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ExpertSystemforOptimizationofWeldingProcessofThinWalledHSLASteelStructures

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CHAPTER4
FEMODELING&SIMULATIONOFGTAWPROCESSOF
THIN-WALLEDSTRUCTUREFORCIRCUMFERENTIALWELDING
4.1 Introduction
In this chapter, FE modeling & simulation methodology, analytical model of arc
welding, FE formulation, heat source modeling, heat losses modeling, material modeling,
filler metal deposition, simulation approach in ANSYS

, welding simulation numerical


aspects used for the development of FE models of thin walled structure for circumferential
welding of cylinder are presented for the studies of welding induced residual stresses and
distortions followed by FE discretization, other simulation aspects, thermal effects of
welding, welding residual stress fields and welding distortions. Further, the details of
experimental setup for validation of FE models for circumferential welding of thin walled
cylinderarepresented.
4.2 FEModeling&SimulationMethodology
Thetraditionalmanufacturingprocessesweremainlyestablishedfromtrial-and-error
experiments approach. Such trial-and-error procedure approach requires tremendous
material, energy, labors, as well as produces significant waste, fumes and emissions. The
traditionaltrialanderrorapproachbasedoncostlyandtime-consumingweldingexperiments
faced hindrance to sound welds due to welding process parameters optimization. The
appropriate control techniques are mandatory with reliability and cost effectiveness for the
application of arc welding process on shop floor level. Whereas the welding simulations
simulates an actual welding process based on science and physics and the tests can be
performed inside computer without the wastage of resources and hazardous environment
impact. A hybrid approach involving both FE modeling and experimental work has proven
verybeneficial.
FE models provide a very suitable tool for analyzing the thermal and mechanical
consequences of welding process. FE simulations of welding processes have been a major
topicinweldingresearchforseveralyears[141].Theavailabilityof64-bithighperformance
computing machines and enhanced FE computational techniques has made it possible to
simulatetemperaturefieldsdeveloped fromtheweldingprocess. FEmodelsallowavariety
of welding process and heat source parameters studies without considering the practical
limitations.FEmodelscanbeusedforanalysisoftemperatureandstress&strainduringand
aftertheweldingfortheimprovementoftheprocesswiththeexperimentalvalidationofFE
models. The FE models after validation can be used for welding process optimization by
performing virtual design of experiments (DOE). Many commercially available finite
element codes such as ANSYS

, ABAQUS

, FEMLAB

, ADINA

, MSC MARC

, and
SYSWELD

etc. can be applied to carryout such type of manufacturing processes


simulations. However, in expert opinion there is no single model available to realistically
account for the arc physics, weld pool phenomenon and finally the deformations and heat
conductioninthesolidmodel[2].
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The some subroutines are integrated in ANSYS

for the facilitation and the coding


compriseselementsactivationanddeactivationfunctionality,meshingalgorithm,heatsource
modeling,materialmodels,heatfluxdistributionforanalyticalmodelandmaterialproperties
managementdependingontheelementstemperatureetc.Transientthermalanalysisfollowed
byelasto-plasticstressanalysisisappliedtosimplifythesimulationprocedure.
In the following section, the simulation strategy for the transient thermal modeling
using code(s) from commercially available, analytical model for temperature fields during
arc welding simulation, thermal properties of the materials, adaptation of heat source
modelingandthefillermetaldepositionmechanismarepresentedindetail.
4.2.1 AnalyticalModelofArcWelding
Arcweldingisahighlynon-linearcoupledthermo-mechanicalphenomenoninwhich
localized heat generation and large thermal gradients results due to the moving heat source
and consequently thermal stresses and distortions due to the non uniform temperature
distribution. According to the first law of thermodynamics, the energy is conversed.
Application of this to a differential control volume V, the heat conduction equation
ignoringtheheatofdeformationsisgiveninEquation4.1[4].
( ) ( )
( )
( )
, , ,
. , , ,
T x y z
T c T q Q x y z

= +

(4.1)
( ) , , , Q x y z ,istheheatgenerationperunitvolume.
TheconstitutiveequationistheFourierlawofheatconductionasgivenbyEquation
4.2whichrelatestheheatfluxandthetemperaturedistribution.
( ). . ( , , , ) q k T A T x y z = (4.2)
FromEquation4.1intoEquation4.2
( , , , )
( ) ( ) ( ( ). . ( , , , )) ( , , , )
T x y z
t c T k T A T x y z Q x y z
T

+ = (4.3)
Consideringthermalconductivityasconstant,then
2
( , , ,
( ) ( ) ( ). . ( , , , ) ( , , , )
T x y z
T c T K T A T x y z Q x y z

+ =

(4.4)
TemperaturedistributionisgovernedbyEquation4.4.
Thesumofalltheforcesandmomentsactingonabodyiszeroaccordingtothelaw
ofequilibrium.ItcanbewrittenmathematicallyasEquation4.5.

2
2
1
i v
l
j
F
u
t p x

= +

(4.5)
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Wherei=1,2,3
Thestress-stainrelationshipintermsofLamesconstantisgivenbyEquation4.6for
linearthermo-elasticproblems.
2 (3 2 )
v v kk
T

= + + (4.6)
ThestraindisplacementrelationshipisgivenbyEquation4.7.

1
( )
2
j
i
j i
u
u
x x

= +

(4.7)
FromEquations4.6and4.7intoEquation4.5andsimplifyingintoEquation4.8.

2
2
2
( ) (3 2 )
i kk
i l
i j
u T
u F
t x x



= + + + +

(4.8)
The term (3 2 )
j
T
x


+

provides a coupling between Equations 4.4 and 4.8. The


temperatures are calculated from Equation 4.4 and applied as body loads through
(3 2 )
j
T
x


+

inEquation4.8.Fromdisplacements,thestrainsandstressesarecalculated.
4.2.2 FEFormulation
TemperaturedistributionforisotropicmaterialgiveninEquation4.4canbewrittenin
theformasgiveninEquation4.9[4].
( ) ( ) ( )
T T T T
C K K K Q
t x x y y z z


= + + +

(4.9)
Itcanbewritteninmatrixformas
( ) { } ( )
T
T
C L D L T Q
t


= +

(4.10)
Where,
x
L
y
z
(
(

(
(
=
(

(
(


and
0 0
0 0
0 0
K
D K
K
| |
|
=
|
|
\


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ApplyingconvectiveboundaryconditionsatthesurfaceenclosingthevolumeV,itcan
bewrittenasgiveninEquation4.11.

[ ] ( )
T
f B
q h T T = (4.11)
Equations4.6becomesbytakingtheboundaryeffectsintoaccountas
[ ]
{ } ( { } ) ( )
T
f B
T
C L D L T Q h T T
t


= + +

(4.12)
Equation4.10whenmultipliedby T yieldsandintegratedoverthecontrolvolumeusing
theboundaryconditions
( ) ( { } [ ]{ } ) ( ) ( )
T
f B
T
T C dv T L D LT dv TQdv Th T T dA
t
v v v

+ = +

(4.13)
LetforanyelementE,thetemperaturecanberepresentedby
[ ]
E
T N T = (4.14)
and [ ]
E
T N T = (4.15)
Where,
E
T is the nodal temperature and [N] isthe matrix of element shape functions.
Thisequationisvalidforallpermissible
E
T .If
[ ][ ] B L N = (4.16)
BysubstitutingEquations4.14,4.15and4.16inEquation4.13
( [ ][ ] { }) ([ ] [ ][ ]{ })
T T
E
C N N t dv B D B T dv

+
[ ] [ ] ( [ ] { })
T
f B E
v A
N Qdv N h T N T dA

= + (4.17)
Equation4.17containingnodaltemperaturescanbewritteninanotherformas[4]:
[ ]{ } [ ]{ } { }
E E E
C T K T F + = (4.18)
Where,[ ] [ ][ ] )
T
v
C C N N dv

