1.

INTRODUCTION
An electric vehicle (EV), also referred to as an electric drive vehicle, uses one or more electric motors or traction motors for propulsion. Three main types of electric vehicles exist, those that are directly powered from an external power station, those that are powered by stored electricity originally from an external power source, and those that are powered by an on-board electrical generator, such as an internal combustion engine.

1.1

BATTERY

In electricity, a battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells that convert stored chemical energy into electrical energy. There are two types of batteries: primary batteries (disposable batteries), which are designed to be used once and discarded, and secondary batteries (rechargeable batteries), which are designed to be recharged and used multiple times.

1.2

ELECTRIC MOTOR

Brushless DC electric motor (BLDC motors, BL motors) also known as electronically commutated motors (ECMs, EC motors) are synchronous motors which are powered by a DC electric source via an integrated inverter/switching power supply, which produces an AC electric signal to drive the motor. 1.3

ELECTRONIC SPEED CONTROLLER

An electronic speed control or ESC is an electronic circuit with the purpose to vary an electric motor's speed, its direction and possibly also to act as a dynamic brake. ESCs are often used on electrically powered radio controlled models, with the variety most often used for brushless motors essentially providing an electronically-generated three phase electric power low voltage source of energy for the motor.

1.4

MATERIAL OF THE FRAME

Wrought iron is an alloy with a very low carbon content in contrast to cast iron, and has fibrous inclusions , known as slag. This is what gives it a grain resembling wood, which is visible when it is etched or bent to the point of failure. Wrought iron is tough, malleable, ductile, and easily welded.

2.
2.1

POWER SUPPLY
BATTERY

In electricity, a battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells that convert stored chemical energy into electrical energy. Since the invention of the first battery (or "voltaic pile") in 1800 by Alessandro Volta and especially since the technically improved Daniell cell in 1836, batteries have become a common power source for many household and industrial applications. According to a 2005 estimate, the worldwide battery industry generates US$48 billion in sales each year, with 6% annual growth. There are two types of batteries: primary batteries (disposable batteries), which are designed to be used once and discarded, and secondary batteries (rechargeable batteries), which are designed to be recharged and used multiple times. Batteries come in many sizes, from miniature cells used to power hearing aids and wristwatches to battery banks the size of rooms that provide standby power for telephone exchanges and computer data centres.

FIG 1 - ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL

A battery is a device that converts chemical energy directly to electrical energy. It consists of a number of voltaic cells; each voltaic cell consists of two half-cells connected in series by a conductive electrolyte containing anions and cations. One half-cell includes electrolyte and the electrode to which anions (negatively charged ions) migrate, i.e., the anode or negative electrode; the other half-cell includes electrolyte and the electrode to which cations (positively charged ions) migrate, i.e., the cathode or positive electrode. In the redox reaction that powers the battery, cations are reduced (electrons are added) at the cathode, while anions are oxidized (electrons are removed) at the anode.The electrodes do not touch each other but are electrically connected by the electrolyte. Some cells use two half-cells with different electrolytes. A separator between half-cells allows ions to flow, but prevents mixing of the electrolytes.

Each half-cell has an electromotive force (or emf), determined by its ability to drive electric current from the interior to the exterior of the cell. The net emf of the cell is the difference between the emfs of its half-cells, as first recognized by Volta. Therefore, if the electrodes have emfs and , then the net emf is ; in other words, the net emf is the difference between the reduction potentials of the half-reactions. The electrical driving force or across the terminals of a cell is known as the terminal voltage (difference) and is measured in volts. The terminal voltage of a cell that is neither charging nor discharging is called the open-circuit voltage and equals the emf of the cell. Because of internal resistance, the terminal voltage of a cell that is discharging is smaller in magnitude than the open-circuit voltage and the terminal voltage of a cell that is charging exceeds the open-circuit voltage. An ideal cell has negligible internal resistance, so it would maintain a constant terminal voltage of until exhausted, then dropping to zero. If such a cell maintained 1.5 volts and stored a charge of one coulomb then on complete discharge it would perform 1.5 joule of work. In actual cells, the internal resistance increases under discharge, and the open circuit voltage also decreases under discharge. If the voltage and resistance are plotted against time, the resulting graphs typically are a curve; the shape of the curve varies according to the chemistry and internal arrangement employed. As stated above, the voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on the energy release of the chemical reactions of its electrodes and electrolyte. Alkaline and zinccarbon cells have different chemistries but approximately the same emf of 1.5 volts; likewise NiCd and NiMH cells have different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.2 volts. On the other hand the high electrochemical potential changes in the reactions of lithium compounds give lithium cells emfs of 3 volts or more.

FIG 2 -TYPES OF BATTERY CELLS

2.1.1 PRIMARY BATTERIES

Primary batteries can produce current immediately on assembly. Disposable batteries are intended to be used once and discarded. These are most commonly used in portable devices that have low current drain, are used only intermittently, or are used well away from an alternative power source, such as in alarm and communication circuits where other electric power is only intermittently available. Disposable primary cells cannot be reliably recharged, since the chemical reactions are not easily reversible and active materials may not return to their original forms. Battery manufacturers recommend against attempting to recharge primary cell. Common types of disposable batteries include zinc-carbon batteries and alkaline batteries In general, these have higher energy densities than rechargeable batteries, but disposable batteries do not fare well under high-drain applications with loads under 75 ohms (75 .).

2.1.2 SECONDARY BATTERIES

Secondary batteries must be charged before use; they are usually assembled with active materials in the discharged state. Rechargeable batteries or secondary cells can be recharged by applying electric current, which reverses the chemical reactions that occur during its use. Devices to supply the appropriate current are called chargers or rechargers. The oldest form of rechargeable battery is the leadacid battery. This battery is notable in that it contains a liquid in an unsealed container, requiring that the battery be kept upright and the area be well ventilated to ensure safe dispersal of the hydrogen gas produced by these batteries during overcharging. The leadacid battery is also very heavy for the amount of electrical energy it can supply. Despite this, its low manufacturing cost and its high surge current levels make its use common where a large capacity (over approximately 10 Ah) is required or where the weight and ease of handling are not concerns. A common form of the leadacid battery is the modern car battery, which can, in general, deliver a peak current of 450 amperes. An improved type of liquid electrolyte battery is the sealed valve regulated leadacid battery (VRLA battery), popular in the automotive industry as a replacement for the leadacid wet cell. The VRLA battery uses an immobilized sulfuric acid electrolyte, reducing the chance of leakage and extending shelf life.VRLA batteries have the electrolyte immobilized, usually by one of two means:

Gel batteries (or "gel cell") contain a semi-solid electrolyte to prevent spillage. Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM) batteries absorb the electrolyte in a special fiberglass matting.

Other portable rechargeable batteries include several "dry cell" types, which are sealed units and are, therefore, useful in appliances such as mobile phones and laptop computers. Cells of this type (in order of increasing power density and cost) include nickelcadmium (NiCd), nickelzinc (NiZn), nickel metal hydride (NiMH), and lithium-ion (Li-ion) cells. By far, Liion has the highest share of the dry cell rechargeable market. Meanwhile, NiMH has replaced NiCd in most applications due to its higher capacity, but NiCd remains in use in power tools, two-way radios, and medical equipment. NiZn is a new technology that is not yet well established commercially.
4

Recent developments include batteries with embedded electronics such as USBCELL, which allows charging an AA cell through a USB connector, and smart battery packs with state-ofcharge monitors and battery protection circuits to prevent damage on over-discharge. low self-discharge (LSD) allows secondary cells to be precharged prior to shipping.

2.2

BATTERY CELL TYPES

There are many general types of electrochemical cells, according to chemical processes applied and design chosen. The variation includes galvanic cells, electrolytic cells, fuel cells, flow cells and voltaic piles.

