memory resulting in an increased capability (Driscoll,2000). The

information processed is stored into memory through the senses (Driscoll,2000). The ability to

capture information through mental associations, and the ability to store information in the

working memory or long term memory, allows for information to be related to already stored

information, organized and retrieved for response and understanding (Driscoll,2000).

The cognitive theory involves the learning process as it is defined by its meaning to the

learner. Meaningful learning as defined by Ausubel is the central focus of the cognitive process

(Driscoll,2000). The interpretation of one’s experiences through a mental association creates

learning that is meaningful, and understandable (Driscoll,2000). In Ausubel’s theory of learning,

the learning must be meaningful to the learner, the information must be related to the learner, and

the learner must use appropriate learning methods to learn the information through discovery,

reception, rote or a combination (Driscoll,2000). Reception learning is learning that is transferred

to the learner through verbalization or text-based format. Rote learning is learning gained

through verbatim memorization. Discovery learning involves learning through problem solving,

and experimentation through which information is derived in the process.

Ausubel stressed that the information to be learned must be related to the learner’s

experiences, and must be organized to enable the learner to make connections with prior learning

(Driscoll,2000). Organizing the new information for connection to previous learning creates a

bridge for association, and information retention(Driscoll,2000). The connection to prior learning

is essential for remembering, and happens through the learner’s cognitive structures as indicated

by the method of anchored instruction (Driscoll,2000). The process of anchoring ideas suggests

that connecting new information to prior learning enables the learner to develop meaning
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(Driscoll,2000). The learner’s experiences are essential for connecting and developing

meaningful learning.

SITUATED COGNITION

Situated cognition is cognitive learning through doing situated in an environment that has

an influence on the learning process. Lave and Wenger (1999) defines learning as situated

activity in which learning occurs. Learning results from information gained through real world

experience, situation and socialization. Knowledge developed in activity is situated cognition

(Jonassen and Land,2000). Situated learning is learning that happens in a time and place in

which the context has an impact on the learner due to the social and cultural influences of the

situation (Lave and Wenger,1999). All elements of the situation impact the learner holistically,

and shapes the learning experience. In situated cognition, learners learn holistically through

social and cultural interactions in a field of practice in which the learning experience is not

bound by the barriers of the classroom (Jonassen and Land,2000).

Learners gain knowledge as it is applied rather than the acquisition of factual information

learned in isolation from the application. Situated cognitive theory integrates the procedural and

declarative knowledge, and is concerned with the context of the learning experience

(Driscoll,2000). Declarative knowledge is concerned with knowing facts, and procedural

knowledge is concerned with knowing the steps in the process (Driscoll,2000). The connectivity

of learned information in isolation to the application process is not as effective as learning

information as it is applied as suggested by the situated cognition theory. The declarative

knowledge process in isolation lacks signals and visual cues for connecting the knowledge to the

learner’s cognitive processes. If the context of learning changes from information transfer to

practice, learners often fail to connect the information base to the application (Driscoll,2000).
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Situated cognitive learning occurs when learners are involved in experiences that produce

learning. Knowing and doing goes hand in hand in the learning process (Jonassen and Land,

2000). In a theory by Dewey (1938), learning involves meaningful activities for learners.

Learners learn more by doing than through explicit learning alone, and more gains are achieved

through implicit learning (Brown, 2002). Knowledge has two dimensions explicit – the facts and

concepts and tacit – putting the knowledge into practice (Brown, 2002). The implicit learning is

achieved through experience. Discovery and change occurs when explicit and tacit knowledge

interact (Norris, Mason and Lefrere, 2003). The learning by experience theory is also stressed by

Bruner’s learning by discovery theory. Involving students through participation in their own

learning through exploration, recognizing and relating ideas will yield a higher level of learning

(Bruner,1990). Piaget indicates that instruction does not have to be a formalized instruction,

because students learn from life experience by interacting with their environment (Singer and

Revenson,1996).

The context of the learning process is an influential element of learning. Learning results

from external inputs and internal means – socio-cultural and cognitive processing

(Driscoll,2000). In Piaget’s theory of human functioning, the context of learning is impacted by

two principal parts – assimilation and accommodation (Singer and Revenson,1996). Assimilation

is the taking in new information with preconceived ideas about the acquired information (Singer

and Revenson,1996). Accommodation is the adjustment to the new experience forcing a change

in self-conception in relation to the world (Singer and Revenson,1996). In adaptation, one seeks

balance between self, and the world through the development of emotions, maturation,

experience and social interaction working together to create balance and motivate learning

(Singer and Revenson,1996). In addition to the theory of assimilation and adaptation, Piaget
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defines intelligence as the ability of an individual to cope with changes through organization and

reorganization of experiences and reasoning (Singer and Revenson,1996).