= Specificheatmatrix
[ ] ([ ] [ ][ ]) [ ][ ]
T T
f
v A
K B D B dv h N N dA

= + Thermalconductivitymatrix
{ } [ ] [ ]
E f B
V A
F Q N dv h T N dA

= + Heatgenerationandconvectionmatrix
In thermal analysis, the temperature fields can be obtained from the Equation 4.14.
These results can be used further for structural response in mechanical analysis. By
assemblingtheindividualelementalequations,asystemofequationsisobtainedandsolved
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fortheunknownnodaltemperaturesT
E
.Byusingtheprincipleofvirtualwork,whichstates
that a virtual change of internal strain energy must be offset by an identical change in
external work due to applied load, the finite element form of Equation 4.8 can be obtained
anditcanbewrittenmathematicallyas
U P = (4.19)

Where, U=Internalstrainenergy(internalwork)
P=ExternalWork(inertiaeffect) =Virtualoperator
Whereasthevirtualstrainenergyisgivenas
{ } { } { }
T
v
U d V =

(4.20)
=StrainVector,=StressVector,andV=Volumeofelement
Fromthetheoryofbasicsolidmechanics

el
D = (4.21)
and
el th
= + (4.22)
Where,
=totalStrain,
el
=Elasticstrain,
th
=ThermalStrain,D=MaterialStiffness
The thermal strain vector for an isotropic medium with temperature dependent
coefficientofthermalexpansionisgivenas:
( )
th
T T = (4.23)
T isthedifferencebetweenthereferencetemperatureandactualtemperature.
BysubstitutingEquations4.20and4.21inEquation4.19gives
{{ } [ ]{ } { }[ ]{ })
T th
U D D dV =

(4.24)
Thestrainisrelatedtonodaldisplacementbythefollowingrelations
{ } [ ]{ } B u = (4.25)
Foraconstantdisplacement,virtualstrainingenergyisgivenas:
{ } [ ] [ ][ ] { } { } [ ] [ ]{ }
T T T T th
V V
U u B D B dV u u B D dV =

(4.26)
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Theexternalvirtualworkduetoinertiaforcesisgivenas:

{ }
{ }
a
T
v
F
P w dV
v
=

(4.27)
Where
w=displacementvectorofageneralpoint,{ }
a
F =accelerationforcevector
AccordingtoNewtonsecondlawofmotion

2
2
{ }
{ }
a
F
w
v

(4.28)
Ifthedisplacementwithintheelementisrelatedtonodaldisplacementby
{ } [ ]{ } w N u = (4.29)
TheEquation4.27canbealsowrittenas

2
2
{ } [ ] [ ] { }
T
P u p N N dV u


(4.30)
BysubstitutingEquations4.26and4.30inEquation4.17
{ } [ ] [ ][ ] { } { } [ ] [ ]{ }
T T T T th
V
u B D B dV u u B D dV

2
2
{ } [ ] [ ] { }
T
u p N N dV u

(4.31)
{ }
T
u Vector is a set of arbitrary virtual displacement common in all terms, the
conditionrequiredtosatisfyEquation4.30gives[4].
[ ] { } [ ]{ }
th
c c c
K F M u = && (4.32)
Where,
[ ] [ ] [ ][ ]
T
c
V
K B D B dV =

Elementstiffnessmatrix
{ } [ ] [ ]{ }
th T th
c
V
F B D dV =

Elementthermalloadvector
[ ] [ ] [ ]
T
c
M N N dV =

Elementmassmatrix

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4.2.3 InteractionofDifferentFields
The structural modeling is carried out to study the macroscopic thermal-mechanical
behaviorofthin-walledcylindersduringcircumferentialwelding.Thecomputationaldomain
ofthefiniteelementmodelisonlylimitedtothethinwalledstructure(i.e.cylinders)i.e.the
heat source and clamping fixtures explicitly are not modeled. Further, the finite element
model does not predict weld pool geometries that are used as input parameters. Therefore,
this model is most reliable outside the weld pool. The thermal field is the motive force
behind the changes in mechanical and material fields during welding process. Numerical
simulations that are concerned with the mechanical effects of welding require the
computation of thermal and mechanical fields. Due to the changing microstructure, the
material behavior depends on the temperature and deformation histories. In the structural
analysis,stressesanddeformationsbasedontemperatureareaccommodatedbyincorporating
theresultsofthermal-metallurgicalanalysisintothestructuralanalysis.
4.2.4 HeatSourceModelingandEfficiency
Theproblemsofresidualstresses,distortion,andreducedstrengthofstructuresinand
neartheweldedjointareamajorconcernoftheweldingindustrywhichisinresultdirectly
fromthethermalcycle causedbylocalizedintenseheatinput[51].Computingthetransient
temperature fields accurately is the first critical step of creating an efficient welding
simulation strategy because the temperature has a first order effect on the microstructure,
strain, stress and consequently defects formation in the welds and has a second order effect
onthetemperaturefields[142].
The welding induced imperfections are believed to be due to non-uniform
temperaturefieldsarisingduringthe weldingandthisphenomenonisevenmoresignificant
in arc welding process like GTAW [143, 144]. Weld induced residual stresses and
deformationsarehighlydependentontransienttemperaturegradients,afunctionofthetotal
heatinput,andthepatternsofheatdistributionwithintheweldments,acriticalrequirement
todeterminethetemperaturegradientsintheweldmentsrealistically.Therefore,anaccurate
movingheatsourcemodelingismandatorytoanalyzetheexacttemperaturedistributionsand
accordinglytheweldinducedimperfectionslikeresidualstressesanddeformationsetc.
Adoubleellipsoidalmovingheatsourcemodeltoincorporatethevolumeheatingwas
presented by Goldak et al. [51, 52]. The size and shape of the moving heat source can be
easilymodifiedtomodelboththeshallowanddeeppenetratingweldingprocesses.Initially,
Goldakpresentedasemi-ellipsoidalheatsourcemodelinwhichheatfluxwasdistributedina
Gaussian manner throughout the heat sources volume. The temperature gradients predicted
byusingthisheatsourcemodelwerelesssteepinfrontofthearcandsteeperbehindthearc
ascomparedtoexperimentalobservations.Therefore,adoubleellipsoidalheatsourcemodel
was presented to overcome this problem and here, in the present research, the double
ellipsoidalheatsourcemodelisoptedtomodeltheheatinputfromtheweldingtorch.
InGoldakdoubleellipsoidalheatsourcemodelasshowninFigure4.1,thefronthalf
of the source model is the quadrant of one ellipsoid and the rear half is the quadrant of
anotherellipsoid.Thespecificmathematicalequationisshowninthefollowing.
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ThepowerdensitydistributionofthefronthalfisgiveninEquation4.35[51].
2 2 2
2 2 2
3 3 3
( )
6 3
( , , ) e
f
f
f
y x z
b c a
f
q x y z
a bc
Q


= (4.35)
WhereasthepowerdensitydistributionoftherearhalfisgiveninEquation4.36[51].
2 2 2
2 2 2
3 3 3
( )
6 3
( , , ) e
r r
r
y x z
b c a
f
q x y z
a bc
Q


= (4.36)
Where, Q VI = and 2
f r
f f + =

Wherea
f
,a
r
,b caretheshapeparameters,q
o
is theeffectiveheatinput, f
f
andf
r
are
the fractions of the heat deposited both in the front and rear half, and all are the heat input
parameters.The63isheatfluxdistributionparameterthatcharacterizestheconcentration
level of heat flux distribution based on the heat flux concentration level or heat flux
distributionfeatureofaweldingmethodtodetermineitsvalue.Theshapeofthevolumeof
thepowerdistributioncanbeselectedbyvaryingtheparametersa
f
,a
r
,bandc.Bythisway,
the geometry of the experimental fusion zone can be achieved. From experiments, the data
for weld pool geometries can be obtained [145]. However, the methods for estimating the
weldpooldimensionsforarcweldingsuggestedbyChristensenetal.[146]canbeusedupon
the unavailability of such data. A good agreement between actual and modeled weld pool
sizes, if the modeled heat source size is approximately 10% smaller than the experimental
weldpoolsize,waspresentedbyGoldaketal.[52].Further,intheabsenceofbetterdata,the
distance in front of the heat source equal to one-half of the weld widths and the distance
behindtheheatsourceequaltotwiceofthewidthgivebetterapproximations[51].