2.2.1 WET CELL

A wet cell battery has a liquid electrolyte. Other names are flooded cell, since the liquid covers all internal parts, or vented cell, since gases produced during operation can escape to the air. Wet cells were a precursor to dry cells and are commonly used as a learning tool for electrochemistry. It is often built with common laboratory supplies, such as beakers, for demonstrations of how electrochemical cells work. A particular type of wet cell known as a concentration cell is important in understanding corrosion. Wet cells may be primary cells (non-rechargeable) or secondary cells (rechargeable). Originally, all practical primary batteries such as the Daniell cell were built as open-topped glass jar wet cells. Other primary wet cells are the Leclanche cell, Grove cell, Bunsen cell, Chromic acid cell, Clark cell, and Weston cell. The Leclanche cell chemistry was adapted to the first dry cells. Wet cells are still used in automobile batteries and in industry for standby power for switchgear, telecommunication or large uninterruptible power supplies, but in many places batteries with gel cells have been used instead. These applications commonly use leadacid or nickel cadmium cells.

2.2.2 DRY CELL "Dry cell" redirects here. For the heavy metal band, see Dry Cell (band).

A dry cell has the electrolyte immobilized as a paste, with only enough moisture in it to allow current to flow. Unlike a wet cell, a dry cell can operate in any orientation without spilling as it contains no free liquid, making it suitable for portable equipment. By comparison, the first wet cells were typically fragile glass containers with lead rods hanging from the open top, and needed careful handling to avoid spillage. Leadacid batteries did not achieve the safety and portability of the dry cell until the development of the gel battery. A common dry cell battery is the zinccarbon battery, using a cell sometimes called the dry Leclanch cell, with a nominal voltage of 1.5 volts, the same as the alkaline battery (since both use the same zincmanganese dioxide combination).

FIG 3 - LINE ART DRAWING OF A DRY CELL 1. BRASS CAP, 2. PLASTIC SEAL, 3. EXPANSION SPACE, 4. POROUS CARDBOARD, 5. ZINC CAN, 6. CARBON ROD, 7. CHEMICAL MIXTURE.
A standard dry cell comprises a zinc anode (negative pole), usually in the form of a cylindrical pot, with a carbon cathode (positive pole) in the form of a central rod. The electrolyte is ammonium chloride in the form of a paste next to the zinc anode. The remaining space between the electrolyte and carbon cathode is taken up by a second paste consisting of ammonium chloride and manganese dioxide, the latter acting as a depolariser. In some more modern types of so-called 'high-power' batteries (with much lower capacity than standard alkaline batteries), the ammonium chloride is replaced by zinc chloride.

2.3

MOLTEN SALT

Molten salt batteries are primary or secondary batteries that use a molten salt as electrolyte. Their energy density and power density give them potential for use in electric vehicles, but they operate at high temperatures and must be well insulated to retain heat.

2.4

RESERVE

A reserve battery is stored in unassembled form and is activated, ready-charged, when its internal parts are assembled, e.g. by adding electrolyte; it can be stored unactivated for a long period of time. For example, a battery for an electronic fuze might be activated by the impact of firing a gun, breaking a capsule of electrolyte to activate the battery and power the fuze's circuits. Reserve batteries are usually designed for a short service life (seconds or minutes) after long storage (years). A water-activated battery for oceanographic instruments or military applications becomes activated on immersion in water.

2.5

BATTERY CELL PERFORMANCE

A battery's characteristics may vary over load cycle, over charge cycle, and over lifetime due to many factors including internal chemistry, current drain, and temperature. A battery's capacity is the amount of electric charge it can store. The more electrolyte and electrode material there is in the cell the greater the capacity of the cell. A small cell has less capacity than a larger cell with the same chemistry, and they develop the same open-circuit voltage. Because of the chemical reactions within the cells, the capacity of a battery depends on the discharge conditions such as the magnitude of the current (which may vary with time), the allowable terminal voltage of the battery, temperature, and other factors. The available capacity of a battery depends upon the rate at which it is discharged. If a battery is discharged at a relatively high rate, the available capacity will be lower than expected. The capacity printed on a battery is usually the product of 20 hours multiplied by the constant current that a new battery can supply for 20 hours at 68 F (20 C), down to a specified terminal voltage per cell. A battery rated at 100 Ah will deliver 5 A over a 20-hour period at room temperature. However, if discharged at 50 A, it will have a lower capacity.

FIG 4 - CAPACITY AND DISCHARGING

The relationship between current, discharge time, and capacity for a lead acid battery is approximated (over a certain range of current values) by Peukert's law:

where is the capacity when discharged at a rate of 1 amp. is the current drawn from battery (A). is the amount of time (in hours) that a battery can sustain. is a constant around 1.3. For low values of I internal self-discharge must be included. Internal energy losses and limited rate of diffusion of ions through the electrolyte cause the efficiency of a real battery to vary at different discharge rates. When discharging at low rate, the battery's energy is delivered more efficiently than at higher discharge rates, but if the rate is very low, it will partly self-discharge during the long time of operation, again lowering its efficiency. Installing batteries with different Ah ratings will not affect the operation of a device (except for the time it will work for) rated for a specific voltage unless the load limits of the battery are exceeded. High-drain loads such as digital cameras can result in delivery of less total energy, as happens with alkaline batteries. For example, a battery rated at 2000 mAh for a 10or 20-hour discharge would not sustain a current of 1 A for a full two hours as its stated capacity implies.

2.6

BATTERY LIFETIME

2.6.1 PRIMARY BATTERIES

Disposable (or "primary") batteries typically lose 8 to 20 percent of their original charge every year at room temperature (2030C). This is known as the "self discharge" rate, and is due to non-current-producing "side" chemical reactions which occur within the cell even if no load is applied. The rate of the side reactions is reduced if the batteries are stored at lower temperature, although some batteries can be damaged by freezing. High or low working temperatures may reduce battery performance. This will affect the initial voltage of the battery. For an AA alkaline battery, this initial voltage is approximately normally distributed around 1.6 volts.In contrast to most of today's batteries, the Zamboni pile, invented in 1812, can have a very long service life without refurbishment or recharge, although it supplies current only in the nanoamp range. The Oxford Electric Bell has been ringing almost continuously since 1840 on its original pair of batteries, thought to be Zamboni piles. Discharging performance of all batteries drops at low temperature.
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2.6.2 SECONDARY BATTERIES

Storage life of secondary batteries is limited by chemical reactions that occur between the battery parts and the electrolyte; these are called "side reactions". Internal parts may corrode and fail, or the active materials may be slowly converted to inactive forms. Since the active material on the battery plates changes chemical composition on each charge and discharge cycle, active material may be lost due to physical changes of volume; this may limit the cycle life of the battery. Old chemistry rechargeable batteries self-discharge more rapidly than disposable alkaline batteries, especially nickel-based batteries; a freshly charged nickel cadmium (NiCd) battery loses 10% of its charge in the first 24 hours, and thereafter discharges at a rate of about 10% a month. However, newer low self-discharge nickel metal hydride (NiMH) batteries and modern lithium designs have reduced the self-discharge rate to a relatively low level (but still poorer than for primary batteries). Most nickel-based batteries are partially discharged when purchased, and must be charged before first use. Newer NiMH batteries are ready to be used when purchased, and have only 15% discharge in a year.

FIG 5 - RECHARGEABLE BATTERIES

Although rechargeable batteries have their energy content restored by charging, some deterioration occurs on each chargedischarge cycle. Low-capacity NiMH batteries (1700 2000 mAh) can be charged for about 1000 cycles, whereas high-capacity NiMH batteries (above 2500 mAh) can be charged for about 500 cycles. NiCd batteries tend to be rated for 1000 cycles before their internal resistance permanently increases beyond usable values. Under normal circumstances, a fast charge, rather than a slow overnight charge, will shorten battery lifespan. Also, if the overnight charger is not "smart" and cannot detect when the battery is fully charged, then overcharging is likely, which also damages the battery. Degradation usually occurs because electrolyte migrates away from the electrodes or because active material falls off the electrodes. NiCd batteries suffer the drawback that they should be fully discharged before recharge. Without full discharge, crystals may build up on the electrodes, thus decreasing the active surface area and increasing internal resistance. This decreases battery capacity and causes the "memory effect". These electrode crystals can also penetrate the electrolyte separator, thereby causing shorts. NiMH, although similar in chemistry, does not suffer from memory effect to quite this extent. A battery does not suddenly stop working; its capacity gradually decreases over its lifetime, until it can no longer hold sufficient charge.