Learning resulting from real world experience involves social interaction. A person’s

thoughts are adapted to the social context of the environment (Driscoll, 2000). Vygotsky’s socio-

cultural theory contributes to the situated cognitive theory (Driscoll, 2000) by stressing that

social and cultural conditions are major influences on the learning process (Vygotsky,1978).

Vygotsky’s theory emphasizes that learning must be understood within the cultural and social

context in which learning occurs. An individual’s intellectual development does not happen

without socialization, because socialization is a transfer of mental patterns or ways of thinking

(Vygotsky,1978). To fully use experience as learning, the learner must have a multi-faceted

interactive experience. The student in isolation in the learning experience is not effective because

the experience does not involve the whole learner with others constructing knowledge

(Moore,1998). The learner acquires knowledge through the activities and interaction with the

people in the socio-cultural setting (Driscoll,2000).

COMMUNITY OF PROFESSIONAL PRACTICE

Situated learning is learning taking place in practice. Learning is situated in context of

practice, and consists of interaction (Jonassen and Land, 2000). The community of practice is a

theory that consists of a professional community’s characteristics, practices, culture, and the

formation of one’s identity in the community. The theory is based on the assumptions that all

learners are social beings, knowledge is considered as competence, knowing is participating, and

meaning is derived from experience (Wenger,1998). The practice fields are designed with

practical experiences, problem-solving, critical thinking, reflection opportunities, collaboration,

socialization, and motivating environments (Jonassen and Land,2000).

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The community of practice is based on a social theory of learning that is comprised of

meaning, practice, community, and identity (Wenger,1998). Social practice is the way in which

the learner engages with the world in real-life, and occupational settings (Wenger,1998) in order

to learn the application of knowledge, and the nuances of how the professional culture accepts

the newcomer in practicing new found skills. A community of practice is a common ground, and

identity for developing socialization for learning (Norris, Mason and Lefrere,2003).

Practice is a social process of sharing the knowledge, and the application of learning with

newcomers for the purpose of reproduction of the community of practice (Wenger,1998). The

characteristics of a community are a common cultural and historical heritage, interdependent

system, and a reproduction cycle (Jonassen and Land,2000). The reproduction cycle consists of

the transition of individuals coming in, and leaving the community. Communities of practice are

continuously evolving through change in membership, and in knowledge that the membership

brings into the community upon acceptance (Lave and Wenger,1999).

In a community of practice, the three dimensions that maintains the coherence in practice

are mutual engagement, joint enterprise, and a shared repertoire (Wenger,1998). Mutual

engagement is the act of people working together, and negotiating meaning (Wenger, 1998). A

joint enterprise is a mutual engagement of the participants in response to outside forces, and

forces not within the control of participants (Wenger,1998). The community of practice is a

socio-cultural community that embodies history, activities, conflicts, norms, values, and

perceived structures (Lave and Wenger,1999).

A shared repertoire are the resources for negotiating meaning through established

patterns of engagement, organizational structure within the culture, ways of doing things,

terminology, symbols, concepts, gestures, and history (Wenger,1998). Overtime, the community
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repertoire becomes accepted, and sustained through unwritten rules of engagement, practice,

behavior and operating structures. The repertoire embodies the culture of the community, and

the process of enculturation into the social, and practical aspects of a particular profession

(Brown,2002). An example of enculturation is seen in the last two years of undergraduate school

in which students are engaged in advanced learning in a specific discipline, and graduate study

(Brown,2002). In Piaget’s social and cultural theory, cultural norms are understood to be

influential in an individual’s cognition (Driscoll,2000). According to Gardner’s Multiple

Intelligences theory, cultures and disciplines can shape a student’s capacity to learn (Silver,

Strong and Perini,1997).

Culture is a system of routines, language, stories, beliefs, and ways of thinking in which

experience, knowledge and interactions are organized in the social experience (Bruner,1990).

The knowledge passed on to a learner can be a collection of social practices that consist of the

culture of the community of practice (Lave and Wenger,1999). Tagiuri’s social system theory

defines culture as the dimension of the psycho-social characteristics including the values, norms,

assumptions, ways of thinking, belief systems, history, heroes and heroines, myths and rituals,

artifacts, and behaviors (Owens,2001). An individual’s life and mind are shaped by the

interaction with the culture that consists of symbolic systems (Bruner, 1990). Culture plays an

important part in the development of the Multiple Intelligences, therefore the value placed on

one intelligence over the other intelligences can cause one intelligence to be more developed

than another intelligence (Brualdi,1998).