Fig.4.1Goldak'sdoubleellipsoidheatsourcemodelforweldingheatsource[52]
TheparametersfortheGoldakmodelwerederivedfromtheexperimentsandvalues
are given in the Table 4.2 in the respective section. The problems may occur by slight
changes in the welding conditions due to lack of a good physical background between the
parametersfromGoldaksmodel.Therefore,anewsettingistoberequiredforeverysetof
X
a
f

Z
Y
a
r

c
b
Heatflux
(wattm
-3
)
X
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welding parameters and material composition. Therefore, the model cannot predict any
fusion zone geometries that can be only back-calculated. However, the good results were
obtained from experiments for the weld pool geometry with estimations. In the heat source
geometry,verysmallchangesaffectthetemperaturesveryclosetotheweldpoolandinthe
resultant,thecalculatedtemperaturehistoryinandneartheweldpoolarelessaccurate.This
accuracy affects due to the uncertainties in the heat source geometry as well as in the high
temperature thermal material properties and also due to the convective and radiative
boundaryconditions.
In the FE model, the origin of the coordinate system is located at the center of the
moving arc in order to simulate the welding torch (heat source) movement with the
respective welding speed. To calculate the centroidal distance of elements from the moving
arc center corresponding to the welding arc position at any instant, a user-subroutine in
APDLisutilized.Theweldingprocessparametersandthecharacteristicsoftheheatsource
transientheatfluxesrepresentingthemovingofthedistributedheatsourcecanbecalculated
atrespectivepositionsinweldingareasbasedontheFEmeshgeneratedbytheANSYS

.It
is assumed that the heat source moves through volume and the calculated heat applied to
elements is volumetric heat generation. Mainly few researchers reported that the heat
introducesintothework-piecefromthesurfaceunderweldingcurrentof200amperesdueto
lack of turbulent motion into the work-piece [147]. Whereas, Kermanpur, Shamanian and
Yeganeh[91]provedthattheheatflowfunctiondependsupontheweldingcurrentaswellas
onthework-piecethickness.
For circumferential welding, a modified double ellipsoidal heat source model in
cylindrical coordinates is used. For better approximation of the weld pool, the use of
superimposed four ellipsoid quadrants is modeled as per recommendations of Goldak. The
modified double ellipsoid model used for circumferential welding with a single scalar
controllingparameterisgiveninEquations4.37and4.38[4].

2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2
-2
3{ 3 }
6 3 ( , )
o o
R r rR r z
a b c
f f
f
f
M r z Q f
q e
a bc


+
+ +
= (4.37)
2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2
-2
3{ 3 }
6 3 ( , )
o o
R r rR r z
a b c
r r
r
r
M r z Q f
q e
a bc


+
+ +
= (4.38)
Thevalueofscalarmultiplier ( , ) M r z canberecalculatediterativelytomatchtheweld
pool shape and dimensions. The origin of the coordinate system is selected at the centre of
the heat source for the calculations of spatial heat distribution from the Equation 4.37 and
Equation 4.38 and a user subroutine provides the movement of heat source at the defined
welding speed. To calculate the centroidal distances of elements from the centre of moving
heat source at every load step, another subroutine is used. The heat input to the elements
fromtheheatsourceparametersandweldingprocessparametersiscalculatedandprojected
throughthethicknessoffiniteelementmesh.
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AwiderangeofvariationforthevalueofheatsourceefficiencyinGTAWprocessis
shown in literature [148]. The temperatures with thermocouples at a specified location are
measured and compared with the related values for different efficiencies. Finally, it can be
concludedthattheefficiencyofheatsourcebetweentherange75%to80%providesthebest
agreementwiththeexperiments.Therefore,anefficiencyof70%to80%indifferentstudies
is used. The simulations for circumferential welding are performed with the assumption of
perpendicularlyfocusedweldingtorchaswellasduringtheexperimentation.
4.2.5 HeatLossesModeling
Bymeansofconvectionandradiation,aconsiderableamountofheatislostthrough
the surfaces of cylinder during the welding process. Except the symmetry surface, the
convectionandradiationtotheenvironmentfromalltheexposedsurfacesisincludedinthe
thermal boundary conditions. Figure 4.2 shows the schematic representations of thermal
boundary conditions i.e. heat losses from the cylinder surface by both convection and
radiation. At higher temperatures, the radiation losses are significant near the weld zone
whereas the convection losses are significant away from the weld line at low temperatures.
The heat lost is calculated for all heat dissipating surfaces by Equation 4.39 and Equation
4.40[4].
loss convestion radiation
q q q = +

(4.39)

x ( )
loss total amb
q h A T T =

(4.40)
Where A = surface area, T = current temperature at the cylinder surface, T
amb
=
ambienttemperatureandh
total
=combinedconvectionandradiationheattransfercoefficient,
givenbytheEquation4.41.
2 2
[ ( )( )]
total convection em bol amb amb
h h T T T T = + + + (4.41)
Where,
convection
h = Convectiveheattransfercoefficient(Wm
-2
K)
em


= Radiationemissivityofcylindersurface
bol
= Stefan-Boltzmanconstant(5.6703x10
-8
Wm
-2
K
-4
)
Inadditiontoconvectionandradiationheatlosses,someresearchers[149]referthat
contact heat losses also play a role whereas the other researchers [150] ignore the contact
heatlosses.However,thecontactheatlossesareignoredinthepresentresearchduetopoint
contactoftheclampingfixtureswithcylinderthroughtheboltsawayfromtheweldline.
There are two unknown parameters, the convective heat transfer coefficient
(h
convection
) and the radiation emissivity (
em
), in the Equation 4.41. The radiation heat losses
play a major role in high temperature zones and become in significant in low temperature
zones. Whereas the convection heat losses play a major role at lower temperatures only.
Mostly the handbooks on heat transfer have listed tabulated data for temperature dependent
emissivityforseveralmaterials[151,152].However,theemissivityisstronglydependenton
thesurfaceconditionsofthemetalfrom
em
<0.1(forun-oxidizedsurfaces)to
em
=0.8(for
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109

oxidizedsurfaces)[153].Thevalueoftheemissivityisestimatedduringtheweldingduetoa
constant changing of the temperatures and surface conditions of a metal surface. The
temperature dependent emissivity for common materials including AISI stainless steels and
lowcarbonsteelsislistedbymanyinternetresources[154,155].Theemissivityvalue(
em
=
0.51)isusedonthesurfaceofthesteelsinthepresentresearch,whichistheaveragevalue
forhotrolledsteelplates[156].


Fig.4.2Schematicrepresentationsofthermalboundaryconditions
In Equation 4.41, the convective heat transfer coefficient is also temperature
dependent.Generally,thetemperaturedependencyoftheconvectiveheattransfercoefficient
is much lower than the radiative heat transfer coefficient but the radiative heat transfer
dominates the convective heat transfer at higher temperatures. Therefore, it is assumed that
there is no benefit of using a temperature dependent convective heat transfer coefficient
[157]. A convective heat transfer coefficient (h
convection
) of 7 - 12 Wm
-2
C
-1
is recommended
by the researchers [158-161]. For HSLA steel as in this research work, a temperature
dependentheattransfercoefficientisusedasshowninFigure4.3.
4.2.6 MaterialModeling
Inarcweldingsimulation,theFEheattransferanalysisrequirestheprecisevaluesof
thermal conductivity, material density, specific heat and latent heat of fusion upto melting
point.Thevaluesoflowtemperaturematerialsaremostlyavailableindifferentliteraturelike
[162-164], but the higher temperature values of materials in the published literature are
limited.Therefore,the materialvalues atelevatedtemperaturesarerequiredtobeestimated
orextrapolatedfromtheavailablelowtemperaturedata.Inthepresentresearchwork,ahigh
strength low alloy steel (HSLA) is used for the experimental investigations and the
corresponding finite element predictions. The temperature dependent properties are taken
C
L