Automotive leadacid rechargeable batteries have a much harder life. Because of vibration, shock, heat, cold, and sulfation of their lead plates, few automotive batteries last beyond six years of regular use. Automotive starting (SLI: Starting, Lighting, Ignition) batteries have many thin plates to provide as much current as possible in a reasonably small package. In general, the thicker the plates, the longer the life of the battery. They are typically drained only a small amount before recharge. Care should be taken to avoid deep discharging a starting battery, since each charge and discharge cycle causes active material to be shed from the plates.

FIG 6 - AN ANALOG CAMCORDER BATTERY [LITHIUM ION]

"Deep-cycle" leadacid batteries such as those used in electric golf carts have much thicker plates to aid their longevity. The main benefit of the leadacid battery is its low cost; the main drawbacks are its large size and weight for a given capacity and voltage. Leadacid batteries should never be discharged to below 20% of their full capacity, because internal resistance will cause heat and damage when they are recharged. Deep-cycle leadacid systems often use a low-charge warning light or a low-charge power cut-off switch to prevent the type of damage that will shorten the battery's life.

2.7

EXTENDING BATTERY LIFE

Battery life can be extended by storing the batteries at a low temperature, as in a refrigerator or freezer, which slows the chemical reactions in the battery. Such storage can extend the life of alkaline batteries by about 5%; rechargeable batteries can hold their charge much longer, depending upon type. To reach their maximum voltage, batteries must be returned to room temperature; discharging an alkaline battery at 250 mA at 0C is only half as efficient as it is at 20C. Alkaline battery manufacturers such as Duracell do not recommend refrigerating batteries.
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2.8

EXPLOSION

A battery explosion is caused by the misuse or malfunction of a battery, such as attempting to recharge a primary (non-rechargeable) battery, or short circuiting a battery. Car batteries are most likely to explode when a short-circuit generates very large currents. Car batteries liberate hydrogen, which is very explosive, when they are overcharged (because of electrolysis of the water in the electrolyte). The amount of overcharging is usually very small and generates little hydrogen, which dissipates quickly. However, when "jumping" a car battery, the high current can cause the rapid release of large volumes of hydrogen, which can be ignited explosively by a nearby spark, for example, when disconnecting a jumper cable. When a battery is recharged at an excessive rate, an explosive gas mixture of hydrogen and oxygen may be produced faster than it can escape from within the walls of the battery, leading to pressure build-up and the possibility of bursting of the battery case. In extreme cases, the battery acid may spray violently from the casing of the battery and cause injury. Overcharging that is, attempting to charge a battery beyond its electrical capacity can also lead to a battery explosion, in addition to leakage or irreversible damage. It may also cause damage to the charger or device in which the overcharged battery is later used. In addition, disposing of a battery in fire may cause an explosion as steam builds up within the sealed case of the battery.

2.9

LEAKAGE

Many battery chemicals are corrosive, poisonous, or both. If leakage occurs, either spontaneously or through accident, the chemicals released may be dangerous. For example, disposable batteries often use a zinc "can" both as a reactant and as the container to hold the other reagents. If this kind of battery is run all the way down, or if it is recharged after running down too far, the reagents can emerge through the cardboard and plastic that form the remainder of the container. The active chemical leakage can then damage the equipment that the batteries were inserted into. For this reason, many electronic device manufacturers recommend removing the batteries from devices that will not be used for extended periods of time.

FIG 7 - LEAKED ALKALINE BATTERY

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2.10 ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS

The widespread use of batteries has created many environmental concerns, such as toxic metal pollution. Battery manufacture consumes resources and often involves hazardous chemicals. Used batteries also contribute to electronic waste. Some areas now have battery recycling services available to recover some of the materials from used batteries. Batteries may be harmful or fatal if swallowed. Recycling or proper disposal prevents dangerous elements (such as lead, mercury, and cadmium) found in some types of batteries from entering the environment. In the United States, Americans purchase nearly three billion batteries annually, and about 179,000 tons of those end up in landfills across the country. In the United States, the Mercury-Containing and Rechargeable Battery Management Act of 1996 banned the sale of mercury-containing batteries, enacted uniform labeling requirements for rechargeable batteries, and required that rechargeable batteries be easily removable. California, and New York City prohibit the disposal of rechargeable batteries in solid waste, and along with Maine require recycling of cell phones. The rechargeable battery industry has nationwide recycling programs in the United States and Canada, with dropoff points at local retailers. The Battery Directive of the European Union has similar requirements, in addition to requiring increased recycling of batteries, and promoting research on improved battery recycling methods. In accordance with this directive all batteries to be sold within the EU must be marked with the "collection symbol" (A crossed out wheeled bin). This must cover at least 3% of the surface of prismatic batteries and 1.5% of the surface of cylindrical batteries. All packaging must be marked likewise.

2.11 INGESTION
Small button cells can be swallowed, particularly by young children. While in the digestive tract the battery's electrical discharge may lead to tissue damage; such damage is occasionally serious and very rarely even leads to death. Ingested disk batteries do not usually cause problems unless they become lodged in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. The most common place disk batteries become lodged, resulting in clinical sequelae, is the esophagus. Batteries that successfully traverse the esophagus are unlikely to lodge at any other location. The likelihood that a disk battery will lodge in the esophagus is a function of the patient's age and the size of the battery. Disk batteries of 16 mm have become lodged in the esophagi of 2 children younger than 1 year. Older children do not have problems with batteries smaller than 2123 mm. Liquefaction necrosis may occur because sodium hydroxide is generated by the current produced by the battery (usually at the anode). Perforation has occurred as rapidly as 6 hours after ingestion.

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2.12 BATTERY CHEMISTRY 2.12.1 PRIMARY BATTERY CHEMISTRIES

Chemistry

Nominal Cell Voltage

Specific Energy [MJ/kg]

Elaboration

Zincchloride

1.5

Also known as "heavy duty", inexpensive.

Lithium (lithiummanganese dioxide) LiMnO2

3.0

0.83-1.01

Expensive. Only used in high-drain devices or for long shelf life due to very low rate of self discharge. 'Lithium' alone usually refers to this type of chemistry.

Lithium (lithiumiron disulfide) LiFeS2

1.5

Expensive. Used in 'plus' or 'extra' batteries.

Mercury oxide

1.35

High drain and constant voltage. Banned in most countries because of health concerns.

Zinccarbon

1.5

0.13

Inexpensive.

Alkaline (zincmanganese dioxide)

1.5

0.4-0.59

Moderate energy density. Good for high and low drain uses.

Nickel oxyhydroxide (zinc manganese dioxide / nickel oxyhydroxide)

1.7

Moderate energy density. Good for high drain uses

Zincair

1.351.65 1.59

Mostly used in hearing aids.

Lithium (lithiumcopper oxide) LiCuO

1.7

No longer manufactured. Replaced by silver oxide (IEC-type "SR") batteries.

Silver-oxide (silverzinc)

1.55

0.47

Very expensive. Only used commercially in 'button' cells.

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2.12.2 RECHARGEABLE BATTERY CHEMISTRIES

Cell Chemistry Voltage Specific Energy [MJ/kg]

Comments
Inexpensive. High/low drain, moderate energy density. Can withstand very high discharge rates with virtually no loss of capacity. Moderate rate of self discharge. Environmental hazard due to Cadmium use now virtually prohibited in Europe. Moderately expensive. Moderate energy density. Moderate rate of self discharge. Higher discharge rates result in considerable loss of capacity. Environmental hazard due to Lead. Common use Automobile batteries Inexpensive. Performs better than alkaline batteries in higher drain devices. Traditional chemistry has high energy density, but also a high rate of self-discharge. Newer chemistry has low self-discharge rate, but also a ~25% lower energy density. Used in some cars. Moderately inexpensive. High drain device suitable. Low self-discharge rate. Voltage closer to alkaline primary cells than other secondary cells. No toxic components. Newly introduced to the market (2009). Has not yet established a track record. Limited size availability. Smaller volume than equivalent Li-ion. Historically extremely expensive. Very high energy density. Very high drain capable. Reactions are not fully understood. Terminal voltage very stable but suddenly drops to 1.5 volts at 7080% charge (believed to be due to presence of both argentous and argentic oxide in positive plate - one is consumed first). Very expensive. Very high energy density. Not usually available in "common" battery sizes. Very common in laptop computers, moderate to high-end digital cameras, camcorders and cellphones. Very low rate of self discharge. Terminal voltage unstable (varies from 4.2 to 3.0 volts during discharge). Volatile: Chance of explosion if short circuited, allowed to overheat, or not manufactured with rigorous quality standards.