An individual’s identity within the community of practice is developed through the

interaction and socialization in the community. As the individual develops within the community

of practice, the identity of the individual is constructed through socialization as related to the
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professional community (Wenger,1998). Learners develop skills and knowledge in the context of

a culture to go from novice to full membership (Lave and Wenger,1999). The identity of the

individual is defined by the relationships with the community, and the individual’s relations with

the community (Lave and Wenger,1999).

LEGITIMATE PERIPHERAL PARTICIPATION

A learner develops in relation to the professional community of practice that is outside

the classroom (Jonassen and Land,2000). Legitimate peripheral participation is a the process in

which a learner is changed through a social experience incorporating skill in practice within the

community of practice (Lave and Wenger,1999). As a means of approximate participation for the

learner does not simply imply observation, but exposure to learning through closely supervised

experience, special assisted experience, and less pressured experience (Wenger,1998).

Participation involves the construction of knowledge through action in the context of the real

world of practice (Lave and Wenger,1999). The basic premises of legitimate peripheral

participation are consistent with Dewey’s theory that experiences must be connected with

meaningful learning (Dewey,1938). In order for legitimate peripheral participation to be

effective and meaningful, the community of practice must allow full interaction with the

members, operations of the practice, and culture of the practice (Wenger,1998).

Learning through legitimate peripheral participation involves socialization in the

community of practice. As an individual in a community of practice, the person is constructing

knowledge from that specific socio-cultural context and community (Lave and Wenger,1999).

One of the key goals of learning as social practice is the continuous learning through socially and

culturally-mediated experiences involving relations that occur in communities of practice (Lave

and Wenger,1999). Learning as social practice involves the learner holistically interacting with
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the world, evolving as a result of socializing, and continuously renewing relations in the world

(Lave and Wenger,1999).

Legitimate peripheral participation in practice focuses on practical application of

knowledge through the use of practice fields. Practice fields for learning consist of anchored

instruction, problem-based learning, and cognitive apprenticeships (Jonassen and Land,2000).

Legitimate peripheral participation as conceived by Lave and Wenger (1999) is through the

study of apprenticeship as a means of the social and cultural context of learning. The importance

of apprenticeships are necessary because students do not gain practical application of knowledge

in school (Brandt,1993). Practical application of knowledge is consistent with Dewey’s theory

that all real learning comes through experience (Dewey, 1938). Learning as a partial participant

is an empowering practice for the novice in the process of becoming a full participant (Lave and

Wenger,1999). Learners thrive in the learning experience when the practical application of

concepts are used (Brandt,1993). Implicit learning and practices are just as necessary as the

explicit knowledge because it enables the learner to become a part of the professional

community, share in the culture, and gain access to the professional community (Brown,2002).

Through apprenticeships, students can gain skill and knowing (Campbell, 1997).

Lave and Wenger (1999) studied the apprenticeship as a method of legitimate peripheral

participation in the form of cultural traditions. Through the study of the Yucatec Mayan

midwives in Mexico, and the tailors in Liberia, Lave and Wenger (1999) found that the

apprenticeships are concrete, and organized methods of learning specialized knowledge

integrated into the social and cultural ways of daily life. In professions, where high skills and

knowledge are required for practice such as medicine, the academy, law and the arts,

apprenticeships are still used in the learning process (Lave and Wenger,1999). As indicated by a
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study of students using apprenticeships to enter the music industry, apprenticeships are the

connection to the industry through which students are exposed to work behavior and culture, and

the expectations of the professional practice (Rolston and Herrera,2000).

SUMMARY

Legitimate peripheral participation is a process of situated cognition derived from the

cognitive theory of learning, and is a socio-cultural process for engaging learners in a

professional community of practice. The learning experience situated in a community of practice

in the form of an apprenticeship, can enable learners to access a professional culture, and to learn

valuable skills of the professional practice. Knowledge put in practice is shared in a social,

collaborative situation giving more dimensional understanding of the knowledge acquired

(Brown,2002). As an integral part of the learning experience, socialization can provide the

learner with a socio-cultural understanding of the professional community. Learning by

experience is an integral part of the real world (Lave and Wenger, 1999).
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Brualdi, A. (1998). Gardner's Theory. Teacher Librarian, 26(2), 26-27.

Bruner, J. (1990). Acts of meaning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Campbell, L. (1997). How teachers interpret MI theory. Educational Leadership, 55(1), 14-20.

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