Convectionboundaryconditions
ThermalSymmetryboundaryconditions
Heatsource
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from the published literature. The weld dilution effects on the property changes are not
considered and the materials are assumed as homogenous and isotropic. The materials
temperature dependency is fully considered during the welding (a temperature range from
room temperature to materials melting point) and prescription of temperature independent
propertiesinducessignificanterrorsinthepredictedresults[46].
4.2.6.1MaterialModelforHighStrengthLowAlloySteel
The temperature dependent thermo-mechanical properties such as conductivity,
specificheatanddensity,andtemperature-dependentthermalstructuralpropertiesincluding
Youngs modulus, Poissons ratio, thermal expansion coefficient, yield strength and strain-
hardening rate are used for thermal analysis and mechanical analysis, respectively. The
analysisandoptimizationofweldedstructuresofHighStrengthLowAlloy(HSLA)steelis
carried in the present research work. The chemical composition, both from literature [137,
138] and in-house spectroscopic measurement of HSLA under investigation is tabulated in
Table3.8.
The standard room temperature properties are readily available from published
literature [137, 138]. But the high temperature material data is not available in open
literature. Due to scarcity of elevated temperature material properties data, an engineering
approachproposedandsuccessfullyimplementedbyZHUandCHAO[165]isadoptedinthe
presentresearch.Itisproposedbytheauthor'sthat"exceptfortheyieldstress,usingmaterial
propertiesattheroomtemperaturegivesreasonablepredictionsforthetransienttemperature
fields, residual stress and distortion". Based on this expert opinion the following
simplificationsareintroducedinthematerialmodel.
Temperature-dependent thermo-physical and thermo-mechanical (except yield
strength)propertiesoflowalloysteel(AH36)grade,previouslyimplementedand
closely co-related with the experimental data by [4, 166] are used in the
simulation work. For the experimental work, HSLA steel grade with chemical
compositionpreviouslyshowninTable3.8isused.
For the yield strength of HSLA, the engineering approach from Zhu and Chao
suggests the use of "simplified properties constituted by a piece-wise linear
functionwithtemperaturefortheyieldstressforcomputationalweldsimulation".
Basedonrecommendations,temperaturedependentyieldstrengthofthematerial
from[165]isemployed,asshownbyEquation4.42,4.43&4.44below.
YS=YS
RM
(0T100
o
C) (4.42)
YS=5%xYS
RM
+
melt2/3
melt2/3
T -T
T -100
x95%xYS
RM
(100<T<T
melt2/3
) (4.43)
YS=5%xYS
RM
(TT
melt2/3
) (4.44)
Where, YS, YS
RM
and T
melt2/3
are yield strength, yield strength at room
temperatureand2/3ofmeltingtemperatureofHSLArespectively.
ExpertSystemforOptimizationofWeldingProcessofThinWalledHSLASteelStructures
111

Similar values of yield strength for both base and weld metal are used. For the
experimental work, HSLA steel grade with chemical composition previously
showninTable3.8isused.
Thermal properties i.e. specific heat and thermal conductivity and density as a
functionoftemperatureforHSLAadoptedfrom[166]aregiveninFigure4.3.
For specific heat, latent heat associated with low temperature solid-solid phase
transformationisaccountedforboththebasemetalandtheweldmetal.Enthalpyformulation
is used to avoid the numerical non-convergence. 247 KJ/Kg
1 o
C
-1
of latent heat for solid-
liquid phase transformation is distributed over the melting and solidification range i.e.
between solidus and liquidus temperatures. Due to similar material i.e. low alloy steels, the
solidus and liquidus temperatures are taken as 1440
o
C (1713K) and 1560
o
C (1833K)
respectively.

Fig.4.3Thermo-physicalpropertiesofHSLAsteel
To model the weld puddle and to compensate for enhanced convective heat transfer
effects caused by the fluid flow within the vicinity of weld metal, the thermal conductivity
value of 2-5 times of the solidus; at the liquidus is suggested by the previous researchers
[167-170]. In this research a factor of 3.55 is used and at the solidus, an artificial increase
to120 Wm
-1 o
C
-1
is given to compensate for fluid flow. A constant density of 8096 Kgm
-3

(standardvalueformostthesteels)isused.
Temperaturedependenceofthermo-mechanicalpropertiesofHSLAsteelisshownin
Figures4.4.Themainfeaturesaregiveninthefollowing:
Reduction of elastic modulus at high temperature reflects the material softening
behavior of at elevated temperatures and the Poissons ratio increases with the
increaseintemperature.
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
0 600 1200 1800 2400 3000
Temperature(
o
C)
Thermal Conducti vityx125(W/m-C)
Speci fi cHeatx1000(J/Kg-C)
ConvectiveCoeffecientx10(W/m-C)
UniversityofEngineering&Technology,Taxila-Pakistan
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Theelasticmodulusreducestoalmostzerovaluesatelevatedtemperaturesequal
to or greater than the melting temperature. Some recent research work in the
similar area [4] shows that numerical instabilities are encountered when
excessivelylowvaluesofelasticmodulusatandabovethemeltingtemperatures
are used. To overcome this issue, a constant value is set to 15.0 GPa. However
evenlowervaluesupto1GPaarereportedintheliterature[171].
ThevaluesforboththebulkmodulusandPoissonscoefficientaretakenconstant
aftermeltingtemperatureof1000
o
C.
Volumetric changes associated with low temperature solid-solid phase
transformations is not taken into account because [75] and [76] reported stress
reversalsinhoopstressesatweldcenterline,incontradictiontotheexperimental
measurementsfrom[76].However,laterstudiesshowedthatvolumetricchanges
may give satisfactory results if the transformation plasticity is included which is
not included in the present simulation approach. Therefore, for the thermal
expansion, the material in the melt and heat affected zones follows material
propertiesofthebasemetalduringheatingandcooling.
The material behavior of elastic perfectly-plastic is considered whereas the dislocation
hardening effect and the effects of creep and transformation induced plasticity is not
considered here. A bi-linear kinematic hardening model (von mises yield criterion with
associatedflowrule,kinematichardeningruleandbi-linearkinematichardeningmaterial)as
giveninEquation4.45[141]isusedwith
1
,
2
,and
3
beingthethreeprincipalstresses.

2 2 2
1 2 2 3 3 1
1
[( - ) ( - ) ( - ) ]
2
v
= + + (4.45)

Fig.4.4Thermo-mechanicalpropertiesofHSLAsteel
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.7
0.9
1.1
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000
Temperature(
o
C)
El asticModul usx2.0E+5MPa
Poi ssonRatiox1
ThermalExpansionCoeffecientx2.0E-05/C
ExpertSystemforOptimizationofWeldingProcessofThinWalledHSLASteelStructures
113

4.2.7 FillerMetalDeposition
In arc welding, modeling of filler metal deposition with metal addition as Gas
Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) processes is an important aspect for accurate result
prediction in numerical analysis. Presently, three different techniques for the filler metal
additionareinpracticeasthedeactivatedelementortheelementsrebirthtechnique,thequiet
element technique and the element movement technique. The conventional quiet element
techniqueisusedintheFEmodelsinthepresentresearch[175-178],whichisrelativelyeasy
toimplementbyutilizingtheANSYS

featuresofelementbirthanddeath.Allelementsare
generated in the start including the filler metal elements to be deposited later. The filler
elements are not actually removed from the FE model to achieve the element death effect.
Instead,theconductivity,stiffnessandotheranalogousmaterialpropertiesaremultipliedby
aseverereductionfactortodeactivatetheircontributionintheanalysis.Althoughzeroedout
oftheloadvector,elementloadsassociatedwiththedeactivatedelementsstillappearsinthe
elementloadlists.Duringthethermalanalysis,allthenodesofdeactivatedelementsexcept
thosesharedwiththebasemetal arealsofixedatambienttemperatureuntilthebirthofthe
respective element and deactivated elements are reactivated sequentially when they come
undertheinfluenceoftheheatsourcei.e.weldingtorch.Forthesequelmechanicalanalysis,
a similar approach is used where the elements to be welded are first assigned a set of
artificial, very soft properties. The actual properties of the metal are reassigned as the
elementssolidifyfromtheweldpool.
4.2.8 SimulationApproachinANSYS