NiCd

1.2

0.14

Leadacid

2.1

0.14

NiMH

1.2

0.36

NiZn

1.6

0.36

AgZn

1.86 1.5

0.46

Lithium ion

3.6

0.46

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2.12.3 SPECIFICATIONS Number of sets of battery used Number of batteries in each set =2 =4

BATTERY TYPE

MODEL NUMBER

VOLTS (in V)

RATING AT 30 C

MAX. OVERALL DIMENSIONS (in mm) (TOLRENCE=+3mm)

LENGTH

WIDTH

HEIGHT

EXIDE ELECTRICA

12EC25L

12

20Ah(C2)

180

80

170

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FIG 8 - INTERNAL DIAGRAM OF BATTERY

FIG 9 VIEW OF POSITIVE PLATE

16

2.13. SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF BATTERY

FIG 10 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF BATTERY

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3.

ELECTRIC MOTOR

FIG 11 ELECTRIC MOTOR

Brushless DC electric motor (BLDC motors, BL motors) also known as electronically commutated motors (ECMs, EC motors) are synchronous motors which are powered by a DC electric source via an integrated inverter/switching power supply, which produces an AC electric signal to drive the motor (AC, alternating current, does not imply a sinusoidal waveform but rather a bi-directional current with no restriction on waveform); additional sensors and electronics control the inverter output amplitude and waveform (and therefore percent of DC bus usage/efficiency) and frequency (i.e. rotor speed). The motor part of a brushless motor is often a permanent magnet synchronous motor, but can also be a switched reluctance motor, or induction motor. Brushless motors may be described as stepper motors; however, the term stepper motor tends to be used for motors that are designed specifically to be operated in a mode where they are frequently stopped with the rotor in a defined angular position. This page describes more general brushless motor principles, though there is overlap. Two key performance parameters of brushless DC motors are the Motor constants Kv and Km (which are numerically equal in SI units.)

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3.1

BRUSHLESS vs BRUSHED MOTORS

Brushed DC motors have been in commercial use since 1886.Brushless motors on the other hand did not become commercially viable until 1962. Brushed DC motors develop a maximum torque when stationary, linearly decreasing as velocity increases. Some limitations of brushed motors can be overcome by brushless motors, they include higher efficiency and a lower susceptibility of the commutator assembly to mechanical wear. These benefits come at the cost of potentially less rugged, more complex, and more expensive control electronics. A typical brushless motor has permanent magnets which rotate and a fixed armature, eliminating problems associated with connecting current to the moving armature. An electronic controller replaces the brush/commutator assembly of the brushed DC motor, which continually switches the phase to the windings to keep the motor turning. The controller performs similar timed power distribution by using a solid-state circuit rather than the brush/commutator system. Brushless motors offer several advantages over brushed DC motors, including more torque per weight, more torque per watt (increased efficiency), increased reliability, reduced noise, longer lifetime (no brush and commutator erosion), elimination of ionizing sparks from the commutator, and overall reduction of electromagnetic interference (EMI). With no windings on the rotor, they are not subjected to centrifugal forces, and because the windings are supported by the housing, they can be cooled by conduction, requiring no airflow inside the motor for cooling. This in turn means that the motor's internals can be entirely enclosed and protected from dirt or other foreign matter. Brushless motor commutation can be implemented in software using a microcontroller or computer, or may alternatively be implemented in analogue hardware or digital firmware using an FPGA. Use of an FPGA provides greater flexibility and capabilities not available with brushed DC motors including speed limiting, "micro stepped" operation for slow and/or fine motion control and a holding torque when stationary. The maximum power that can be applied to a brushless motor is limited almost exclusively by heat; too much of which weakens the magnets, and may damage the winding's insulation. A brushless motor's main disadvantage is higher cost, which arises from two issues. First, brushless motors require complex electronic speed controllers (ESCs) to run. Brushed DC motors can be regulated by a comparatively simple controller, such as a rheostat (variable resistor). However, this reduces efficiency because power is wasted in the rheostat. Second, some practical uses have not been well developed in the commercial sector. For example, in the radio control (RC) hobby arena, brushless motors are often hand-wound while brushed motors are usually machine-wound. Brushless motors are more efficient at converting electricity into mechanical power than brushed motors. This improvement is largely due to motor's velocity being determined by the frequency at which the electricity is switched, not the voltage. Additional gains are due to the absence of brushes, alleviating loss due to friction. The enhanced efficiency is greatest in the no-load and low-load region of the motor's performance curve. Under high mechanical loads, brushless motors and high-quality brushed motors are comparable in efficiency.
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Environments and requirements in which manufacturers use brushless-type DC motors include maintenance-free operation, high speeds, and operation where sparking is hazardous (i.e. explosive environments), or could affect electronically sensitive equipment.

3.2

MOTOR CONTROL POWER SUPPLIES

Typical brushless motors are permanent magnet synchronous AC motors, combined with sensor electronics (detecting rotor position) and an AC signal generator (Inverter) driven by a DC supply. Typical brushless inverters use a switched power supply pulse width modulation to generate an AC drive signal. Various terms are used to refer to the inverters/electronic control systems, including "Vector Drives", and "VVVF drives" (variable voltage variable frequency).

3.3

APPLICATIONS

The four poles on the stator of a two-phase brushless motor. This is part of a computer cooling fan; the rotor has been removed.

FIG 12 FOUR POLE MOTOR WINDING

Brushless motors fulfill many functions originally performed by brushed DC motors, but cost and control complexity prevents brushless motors from replacing brushed motors completely in the lowest-cost areas. Nevertheless, brushless motors have come to dominate many applications, particularly devices such as computer hard drives and CD/DVD players. Small cooling fans in electronic equipment are powered exclusively by brushless motors. They can be found in cordless power tools where the increased efficiency of the motor leads to longer periods of use before the battery needs to be charged. Low speed, low power brushless motors are used in direct-drive turntables for gramophone records.

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3.4

TRANSPORT

High power brushless motors are found in electric vehicles and hybrid vehicles. These motors are essentially AC synchronous motors with permanent magnet rotors.The Segway Scooter and Vectrix Maxi-Scooter use brushless technology.A number of electric bicycles use brushless motors that are sometimes built into the wheel hub itself, with the stator fixed solidly to the axle and the magnets attached to and rotating with the wheel.

3.5

HEATING AND VENTILATIONS

There is a trend in the HVAC and refrigeration industries to use brushless motors instead of various types of AC motors. The most significant reason to switch to a brushless motor is the dramatic reduction in power required to operate them versus a typical AC motor. While shaded-pole and permanent split capacitor motors once dominated as the fan motor of choice, many fans are now run using a brushless motor. Some fans use brushless motors also in order to increase overall system efficiency. In addition to the brushless motor's higher efficiency, certain HVAC systems (especially those featuring variable-speed and/or load modulation) use brushless motors because the built-in microprocessor allows for programmability, better control over airflow, and serial communication.

3.6

INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING

The application of brushless DC motors within industrial engineering primarily focuses on manufacturing engineering or industrial automation design. In manufacturing, brushless motors are primarily used for motion control, positioning or actuation systems.