For simulation, a coupled thermo-mechanical simulation approach is divided in two


sequentially coupled simulations based on weak thermal to structural coupling. For the
analysis of the thermal behavior, a transient non-linear thermal analysis is performed i.e.
nodaltemperaturedistributionfollowedbyiterativestructuralanalysis. Figure4.5showsan
overviewofde-coupledthermo-mechanicalsimulationapproachinthepresentresearch.
Figure 4.6 shows the detailed sequentially coupled thermo-mechanical simulation
strategy adopted in the research. The quiet element technique is used in this work for the
fillermetaldeposition.Atthestart,thenodaltemperatureofthefillermetalelementsisequal
to the ambient temperature. The nodal constraints are removed at that time when the
elements sequentially come under the influence of the heat source. The heat source is
supposed to stay at least once on each element along the weld line for better computational
results [179]. Equation 4.46 gives the appropriate time step used in the analysis to
accomplishthetask.
(sec)
.
Total welding time
Load step
No of circumferential elements along the weld line
= (4.46)
Therefore, a constant time step is used during the heating phase and the heat source
moves with the specified welding speed quasi-stationary. However, the different time steps
are used during the cooling phase. As the cooling of the weldments approaches to the
ambientorequaltopre-heattemperature(ifany),thetimestepscontinuouslyincreases.

UniversityofEngineering&Technology,Taxila-Pakistan
114

Fig.4.5Overviewofde-coupledthermo-mechanicalsimulationapproach
Instructuralanalysis,computingthestressandstrainfieldisaveryimportantaspect
of the computational weld mechanics. The localized heating during the welding causes the
non linear distribution of temperature field in the weldments. The main cause of welding
inducedimperfectionsliketransientandresidualstressesanddistortionsafterthecompletion
of the welding process is the uneven temperature fields that generate the transient thermal
stressesanddeformations.Inthepresentresearch,thesequelnon-linearstructuralanalysisis
driven by the application of temperature histories as the thermal strain fields controls the
stress fields in the welding. Whereas, the critical link between the thermal and mechanical
analysisistheapplicationofnodalthermalhistoryfromthetransientthermalanalysisasthe
nodalbodyloadsinthestructuralanalysis.Thethermalhistoriescomputedatallnodesinthe
thermalanalysisarerecordedandstoredinathermalanalysisresultfilethatisreadbyusing
the LDREAD command in the structural analysis for the mapping of the thermal histories
onto the nodes in the structural model. For proper data mapping, it is necessary to use ISO
meshed with same element topology (8-noded brick elements) in the thermal and structural
models.Thesimilartransientfashionfromthermalanalysisisreplicatediterativelybythese
mapped nodal temperature fields at different times. The similar load steps from thermal
analysisarealsousedforthecorrespondingstructuralloadsteps.Uponsolidustemperature,
theelementsofthatparticularbeadareactivated.Totracktheaveragedpeaktemperatureof
each elementoffillermetalandrecordthetime foreachelementupon attainingthesolidus
temperatureafterthepeaktemperaturethethermalanalysis,auserAPDLsubroutineisused.
Further in order to simulate the mechanical strains relaxation behavior, the strain history of
eachelementatthetimeofactivationisinitiated.

3DFINITEELEMENTMODEL
Geometrydata
Meshingparameters
THERMALANALYSIS
Thermalboundaryconditions
Movingheatsource
Non-linearmaterialmodel
THERMALPOSTPROCESSING
Temperaturefields
TEMPERATURE
HISTORIESFROM
THERMAL
ANALYSIS

STRUCTURALPOSTPROCESSING
Transientandresidualstressprofiles
Transientandresidualdeformations
SEQUELSTRUCTURALANALYSIS
Structuralboundaryconditions
Non-linearthermo-elastic-plastic
materialmodel
ExpertSystemforOptimizationofWeldingProcessofThinWalledHSLASteelStructures
115

Fig.4.6Detailedsequentiallycoupledthermo-mechanicalsimulationstrategy[180]
To model the enhanced heat losses (localized forced convection) due to the trailing
argon gas, a cooling media based on the properties of argon gas is introduced at a fixed
trailingdistanceof25mmfromthethatsource.
The heat exchange coefficient for forced convection is evaluated by using the
correlationshowninEquation4.47initiallyproposedbySteen[68]andlateralsoemployed
byShahAlam[5].
SolidModeling
Finiteelement
modeling
Geometricparameters
Heatsourceparameters
Thermalmaterialproperties
Elementscentroid
calculation
Applyheat
source
Meshingparameters
Boundaryconditions
Yes
No
Calculateheatinputbasedon
heatsourceparametersand
centroidaldistance
Applicationofheat
input
Activationofelements
underinfluenceof
heatsource
Iterativetransient
non-linearthermal
solution
Loadsteps
completed
Yes
N
e
x
t

e
l
e
m
e
n
t

N
e
x
t

l
o
a
d

s
t
e
p

Transient
temperaturehistory
No
Yes
Elementsaverage
temperaturecalculation
Elementsmaterialnumber
switching
Finiteelement
modeling
Meshingparameters
Structuralboundaryconditions
Structuralmaterialproperties
Elementsproperties
switching
(Ifapplicable)
Elementsactivation
(Ifapplicable)
Elementsmaterial
recordfile
Elementsactivation
timerecordfile
Checkdata
mapping
completion
Iterativetransient
non-linearstructural
solution
Yes
Loadsteps
completed
No
No
Nextloadstep
Yes
Nextelement
Structuralresultsfile
(Stress/straindata)
Elementsmaterialnumber
recordfile
Elementsactivationtime
recordfile
UniversityofEngineering&Technology,Taxila-Pakistan
116

h
forced
=13Re
1/2
Pr
1/3
K
ar
/NPD (4.47)
Where,
Re =Reynoldsnumberofargon =Dx
ar

ar
/
ar

Pr =Prandltnumberofargon =
ar
C
ar
/K
ar


ar
=Argonflowrate

ar
=Densityofargon

ar
=Dynamicviscosityofargon
K
ar
=Heatconductivityofargon
C
ar
=Specificheatofargon
D =Nozzlediameter
NPD =Stand-offdistanceofnozzle
Based on nozzle diameter, an APDL subroutine is developed to select the elements
for the application of forced convective heat transfer co-efficient for number of iterations
basedonmovementofheatingsource(weldingtorch).
4.2.9 WeldingSimulationNumericalAspects
AgeneralpurposefiniteelementcodeANSYS

isusedformodeling/simulationand
welding phenomena is modeled as sequentially coupled transient non-linear thermal-stress
analysisinthepresentresearchwork.Therearegenerallythreetypesofnon-lineartiesinthe
structural mechanics as geometric non-linearties (large deformations), boundary non-
linearties(contact),andmaterialnon-linearties(hyper-elasticity,plasticity,creep,anisotropy
etc.)
The incorporation of geometrical non-linearties (NLGEOM, ON) into welding
simulations can introduce ill conditioned matrix, resulting in numerical non-convergence
issues.Kinematicnon-lineartiesarenotincludedbyusingsmalldisplacementformulationin
modeling. No contact/target elements are used in the present research, therefore in most of
the work non-linearity due to contact opening and closing between the contact and target
elements is not present. Material model with temperature dependency are utilized and
propertiesusedindifferentstudiesare,however,highlynon-linearandarethemajorsource
of non-linearties in finite elements studies. Iterative incremental Newton-Raphson (NR)
schemewasusedtosolvethesystemofequation.Theuseofthisschemeisalsoessentialin
thesoftwaretoadoptquietelementstechniqueforfillermetaldeposition.TheoptedFULL
NRschemeupdatesthestiffnessmatrixatevery,equilibriumiterationandthusshowsmore
flexibility to incorporate non-linear behavior of material properties. Though more frequent
updating of stiffness matrix needs larger matrix formulations and inversions but gives
relativelyfastconvergence[174].Thematricesobtainedfromfiniteelementformulationsare
usually sparsely populated. Therefore, the system of simultaneous equations is solved by
using direct sparse matrix solver (elimination solver). Since linear elements are used in the
boththethermalandstructuralanalysis,duringstructuralanalysisaveragetemperatureatthe
element centroids is used to calculate constant thermal strain within each element. It is
considered essential to avoid inconsistency between the thermal strain and displacement
strain fields because temperature field directly becomes the thermal strain in mechanical
ExpertSystemforOptimizationofWeldingProcessofThinWalledHSLASteelStructures
117