FIG 13 DC MOTOR
Brushless motors are ideally suited for manufacturing applications because of their high power density, good speed-torque characteristics, high efficiency and wide speed ranges and low maintenance. The most common uses of brushless DC motors in industrial engineering are linear motors. servomotors, actuators for industrial robots, extruder drive motors and feed drives for CNC machine tools.
21

3.7

MOTION CONTROL SYSTEMS

Brushless motors are commonly used as pump, fan and spindle drive s in adjustable or variable speed applications. They can develop high torque with good speed response. In addition, they can be easily automated for remote control. Due to their construction, they have good thermal characteristics and high energy efficiency. To obtain a variable speed response, brushless motors operate in an electromechanical system that includes an electronic motor controller and a rotor position feedback sensor.Brushless dc motors are widely used as servomotors for machine tool servo drives. Servomotors are used for mechanical displacement, positioning or precision motion control. In the past DC stepper motors were used as servomotors; however, since they are operate with open loop control, they typically exhibit torque pulsations. Brushless dc motors are more suitable as servomotors since their precise motion is based upon a closed loop control system that provides tightly controlled and stable operation.

3.8

POSITIONING AND ACTUATION SYSTEMS

Brushless motors are used in industrial positioning and actuation applications. For assembly robots, brushless stepper or servo motors are used to position a part for assembly or a tool for a manufacturing process, such as welding or painting. Brushless motors can also be used to drive linear actuators. Actuators that produce linear motion are called linear motors. The advantage of linear motors is that they can produce linear motion without the need of a transmission system, such as a ball-and-lead screw, rack-and-pinion, cam, gears or belts, that would be necessary for rotary motors. Transmission systems are known to introduce less responsiveness and reduced accuracy. Direct drive, brushless DC linear motors consist of a slotted stator with magnetic teeth and a moving actuator, which has permanent magnets and coil windings. To obtain linear motion, a motor controller excites the coil windings in the actuator causing an interaction of the magnetic fields resulting in linear motion.

3.9

MODEL ENGINEERING

FIG 14 BRUSHLESS MOTOR.

Legal restrictions for the use of combustion engine driven model aircraft in some countries have also supported the shift to high-power electric systems.
22

3.10 CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATING PRINCIPLES

This torque is at its maximum when the rotor starts to move, but it reduces as the two fields align to each other. Thus, to preserve the torque or to build up the rotation, the magnetic field generated by stator should keep switching. To catch up with the field generated by the stator, the rotor will keep rotating. Since the magnetic field of the stator and rotor both rotate at the same frequency, they come under the category of synchronous motor. This switching of the stator to build up the rotation is known as commutation. For 3-phase windings, there are 6 steps in the commutation; i.e., 6 unique combinations in which motor windings will be energized. Driving circuitry and waveforms for the implementation of a BLDC motor will be discussed in the second part of this article.

3.11 TORQUE AND EFFICIENCY

For the study of electric motors, torque is a very important term. By definition, torque is the tendency of force to rotate an object about its axis.

Thus, to increase the torque, either force has to be increased which requires stronger magnets or more current or distance must be increased for which bigger magnets will be required. Efficiency is critical for motor design because it determines the amount of power consumed. A higher efficiency motor will also require less material to generate the required torque.

Where,

Having understood the above provided equations, it becomes important to understand the speed vs. torque curve.

With an increase in speed, the torque reduces (considering the input power is constant). Maximum power can be delivered when the speed is half of the no load speed and torque is half of the stall torque.

23

FIG 15 - TORQUE SPEED GRAPH

24

25

3.12 APPLICATIONS
Single speed For single-speed applications, induction motors are more suitable, but if the speed has to be maintained with the variation in load, then because of the flat speed-torque curve of BLDC motor, BLDC motors are a good fit for such applications. Adjustable speed BLDC motors become a more suitable fit for such applications because variable speed induction motors will also need an additional controller, thus adding to system cost. Brushed DC motors will also be a more expensive solution because of regular maintenance. Position control Precise control is not required applications like an induction cooker and because of low maintenance; BLDC motors are a winner here too. However, for such applications, BLDC motors use optical encoders, and complex controllers are required to monitor torque, speed, and position. Low noise applications Brushed DC motors are known for generating more EMI noise, so BLDC is a better fit but controlling requirements for BLDC motors also generate EMI and audible noise. This can, however, be addressed using Field-Oriented Control (FOC) sinusoidal BLDC motor control.

3.13 LINEAR MOTOR

A linear motor is an electric motor that has had its stator and rotor "unrolled" so that instead of producing a torque (rotation) it produces a linear force along its length. The most common mode of operation is as a Lorentz-type actuator, in which the applied force is linearly proportional to the current and the magnetic field .

Many designs have been put forward for linear motors, falling into two major categories, low-acceleration and high-acceleration linear motors. Low-acceleration linear motors are suitable for maglev trains and other ground-based transportation applications. Highacceleration linear motors are normally rather short, and are designed to accelerate an object to a very high speed, for example see the railgun. High-acceleration motors are usually used for studies of hypervelocity collisions, as weapons, or as mass drivers for spacecraft propulsion. They are usually of the AC linear induction motor (LIM) design with an active three-phase winding on one side of the air-gap and a passive conductor plate on the other side. However, the direct current homopolar linear motor railgun is another high acceleration linear motor design. The low-acceleration, high speed and high power motors are usually of the linear synchronous motor (LSM) design, with an active winding on one side of the air-gap and an array of alternate-pole magnets on the other side. These magnets can be permanent magnets or energized magnets. The Shanghai Transrapid motor is an LSM.

26

3.14 TYPES 3.14.1 INDUCTION MOTOR

In this design, the force is produced by a moving linear magnetic field acting on conductors in the field. Any conductor, be it a loop, a coil or simply a piece of plate metal, that is placed in this field will have eddy currents induced in it thus creating an opposing magnetic field, in accordance with Lenz's law. The two opposing fields will repel each other, thus creating motion as the magnetic field sweeps through the metal.

FIG 16 INDUCTION MOTOR 3.14.2 SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

In this design the rate of movement of the magnetic field is controlled, usually electronically, to track the motion of the rotor. For cost reasons synchronous linear motors rarely use commutators, so the rotor often contains permanent magnets, or soft iron. Examples include coilguns and the motors used on some maglev systems, as well as many other linear motors. A linear motor for trains running Toei Oedo line

FIG 17 SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

27

3.14.3 HOMOPOLAR
In this design a large current is passed through a metal sabot across sliding contacts that are fed from two rails. The magnetic field this generates causes the metal to be projected along the rails.

3.14.4 PIEZO ELECTRIC

Piezoelectric drive is often used to drive small linear motors.

3.15 OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR

Brushless dc motors are rapidly gaining popularity in the appliance, automotive, aerospace, consumer, medical and industrial automation industries. As a result of the absence of mechanical commutators and brushes and the permanent magnet rotor, brushless dc motors have many advantages over the brush dc and induction motor. Some of the advantages of brushless dc motors are: High power density, low inertia and high torque to inertia ratio and high dynamic response due to the small size, low weight and high flux density neodymium-ironboron permanent magnet rotor. High efficiency due to the low rotor losses as a result of the absence of current carrying conductors on the rotor and reduced friction and windage losses in the rotor. Long operating life and high reliability due to the absence of brushes and metallic commutators. Clean operation due to the absence of brushes, resulting in no brush dust during operation and allowing for clean room applications. Low audible noise operation due to the absence of brushes, commutators and smooth low air resistance rotor. High speed operation in excess of 80,000 rpm is possible, since these motors are electronically commutated and are not subjected to the limitations of conventional commutations. Low thermal resistance since most of the machine losses occur in the stationary stator, thereby allowing heat dissipation by the process of direst conduction. In addition, since the rotor losses are small, heat transfer to machine tools and work pieces when these motors are utilized in machine tools is minimal, thereby reducing the effects of heat on the machining operation.
28

As a result of the above features, the brushless dc motor has been replacing other motors in many industries. The household appliance industry has been one of the fastest growing end product market for adjustable speed drives [7]. Brushless dc motors are now being used in refrigeration compressors, washing machines, fans, food processing equipment and vacuum cleaners in the household appliance industry. In the automotive industry, brushless dc motors are being used in fuel pumps, air-condition blowers and engine cooling fans. The exceptional features of brushless dc motors described above are responsible for their widespread use in many industries, however, a review of the literature did not provide motor operational characteristics based on the various phenomena occurring in the motor. Since the operational characteristic of a motor is important for its control, modeling and deriving optimum performance, this paper is focused on the determination of the energization sequence of the motor, its effect on electromagnetic torque production and the utilization of the torque production mechanism for the classification of the brushless dc motor.

3.16 DETERMINATION OF ENERGIZATION SEQUENCE FOR BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR

Three-phase brushless dc motors are operated by energizing two of its three phase windings at a time. However, for continuous operation of the motor in a particular direction of rotation, the pair of windings to be energized is dependent on the rotor position. The dependence of phase winding energization on rotor position lies in the fact that the rotor magnet of the motor induces voltages in the phase windings during rotation, and efficient motor operation is accomplished when the energized windings are experiencing their steady or non-varying back emf. Hence, knowledge of the back emf of each phase winding as a function of rotor position is necessary in the determination of the phase winding energization sequence. The determination of phase winding back emf as a function of rotor position for a three-phase brushless dc motor was obtained by operating the brushless dc machine in generator mode. In this test, a brush dc motor was used as a prime mover to drive the three-phase, two-pole brushless dc machine at constant speed in an anti-clockwise direction. The apparatus used is shown in Fig. 1. The rotating flux of the two-pole brushless dc machine rotor induces voltages in each phase winding. For a three wire star connected brushless dc machine, the star point is not accessible and the three resistors labeled R, in star connection were used to obtain machine phase voltages from line to the star point n formed by the three resistors.
29

FIG 18 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF ENERGIZATION SEQUENCE

3.17 BRUSHLESS DC MACHINE OPERATED AS A GENERATOR

The resulting generated phase voltages as functions of rotor position , relative to the stator for the two-pole, three-phase brushless dc machine are shown in Fig. 2(a). These generated phase voltages are trapezoidal in nature, having flat tops of 120 electrical degrees and positive and negative slopes each of 60 electrical degrees. Their magnitudes for a particular brushless dc machine are dependent on the speed of rotation of the machine. The three generated phase voltages ean , ebn and ecn are displaced 120 electrical degrees from each other and their variations are dependent on rotor position, since,

where, e is the generated voltage, is the flux linkage, is the rotor position and is the angular velocity of the rotor. From Eq. (1), the generated voltage waveform is a function of rotor position, thereby providing an indication of the rotor position at any time. The waveforms of Fig. 2 reveal that for a two-pole machine, one electrical cycle of generated waveform was completed in one mechanical revolution of the rotor. However, in the case of a four-pole rotor, there would be two electrical cycles of generated voltage waveform for one mechanical revolution of the rotor. reveals that two phase voltages are of constant value for 60 electrical degrees and for a star connected stator as shown in Fig. 3, line voltage waveforms can be drawn from two phase voltages. These line voltage generated waveforms ebc , eca and eab are shown in Fig. 2(b). Since two phase windings of a star connected brushless dc motor are experiencing a constant generated line voltage for 60 electrical degrees, then efficient operation of the motor is obtained when the two energized windings are experiencing their constant back emf.

30

FIG 19 PHASE DIAGRAM

Fig. 2 Brushless DC Motor Voltages (a) Generated Phase Voltages ean , ebn and ecn (b) Generated Line Voltages ebc , eca and eab (c) Supply Line Voltages V bc , V ca and V ab Hence, the generated line voltage waveforms shown in Fig. 2(b), which are functions of rotor position , are used to determine the sequence of energization of the motor windings for a particular direction of rotation. Therefore, for anti-clockwise operation of the brushless dc motor, using Fig. 2(b), and starting with rotor position at = 0, the winding pairs should be energized in the sequence ac, bc, ba, ca, cb, ab and ac again, with each winding pair being energized for 60 electrical degrees [8-9]. It must be noted that for clockwise operation of the brushless dc motor, the sequence of energization of the winding pairs must be reversed and would take the form ab, cb, ca, ba, bc and ac.

31

FIG 20 STAR CONNECTED BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR

Fig. 2(c) shows the line voltages for efficient motor operation, placing the supply voltages in phase with the generated or back emf line values. The line supply voltages are greater than the line back emf to ensure that electromagnetic torque is developed by the machine. The development of the energization sequence for a three-phase brushless dc motor, as a function of rotor position and hence back emf, for rotation in a particular direction has been lacking in the literature. The material presented above can be used in the absence of the manufacturers data to determine the energization sequence of a brushless dc motor.

3.18 TORQUE PRODUCTION AND OPERATION OF BLDCM USING VECTOR ANALYSIS

The theory of vector analysis of a three-phase stator, justifying the existence and location of vector currents and voltages and the equality of scalar and vector current magnitude. A cross sectional view of a two-pole, three-phase brushless dc motor is shown in Fig. 4. The rotor magnet is shown with a reduced diameter and hence an enlarged air-gap for illustration purposes. The two-pole rotor is assumed to be rotating at a constant angular velocity rad/sec in an anticlockwise direction. At the instant of observation in Fig. 4, its d-axis which is defined as the centre of the south pole is at the position = 0, which corresponds to the = 0 point on the horizontal axes of the waveforms in Fig. 2. At this rotor position = 0, winding pair ac would begin to experience their constant back emf Eac due to the effect of the rotor magnet on the stator windings as shown in Fig. 2(b). Hence, at this rotor position = 0, winding pair ac must be energized with a supply voltage of V ac volts to oppose the constant
32

back emf Eac present experienced by the windings. The magnitude of the supply voltage must be greater than the constant back emf developed by the windings as shown in Fig. 2(c) and sufficient to develop electromagnetic torque to sustain the rotor speed.

FIG 21 - STATOR AND ROTOR VECTORS FOR TWO-POLE, BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR

The energization of stator winding pair ac with supply voltage V ac and the resulting phase currents are shown in Fig. 5(a). The energization of winding pair ac results in the currents ia through winding aa' and ic through winding cc' respectively, where, ia = ic . These currents establish stationary current vectors i a and i c along the positive magnetic axis of winding aa' and negative magnetic axis of winding cc' respectively [10]. The vector addition of these two stationary current vectors ira and i c , results in the resultant stationary current vector i ac as shown in Fig. 4.

33

FIG 22 - ENERGIZATION SEQUENCE OF TWO-POLE, THREE-PHASE STATOR

At this rotor position = 0, the resultant stationary current vector i ac , is displaced from the rotor flux vector rm by an angle of 120 electrical degrees. The resultant stationary stator flux vector rac , produced by current vector i ac , establishes a magnetic south pole at the arrow head rm . The interaction of these flux vectors ac and m develops electromagnetic torque, resulting in the rotor and its flux vector being pulled towards the resultant stationary stator flux vector rac , causing rotation of the motor in an anti-clockwise direction. The electromagnetic torque T e developed by the machine is given by the cross product of peak flux linkage vector r r r m = N m ) and current vector i ac [11], hence, Tre = m i ac = N (m i ac)
r Te

= N | rm || irac | Sin k

The unit vector where, rm is the rotor flux vector, is the angle between vectors m and ira whose direction is perpendicular to the plane in which m indicates that the developed electromagnetic torque varies with the magnitude of the resultant stationary current vector irac and Sin, since, N and m are constants. The utilization of the developed energization sequence for the brushless dc motor, for rotor

34

positions in the range 0 60 resulted in the electromagnetic torque equation presented in Eq. (3). The electromagnetic torque developed by the motor produced anticlockwise rotation, resulting in an increase in the angle from its 0 position. This increase in the angle in an anticlockwise direction, results in a decrease of angle from its initial 120, thereby increasing the electromagnetic torque developed by the motor, provided there is no decrease in the magnitude of the resultant stationary current vector
r i ac