analysis.Thealternateistohaveonedegreehigherfiniteelementshapefunctioninstructural
analysisincomparisontothermalanalysis.Similarly,wheneverelementswithlinearshape
function are in use volumetric strain should be under integrated to avoid undesired locking.
Such locking may results in relatively small deformation but significantly high stresses and
excessivelylargecomputationaltime. Inthepresentwork,reducedintegrationisperformed
attheelementcentroid.However,incontrastreducedintegrationinsolidelementsmaycause
the elements more prone to the zero-energy modes. These modes, commonly referred to as
hourglassmodes,areoscillatoryinnatureandtendtohaveperiodsthataremuchshorterthan
those of the overall structural response. They typically have no stiffness and give a zigzag
appearancetoamesh,thereforeshouldalwaysbeminimized.Hour-glassingiscontrolledby
addingartificialelasticstiffnesstothemodel.
Toenhancetheconvergence,differentoptionsavailablewithintheANSYS

suchas
linesearch(LNSRCH),adaptivedecent,rampedandsteppedload(KBC,0/1)areused.The
LINE-SEARCHoptionattemptstoimproveaNRsolutionbyscalingthesolutionvectorbya
scalarvaluetermedtheLINE-SEARCHparameteratthestartofequilibriumiterations.The
scalarmultiplierisautomaticallydeterminedby minimizingtheenergyofthesystemwhich
reducestofindthezeroofthenonlinearequation.Anadaptivedescentisatechniquewhich
switchestoastiffermatrixifconvergencedifficultiesareencountered,andswitchesbackto
the full tangent as the solution convergence, resulting in the desired rapid convergence rate
[174].
4.3 WeldingInducedStressesandDistortions
To produce high strength welded structures, arc welding is mostly used as an effective
joining method enabling the welding community around the globe. The thermal stresses
occursintheweldzoneandtheadjacentareasproducingsignificantresidualstressfieldsdue
tothenon-uniformexpansionandcontractionoftheweldmetalandsurroundingbasemetal
byheatingandcoolingcyclesduringthewelding.Thesehighmagnituderesidualstressesof
theorderofyieldstrengthofthematerialwithintheheataffectedzone(HAZ)canbeamajor
threatforthein-service structuralintegrityof weldedstructures[181].Thestrainsproduced
due to the welding during the heating phase always induce plastic deformation of the metal
and in a result of these strains internal forces produced that cause a variety of welding
distortions.Theshorteningstrengthissueofthestructuresisamajorchallengeofthewelding
industryfordecadesduetotheresidualstressesissuesinandneartheweldzone,anddueto
poorlyfabricatedanddistortedstructures.Therefore,theaccuratepredictionoftransientand
residualstressfieldsanddistortionspatternsisofcriticalimportancetoensurethein-service
structuralintegrityandreliabilityoftheseweldedstructures.
To predict the magnitude and trends of residual stress fields is a complex phenomenon
due to the involvement of various factors including short term localized heating and rapid
cooling, moving heat source, temperature dependent material behavior and metallurgical
transformations. Therefore, the FE based numerical simulations attained a considerable
importance for the prediction of adverse consequences of complex welding phenomenon in
the last three decades [19, 182-183]. For the analysis of residual stress fields in
circumferentiallyweldedstructuresfocusingonpipeandcylinders,asignificantcontribution
is available in literature [184-192]. Mostly, the previous researcher [185-188] reduces
UniversityofEngineering&Technology,Taxila-Pakistan
118

computationalpowerrequirementsbysimplifyingwiththeassumptionsofsuchasrotational
symmetry and lateral symmetry in numerical simulations as the computer simulation of
welding processes is highly intensive with the requirement of a large computer storage and
CPU time. However, these assumptions and simplifications were made to reduce the
computational demand but at the cost of results accuracy because the model was over
simplified by limiting the solution domain to only a section of the whole with forced
symmetry assumptions. Furthermore, these simplified assumptions are not capable to cover
the considerable effects of weld start, stop and weld tack modeling. In this regard, an
experimentalworkbyJonssonandJosefson[192]andsomethree-dimensionalfiniteelement
studies[189,190,193],reportedthedeviationsfromrotationalsymmetryspecificallyatthe
beginning and end of the welding cycle for circumferential joint in welding of pipes with
lateralsymmetry.DongandBurst[194]andDong[195],presentedthatboththemovingheat
source and weld start and stop effects are inclined to violate the axis-symmetric conditions
and the circumferential variation in residual stresses was presented by the authors to
strengthen the statement. Later Fricke et al. [196] presents that residual stresses are by no
meansaxis-symmetricbyusingafull3Dmodelformulti-passweldingofpipes.
Thedetailedthree-dimensionalFEmodelstogetinsightofthiscomplexphenomenonare
still lacking and needs to explore although various three-dimensional FE based numerical
investigations are available in the published literature for the circumferential welding of
pipesorcylinders.Therefore,initiallytheinvestigationsinthischapterfocusingonthestudy
of thermal and residual stress patterns and the variation in both transient and residual axial
andhoopstressesincircumferentiallyweldedcylindersarediscussed.Further,theestimation
of transient and residual deformation patterns is also discussed. It is supposed that these
initial studies based on the FE models developed to get in depth the evolution of stress and
deformation patterns in this chapter, as the same modeling and simulation strategy will be
further utilized in parametric studies to investigate the different aspects of arc welding
phenomenonandthenfortheoptimizationpurpose.
4.3.1 FEDiscretization
For the circumferential welding of two cylinders, a full three-dimensional FE model
along with finite element detail with "V" groove developed in ANSYS

is shown in Figure
4.7 [197]. The element types used in modeling are SOLID70 (linear 8-node brick element
with one degree of freedom, i.e., temperature at each node) and SOLID45 (linear 8-node
brickelementwiththreedegreesoffreedomateachnode:translationsinthenodalX,Y,and
Z directions.) for thermal analysis and structural analysis respectively. Further details about
theseelementscanbefoundin[198].Arelativelyfinemeshingofelementsisusedwithina
10 mm distance on both sides of the weld line (W
L
) due to high temperature and flux
gradients expected in and near the fusion zone (FZ) and heat affected zone (HAZ). The
elementsizeincreaseswithanincreaseinthedistancefromtheW
L
awayfromtheHAZ.The
element size in the weld direction is kept constant equal to 1.96 mm through out the
circumference.Theelementsizeintransversedirectionisusedof1mmupto10mmdistance
oneachsideoftheweldline(W
L
)i.e.HAZareawhereastheelementsizeincreaseswiththe
increaseindistanceawayfromweldregion.Threeelementsof1mmeachinsizeareusedin
thicknessdirectionfor"V"groovemodeling.Thetwotackweldsonthestarti.e.0and180
ExpertSystemforOptimizationofWeldingProcessofThinWalledHSLASteelStructures
119

Fig.4.7(a)3DFEmeshbasedonsensitivityanalysis.(b)"V"groove,tackweldandroot
openinginFEmodel[197]

Fig.4.8Meshsensitivityanalysisbasedonmaximumtemperatureattained[197]
of the weld are modeled comprising each of 4 elements (7.85 mm) in circumferential
direction,4elements(4mm)and2elements(2mm)intwolayersinthicknessdirection.The
mesh sensitivity analysis based on maximum temperature attained was performed for
successivemeshrefinementsasshowninFigure 4.8i.e.maximumtemperature(1864K)at
54720elements.ThetacklengthsusedintheFEmodelsareaccordingtothephysicalweld
sample.Thetwocylindersshouldbe considered theoretically asseparate partsinthemodel
setupbecausetheyareindependentunitsuntilthemovingheatsourcepassesoverthemand
jointhose.Butpracticallythesecylindersaretackweldedandmechanicallyrestrainedbefore
1865
1864
1860
1836
1790
1730
1655
1009
1305
1525
900
1100
1300
1500
1700
1900
2100
29,000 35,000 41,000 47,000 53,000 59,000
Numberofelements
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
o
K
)
W
L

TotalNo.ofnodes:71040
TotalNo.ofelements:54720
TackWelds
RootOpening
"V"groove
UniversityofEngineering&Technology,Taxila-Pakistan
120

the welding. Therefore, the cylinders are modeled as single model in FE modeling because
theystaystationaryrelativetoeachotherduringthewelding.
4.3.2 OtherSimulationAspects
The detail of modeling and simulation approach is already discussed in the previous
sections. For better understanding of the thermo-mechanical results, the other simulation
aspectsaregiveninthefollowingsection.Thesamesequentiallycoupledthermo-mechanical
simulation approach and material model is used. The Goldak double ellipsoidal heat source
modelalongwithquietelementtechniqueforadditionoffillermetalisusedforheatsource
and filler material modeling. The modeling of heat losses from the exposed surfaces (inner
andouter)byconvectionandradiationareconsideredinthermalanalysis.Thecombinedheat
transfer coefficient is calculated and applied on all the applicable surfaces. The geometric
parameters and joint geometry of two cylinders for circumferential welding by GTAW
process are shown in Figure 4.9 and Figure 4.10 respectively. The total heating time along
theweldpathof300mmdiametercylinderwithatorchspeedof3mm/sisabout314.16sec
and the complete welding sequence is divided into 480 load steps of 0.65 sec with equally
spaceincrement.Foreffectiveapplicationofthermalloadduringtheloadstep,theavailable
steppedloadoptioninANSYS

isused.Anotheradditional47loadstepsofdifferenttime
lengths are used for cooling of the weldments after extinguishing the arc. The total cooling
time from the start of the cooling phase to the ambient temperature of 300 K is about 1500
sec (i.e. 25 minutes). Only boundary condition is applied as the constraints to represent the
clampingofthecylindersunderweldingonweldingpositionerinthestructuralanalysis.All
thenodesonacartesiancoordinateaxisatthepositionerendofthecylindersareconstrained
inaxialdirectiontomatchtheexperimentalboundaryconditions.Inaddition,twonodes180
o

apartatthepositionerendare alsoconstrainedinaxialradialandcircumferentialdirections
for the stability of FE model. The welding process parameters and heat source parameters
usedinthestudyaregiveninTable4.1andTable4.2respectively.

Fig.4.9Schematicrepresentationsofstructuralboundaryconditions
alongwithgeometricparameters[197]
Y
Z
X
X
Y
Z
X
Y
Z
W
L

3
0
0

m
m

Legends:


X
Y
StructuralconstraintsinX,YandZ
3mm
ExpertSystemforOptimizationofWeldingProcessofThinWalledHSLASteelStructures
121

Table4.1Weldingprocessparameters
Parameters Current(I) Voltage(V) Efficiency() WeldingSpeed(WS)
(amperes) (volts) (%) (mms
-1
)
200 12.5 75 3

Table4.2Goldakheatsourceparameters
Lengthofellipsoidal Heatsource Fractionofheatinellipsoidal
Front(a
f
) Rear(a
r
) width(2b) depth(c) Front(f
f
) Rear(fr)
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
5.0 15.0 10.0 3.0 1.25 0.75

Fig.4.10Butt-weldjointgeometry

4.3.3 ExperimentalValidation
Toconductthefull-scaleexperimentswithproperinstrumentationfordatameasurement
for the experimental validation of the developed FE models is a mandatory to ensure the
reliabilityofthedevelopedmodelsbeforetheapplicationonashopfloor.AnautomaticTIG
welding setup with minimum human intervention and skill is also mandatory for the proper
validationofFEresultsduetothepossibilityofthevariationsassociatedwiththeskillofthe
operators and rotary synchronization problems in arc welding experiments. A careful data
acquisition for proper data measurement, calibrated thermocouples and analysis system are
verynecessaryduringtheweldingexperimentsforthevalidationpurpose.
For the validation of FE models developed, GTAW (TIG) experiments on two thin-
walled cylinders with same parameters of geometric and welding process as used in FE
models were conducted. The material used is high strength low alloy steel with chemical
composition as already given in Table 3.8. Further, argon as shielding gas with 99.999%
purity was used with flow rate (25 liters/min). A high-tech fully automatic SAF GTAW
weldingequipmentasshowninFigure3.4andFigure3.5commerciallyavailablealongwith
rotary positioner and required welding fixtures was used to achieve the desired structural
boundaryconditions.A singlepassbutt-weldgeometry wasusedwithsingle "V" grooveof
angleof90
o
,1mmrootface,1mmrootopening,3mmwallthicknessand300mmlengthof
cylinderasshowninFigure4.10.
R
F
R
O
L

T
UniversityofEngineering&Technology,Taxila-Pakistan
122

The two cylinders of 300 mm outer diameter, 3 mm wall thickness and 150 mm length
wereusedwithplacingoftwotackweldsof~8mmlengthat0
o
and180
o
fromthestarting
position of weld. Further, these tack welds were used to create a root opening prior to
welding with the insertion of spacers of 1 mm at some suitable locations during the tack
weldingandthesewereremovedafterthetackweldscoolingtoroomtemperature.Theareas
inandnearthetackweldswereconsideredaspostweldheatedupto300
o
Ctominimizethe
effects of initial stress due to tack welds prior to welding. For heating, a conventional gas
torch was used with both infrared and touch probe thermocouples for the measurement.
However,thestressdatawasnotrecordedafterthetackweldsandthepostweldheatingand
these effects are not considered. Further, the effects of the linear seam weld was not
considered as first these cylinders were linearly seam welded after roll forming of sheet
metalsandstressrelievedbyheattreatmentpriortackweldsoncylindersforcircumferential
welding.

Fig.4.11Comparisonofcomputedandmeasuredtransienttemperatureprofilesat
fourdifferentlocationsoncylindersoutersurface
For the sequel structural analysis, the nodal temperature distributions from the thermal
analysis are used as a basic input. There is a prerequisite for this purpose whether the
experimental data correlation for the FZ and HAZ dimensions or some nodal temperature
P1@outersurface,10mmfromWLand30
o
fromweldstart
P2@outersurface,15mmfromWLand30
o
fromweldstart
P3@outersurface,10mmfromWLand90
o
fromweldstart
P4@outersurface,20mmfromWLand90
o
fromweldstart
100
250
400
550
700
850
1000
0 32 64 96 128 160
Time(sec)
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
o
C
)
P1-FE P2-FE P3-FE P1-EXP
P2-EXP P3-EXP P4-FE P4-EXP
ExpertSystemforOptimizationofWeldingProcessofThinWalledHSLASteelStructures
123

verificationfortheaccuratepredictionsofsubsequentstressfieldsanddistortionpatterns.In
thepresentresearchforthethermalmodelvalidation,thelatertechniqueisusedbyusingthe
thermocouplesanddataacquisitionsystemwithcomputerinterfacing.Fourthermocouplesat
differentlocationswereplacedandtemperatureswererecordedthroughthedataloggerafter
the interval of each 10 seconds for the comparison with FE results. Figure 4.11 shows a
quantitative comparison of measured and predicted transient temperatures at four
thermocouplelocations.ThreethermocouplesatP1,P2andP3showacloseagreementwith
the FE data whereas the fourth thermocouple at P4 shows slightly a higher variation of
predicted and measured temperatures. However, the overall temperatures are within the
maximumvariationofabout8%only.
The residual stresses are measured at some specified points for comparison through the
predictedresultsforstructuralmodelvalidation,.Acentreholedrillingstraingaugemethod
asalreadydiscussedinchapter3insection3.3isusedtomeasuretheresidualhoopandaxial
stressesatspecifiedlocationsi.e.PointsP1toP3oncylinderoutersurfaceandP4toP6on
cylinderinnersurface.Figure4.12showsthethegaugelocationsfromP1toP6.Thefurther
detailsoftheholedrillingresidualstrainmeasurementmethodcanbefoundin[199].Figure
4.12 shows a quantitative comparison of residual stresses from experiments with predicted
datawithagoodagreement.Figure4.11andFigure4.12showsthequalitativecomparisonof
nodal temperatures and residual stresses which are an evident that predicted results agreed
well with the experimental data showing the experimental validation and the developed FE
modelscanbeusedfurtherfortheresearch.