. When = 90, the developed

torque is maximum, but as decreases and reaches 60, the developed electromagnetic torque decreases to the value when was 0. When > 60 in Fig. 2(b), the back emf in winding pair ac is no longer at its constant value for this speed of operation, and the electromagnetic torque developed for < 60, would be less than the values obtained for 0 60 and 60 120. If winding pair ac remains energized up to the point where = 120, the angle between the vectors rm and irac would be = 0, and the electromagnetic torque developed using Eq. (3) would be zero. In addition to zero torque being developed at = 120, the rotor would be locked in this zero torque position, since the north pole of the rotor magnet would be aligned with the south pole produced by resultant stationary flux vector ac . Hence, for continuous torque production and rotation of the motor and efficient energy conversion from electrical to mechanical, winding pair ac must not remain energized for > 60. Examination of Fig. 2(b), reveals that at = 60, winding pair bc has just begun to experience its constant back emf Ebc , hence, winding aa' must be commutated and winding bb' brought into conduction with winding cc'. That is, winding pair bc must be energized with V bc at = 60 as shown in Figs. 2(c) and 5(b). The energization of winding pair bc with supply voltage Vbc results in the current ib through winding bb' and ic through winding cc'. These currents establish stationary current vectors i b and irc , along the positive magnetic axis of winding bb' and negative magnetic axis of winding cc' respectively. The vector addition of these two current vectors i b and irc , results in the resultant stationary current vector irbc as shown in Fig. 4. At this rotor position = 60, the resultant stationary current vector irbc , is displaced from the rotor flux vector rm by an angle of 120 electrical degrees. The interaction of these vectors i bc and m develops electromagnetic torque, resulting in the rotor and its flux vector being pulled towards the resultant stationary stator flux vector rbc , causing rotation to continue in an anti-clockwise direction. The process of torque production continues until = 120 and a new winding pair ba is brought into conduction as shown in Fig. 2(c). Similarly, the energization of the other phase windings shown in Figs. 5(c) to (f), results in the
35

production of resultant stationary current vectors and i ab respectively as shown in Fig. 4. These resultant stationary current vectors occupy a fixed position in the stator. They are displaced from each other by an angle of 60 electrical degrees and their magnitudes are dependent on the current flowing in the phase windings. The electromagnetic torque developed by the machine is not constant throughout each 60 movement of the rotor and is given by
r Te

= m

irxy Sin kr

(4)

where, x is the phase winding terminal connected to the positive end of the supply voltage, y is the other phase winding terminal connected to the negative end of the supply voltage and is in the range 60 120. The electromagnetic torque developed by the motor for a fixed stator winding current I for one revolution of the rotor and ignoring the electromagnetic torque developed during commutation.

FIG 23 ROTOR POSITION

36

The events described above for efficient operation of the two-pole, three-phase brushless dc motor, showing the range of rotor positions for a pair of windings to remain energized, the corresponding back emf of the energized windings and the corresponding electromagnetic torque developed are summarized in Table 1 below.

3.19 CLASSIFICATION OF BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR

Electric motors are classified into two main categories, namely brush dc and ac brushless motors as shown in Fig. 7 and presented in [1]. Brush dc motors are made up of stators consisting of poles produced by permanent magnets or dc excited magnets, which give rise to static magnetic fields across the rotor. The rotor of these brush dc motors consists of windings connected to mechanical commutators to facilitate the application of a dc power source. Current flow through these rotor windings takes place through carbon brushes which make contact with the commutators, thereby producing a magnetic field and a current vector which remains in a relatively fixed position relative to the stator. The relatively stationary current vector of the rotor interacts with the stationary magnetic field of the stator, developing electromagnetic torque given by the cross product of these two vectors. Fig. 8(a)
37

shows the brush dc machine stationary flux. linkage vector N rs and the relatively stationary rotor current vector i r separated by an angle . The electromagnetic torque developed by the machine is given by: T e = N (i r s) .

Three-phase ac machines are divided into two categories, synchronous and asynchronous. The stators of synchronous and asynchronous ac machines are supplied with three-phase ac voltages and the resulting three-phase ac currents produce a rotating current vector and magnetic field, both of which are of constant magnitude and rotate at the angular velocity of the supply voltage.

FIG 24 - CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTRIC MOTOR

38

The difference between synchronous and asynchronous machines lies in the fact that the rotor of an asynchronous machine derives its electrical energy from the stator by the process of induction to produce the rotors current vector and magnetic field. This process results in the speed of the rotor being lower than that of the stators rotating magnetic field. However, the rotors of synchronous machines possess their own magnetic field in the form of fixed magnets or dc excited magnets and do not depend on induced currents from the stators magnetic field. This results in the rotor of synchronous machines having the same speed as the stator rotating current vector and magnetic field. Although the rotor speed of asynchronous machines are lower than the speed of the stator rotating flux, the speed of the rotor flux is the same as that of the stator flux. The stator current vectors, rotor flux vectors and their speeds, together with the rotor speed of synchronous and asynchronous machines are represented in Figs. 8(b) and 8(c). In Fig. 8(b), the rotor flux vector and stator current vector of the asynchronous machine are rotating at the angular velocity of the supply voltage s , while the rotor rotates at an angular velocity m which is lower than s . However, the rotors flux vector and stator current vector and the rotor of a synchronous machine all rotate and the angular velocity of the supply voltage s as shown in Fig. 8(c). The electromagnetic torque developed for synchronous and asynchronous machines in Fig. 8 is given by

T e = N (i s r ). .

FIG 25 CHARACTERISTIC CURVE

39

It is clear from Fig. 8, that dc machines are characterized by stator flux vector and rotor current vector both occupying a relatively fixed position in the machine space, while, ac machines are characterized by rotor flux vector and stator current vector both rotating at the angular velocity of the stator supply voltage within the machine space. The energization of a pair of stator phase windings of a brushless dc motor for 60 electrical degrees results in the production of a rotating rotor flux vector and a stationary stator current vector. This clearly does not fit the classification of a dc machine, although the stator windings are energized with a dc supply during this interval. In addition, examination of the rotor flux vector and the stator current vector over a cycle as shown in Fig. 4, also reveal their nonstationary nature, with the stator current vector always leading the rotor flux vector and they complete an electrical cycle in the same time. Further to this, the line voltage waveforms of Fig. 2 are not dc, but alternating in nature and are similar to the trapezoidal back emf of the motor when operated as a generator. These properties clearly indicate that the brushless dc motor is an ac synchronous motor although the stator windings are energized by dc voltages and the torque-speed characteristics of the motor is similar to that of the brush dc motor.

40

3.20 MOTOR SPECIFICATION

TYPE

BRUSHLESS UNGEARED HUB MOTOR

PEAK TORQUE (in Nm) RATED

30

10.2

POWER (in Watts)

250

VOLTAGE SUPPLY (in Volts)

48

15mph / 24 kmph TOP SPEED

(Rider Weight, Rider Input and Terrain Contingent) 13 16 Miles / 20 - 25 km

RANGE

(Rider Weight, Rider Input and Terrain Contingent)

41

4.

ELECRONIC SPEED CONTROLLERS

An electronic speed control or ESC is an electronic circuit with the purpose to vary an electric motor's speed, its direction and possibly also to act as a dynamic brake. ESCs are often used on electrically powered radio controlled models, with the variety most often used for brushless motors essentially providing an electronically-generated three phase electric power low voltage source of energy for the motor. An ESC can be a stand-alone unit which plugs into the receiver's throttle control channel or incorporated into the receiver itself, as is the case in most toy-grade R/C vehicles. Some R/C manufacturers that install proprietary hobby-grade electronics in their entry-level vehicles, vessels or aircraft use onboard electronics that combine the two on a single circuit board.

4.1

FUNCTION

Regardless of the type used, an ESC interprets control information not as mechanical motion as would be the case of a servo, but rather in a way that varies the switching rate of a network of field effect transistors, or FETs.[1] The rapid switching of the transistors is what causes the motor itself to emit its characteristic high-pitched whine, especially noticeable at lower speeds. It also allows much smoother and more precise variation of motor speed in a far more efficient manner than the mechanical type with a resistive coil and moving arm once in common use. Most modern ESCs incorporate a battery eliminator circuit (or BEC) to regulate voltage for the receiver, removing the need for receiver batteries. BECs are usually either linear or switched mode voltage regulators. DC ESCs in the broader sense are PWM controllers for electric motors. The ESC generally accepts a nominal 50 Hz PWM servo input signal whose pulse width varies from 1 ms to 2 ms. When supplied with a 1 ms width pulse at 50 Hz, the ESC responds by turning off the DC motor attached to its output. A 1.5 ms pulse-width input signal results in a 50% duty cycle output signal that drives the motor at approximately half-speed. When presented with 2.0 ms input signal, the motor runs at full speed due to the 100% duty cycle (on constantly) output.

4.2

BRUSHED ESC

ESC systems for brushed motors are very different by design.

4.3

BRUSHLESS ESC

Brushless ESC systems basically drive tri-phase brushless motors by sending sequence of signals for rotation. Brushless motors, otherwise called outrunners or inrunners, have become very popular with radio controlled airplane hobbyists because of their efficiency, power, longevity and light weight in comparison to traditional brushed motors. However, brushless AC motor controllers are much more complicated than brushed motor controllers.

42

The correct phase varies with the motor rotation, which is to be taken into account by the ESC: Usually, back EMF from the motor is used to detect this rotation, but variations exist that use magnetic (Hall Effect) or optical detectors. Computer-programmable speed controls generally have user-specified options which allows setting low voltage cut-off limits, timing, acceleration, braking and direction of rotation. Reversing the motor's direction may also be accomplished by switching any two of the three leads from the ESC to the motor.

FIG 26 - A GENERIC ESC MODULE RATED AT 35 AMPS WITH AN INTEGRATED BEC

4.4

CLASSIFICATION

ESCs are normally rated according to maximum current, for example, 25 amperes or 25 A. Generally the higher the rating, the larger and heavier the ESC tends to be which is a factor when calculating mass and balance in airplanes. Many modern ESCs support nickel metal hydride, lithium ion polymer and lithium iron phosphate batteries with a range of input and cut-off voltages. The type of battery and number of cells connected is an important consideration when choosing a Battery eliminator circuit (BEC), whether built into the controller or as a stand-alone unit. A higher number of cells connected will result in a reduced power rating and therefore a lower number of servos supported by an integrated BEC.

43

4.5

CONTROLLER SPECIFICATIONS

MODEL

CN48/350BLRated

VOLTAGE

48 VRated

POWER (in Watts)

350

UNDER-VOLTAGE PROTECTION

410.5V

OVER-CURRENT PROTECTION

150.5A

HALL VOLTAGE

1.0-4.0V

CATEGORY

BRUSHLESS

44

5.
5.1

MATERIAL OF THE FRAME

WROUGHT IRON

Wrought iron is an alloy with a very low carbon content in contrast to cast iron , and has fibrous inclusions , known as slag. This is what gives it a grain resembling wood, which is visible when it is etched or bent to the point of failure. Wrought iron is tough, malleable, ductile, and easily welded. Wrought iron contains very little carbon (approximately 0.035%) Characteristics of Wrought Iron: Soft Ductile Magnetic Strong - high elasticity and tensile strength Malleable - can be heated and reheated and worked into various shapes. Wrought iron becomes stronger the more it is worked. Suitable for members in tension OR compression whereas cast iron is suitable for members in compression only

45

5.2

MATERIAL SPECIFICATION

46

6.

VEHICLE SPECIFICATIONS
DRIVE EXCLUSIVE CURRIE GEARED HUB MOTOR

BRAKES

DRUM BRAKE

WHEELS TIRES

ALLOY WHEELS COMFORT TIRES

HANDLEBAR

HIGH-RISE BAR

FORKS KERB WEIGHT

SUSPENSION W/ALLOY CROWN AND LEGS 90 KG

DIMENSIONS LENGTH VEHICLE WIDTH HEIGHT LENGTH FRAME WIDTH HEIGHT MINIMUM GROUND CLEARANCE REAR WHEEL DISTANCE FRONT TO REAR WHEEL DISTANCE SEAT HEIGHT FRONT REAR
47

195 cm 114 cm 94 cm 132 cm 241 cm 66 cm 17.78 cm 69.85 cm 160.02 cm 36.38 cm 38.1 cm

FIG 27 - REALISTIC VIEW

FIG 28 TOP VIEW

FIG 29 SIDE VIEW

48

FIG 30 FRONT VIEW

FIG 31 WIRE FRAME

FIG 32 - WIRE FRAME WITH DIMENSIONS

49

7.

KEY FEATURES

Affordable Low price Less manufacturing cost and low maintenance. Go-green with it, pollution free electric vehicle. Designed to move on Rough and Tough surfaces. Can be driven in rain. Motor automatically cuts off when brakes are applied. Easily removable batteries for remote charging. Stable and safe. Extendable range Possibility of fitting extra batteries. Sleek design for complete balance and easy moving. One wheel in front and two small wheels on back for a balanced and safer ride. Light weight for easy handling at any place. Versatile and Reliable skate board for all ages and college youths. Total cost : 36,000

50

8.

FUTURE SCOPE
The electric three wheeler can undergo modifications to give more efficient

performance. The vehicle comprises of a 250W brushless motors powered by 48V 20Ah battery source which gives a maximum speed of 25 KMPH with a maximum load carrying capacity of 150 Kg. These performance specifications can be increased if the vehicle undergoes the following technical details and thus achieve the further mentioned performance. The electric three wheeler has a wide range of applications. The vehicle, if sponsored and accommodated with the modifications mentioned before, can be used as a replacement of fossil fuel local transport in highly populated cities. It will be an eco-friendly option and reduce carbon foot-print of the cities. It can also have a speed check on the vehicle and reduce the number of accidents. The vehicle can be used as an in-campus transport by high official. This would benefit in carbon emission and noise control.

TECHNICAL DETAILS
Motor (BLDC HUB MOTOR) Battery Charging Time 750 W 48 V ; 33 Ah 6 to 8 hrs

PERFORMANCE
Maximum Speed Maximum Range per Change Pay Load Capacity 45 Km/hr 70 75 km/Charge 300 kg

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These modifications could not be achieved in the presented vehicle due to budget constraints as the 250W motor used costs Rs 8000 each and the 750W motors would cost Rs 15000 each. Furthermore, the battery specified for the above motor i.e 48V 33Ah battery will cost Rs 14000 per set. If the vehicle would be sponsored, the above modifications will enhance the performance of the vehicle by increasing the speed, load carrying capacity and mainly the range which is the main drawback of electric vehicle. The frame of the vehicle is made of wrought iron which is heavy but easily and cheaply available. It is thus suggested for use of aluminum as it is light weighted but its costly. Secondly its working is also difficult. Therefore, aluminum could not be used because of budget constraints and place and equipment to work with. The use of aluminum could increase the overall performance of the vehicle as the load decreases. Thus speed, range and load carrying capacity can be increased.

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9.

BUDGET
QUANTITY RATE() 50 8000 600 900 9800 6800 2500 800 PRICE() 1400 16000 600 2700 9800 6800 5000 1600

S.NO PRODUCT 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Frame Material(Rod Iron) 28 kg DC Motor Brushless Fork Tyres Battery Unit (New) Battery Unit (Old) Controllers Controller & Motor Wiring 02 01 03 01 01 02 02

9 10 11 12 13 14

Accelerator Brake Wires Plywood & Paints Break Shoe Tool Kit Tools (Screw & Nuts Etc.)

02 02 02 -

200 200 100 -

400 400 500 200 500 500

15

Workshop Charges Total ()

06 days

400 per day

2400 48800

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10. REFERENCES
http://www.fijitimes.com/story.aspx?id=141347 http://www.sierraclub.org/coal/map/ http://www.levantpower.com/technology.html http://mikes.railhistory.railfan.net/r066.html.http://inventors.about.com/library/weekly/aacarselect rica.htm http://www.powertecmotors.com/a0201el.pdf http://www.patentstorm.us/patents/6493924-description.html www.E-BikeKit.com

J.S. Albus, Data storage in the cerebellar model articulation controller (CMAC), ASME J. Dynamic Syst., Measurement, Contr., vol. 97, no. 3, pp. 228233,1975 C.H. Wu, K. Y. Young, and J. C. Houk, A neuromuscular-like model for robotic compliance control, in Proc. of 1990 IEEE International Conference On Robotics and Automation, 1990, pp. 18851890. Frank Julian Sprague Joining the emerging electrical industry Electric motor The first electric motors T.G. Wilson, P.H. Trickey, "D.C. Machine. With Solid State Commutation", AIEE paper I. CP62-1372, October 7, 1962 M. Gopal - Control systems: principles and design 2nd edition Tata McGraw-Hill, 2002. Page 165.

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