Fig.4.12Computedandmeasuredresidualstressvaluesfordifferent
locationsatcylinderoutersurface
Legends:
PX@YmmfromWLandZ
o
fromweldstart
WhereX=1to6
Y=10,15,20,10,10and10mmforX1to6respectively
Z=30,30,30,45,135and225fromweldstartforX1to6respectively
-350
-240
-130
-20
90
200
Legends:PXS=Sstress@pointX
whereX=1to6
S=A(Axial)orH(Hoop)
S
t
r
e
s
s

(
M
P
a
)
FE -118.4 70.25 10.24 -36.17 143.2 -63.21 -210.6 115.6 -220 120.5 -226.1 112.2
EXP -88.8 88.42 12.87 -55.01 101 -39.71 -326.7 187.4 -152.9 163.8 -258.7 153.8
P1-A P1-H P2-A P2-H P3-A P3-H P4-A P4-H P5-A P5-H P6-A P6-H
UniversityofEngineering&Technology,Taxila-Pakistan
124

4.3.4 ThermalEffectsofWelding
The temperature distributions at four different times (13 sec, 52 sec, 318 sec and 1277
sec)duringtheweldingprocessofcylinderof300mmdiameterareshowninFigure4.13(a
d).Thepeaktemperaturesareobservedclosetotheweldlineattheheatsourcelocationand
steeptemperaturesgradientsaheadoftheheatsourceareobservedrepresentingtheleastheat
flowsignificanceaheadoftheheatsource/weldingtorch.Thecoolingphenomenonafterthe
peak temperature achieved is shown by the gradients behind the torch as the torch moves
ahead from a certain point. The temperature distribution of the weldments after cooling to
almost uniform temperature is shown in Figure 4.13(d) that require some more time steps
furthertosimulatethecoolingphase.

Fig.4.13Temperatureprofilesatfourdifferenttimestepsduringtheweldingprocess
The axial temperature distributions for four different cross-sections from the weld start
towards the time progress at different time steps is shown in Figure 4.14 (ad). The
temperaturedistributionatasectionissteepasthearccrossesthesectionasincaseofFigure
4.14 (a), the section is located at an angle of 45
o
from the weld start position (0
o
). The
weldingtorch ataspeedof3mm/sreachesthesectionafter39.27saroundacircumference
of300xmmandthemaximumtemperatureisobservedatthetorchposition.Asthetorch
crosses the section, the temperature falls down with slow rate. Figure 4.14 (c) and Figure
4.14(d)showsthepreheatingactionofthesectionduetotheforwardheatflowthroughthe
torchjustbeforethetorcharrivalatasectionwhichismoredominantincaseofthesections
orientedat225
o
and315
o
respectively.
(a)t=13s (b)t=
52s
(c)t=318s (d)t=1277s
ExpertSystemforOptimizationofWeldingProcessofThinWalledHSLASteelStructures
125

Thetransientthermalcyclesobservedatvariouspointsatweldlineat5mmand15mm
fromtheweldlineandat0
o
,90
o
,180
o
and270
o
fromtheweldstartpositionrespectivelyare
shown in Figure 4.15(ad). When the arc crosses the corresponding section, the thermal
cyclesshowsthattemperatureatapointreachesapeakvaluecorrespondingtothattime.The
figure shows that a point nearest to the weld line gets heated to a maximum temperature
whereasthepointsawayfromtheweldlineshowpeaktemperaturesverylow.

Fig.4.14Axialtemperaturedistributionsforfourdifferentcross-sectionsat
differenttimestepsfromtheweldstartposition.
4.3.5 WeldingResidualStressFields
4.3.5.1AxialResidualStressFields
Thestressnormaltothedirectionoftheweldbeadiscalledastheaxialstressincase
of circumferentially welded cylinders. The tensile and compressive axial stress fields are
observedinandneartheweldregionbasedondifferenttemperatureprofilesontheinnerand
outer surfaces of the cylinders respectively. The different temperature gradients results in
tensileandcompressiveresidualstressfieldsandvaryingshrinkagepatternsthroughthewall
thickness near the weld line on inner and outer surfaces respectively. The axial stress
distributions on cylinders outer surface at different cross sections (50
o
, 90
o
, 150
o
and 250
o
)
fromtheweldstartpositionareshowninFigure4.16.
300
450
600
750
900
1050
1200
1350
1500
1650
1800
-85 -68 -51 -34 -17 0 17 34 51 68 85
DistancefromWL(mm)
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
o
K
)
Temp-39.27s ec
Temp-117.81s ec
Temp-196.35s ec
Temp-274.89s ec
300
450
600
750
900
1050
1200
1350
1500
1650
1800
-85 -68 -51 -34 -17 0 17 34 51 68 85
DistancefromWL(mm)
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

( o
K
)
Temp-39.27s ec
Temp-117.81s ec
Temp-196.35s ec
Temp-274.89s ec
300
450
600
750
900
1050
1200
1350
1500
1650
1800
-85 -68 -51 -34 -17 0 17 34 51 68 85
DistancefromWL(mm)
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

( o
K
)
Temp-39.27s ec
Temp-117.81s ec
Temp-196.35s ec
Temp-274.89s ec
300
450
600
750
900
1050
1200
1350
1500
1650
1800
-85 -68 -51 -34 -17 0 17 34 51 68 85
DistancefromWL(mm)
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

( o
K
)
Temp-39.27s ec
Temp-117.81s ec
Temp-196.35s ec
Temp-274.89s ec
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
UniversityofEngineering&Technology,Taxila-Pakistan
126

Fig.4.15Transientthermalcyclesexperiencedbyvariouspointsatdifferent
crosssectionsfromtheweldstartposition

Fig.4.16Residualaxialstresses(MPa)onoutersurfaceatdifferentcross
sectionsfromtheweldstartposition
-400
-300
-200
-100
0
100
200
-90 -72 -54 -36 -18 0 18 36 54 72 90
DistancefromW
L
(mm)
O
u
t
e
r

S
t
r
e
s
s

(
M
P
a
)
Axial@50Deg Axial@90Deg
Axial@150Deg Axial@250Deg
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Ti me(sec)
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
o
K
)
0mmfromWL
5mmfromWL
15mmfromWL
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Ti me(sec)
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
o
K
)
0mmfromWL
5mmfromWL
15mmfromWL
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Time(sec)
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
o
K
)
0mmfromWL
5mmfromWL
15mmfromWL
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Time(sec)
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
o
K
)
0mmfromWL
5mmfromWL
15mmfromWL
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
ExpertSystemforOptimizationofWeldingProcessofThinWalledHSLASteelStructures
127

Thecompressiveresidualaxialstressesneartheweldlineapproachestozeroafter18
mmonbothsidesoftheweldlineontheoutersurfaceofcylinder.Thestressreversalfrom
compressivetotensileisobservedafter18mmonoutersurface.Almost70mmawayfrom
the weld line, these low values tensile stresses again approach to a zero value. A constant
axialstressvalueneartozeroafter70mmfromtheweldlineisobservedasshowninFigure
4.16.
Figure4.17showsthehightensileresidualstressesontheinnersurfaceneartheweld
lineapproachingtozeroandthenreversingtolowercompressiveresidualstressesat18mm
same as observed in outer surface. Again these lower compressive residual stresses
increasingtoalmostconstantvalueofzeroat70mmonbothsidesofweldlineobservedfor
cylinder inner surfaces at different cross sections (50
o
, 90
o
, 150
o
and 250
o
) from weld start
position.Thegeneralresidualaxialstressesdistributionshowsasimilartrendasobservedin
thepreviousresearch[4,185,187,189,192-193,197].

Fig.4.17Residualaxialstresses(MPa)oninnersurfaceatdifferentcross
sectionsfromtheweldstartposition
The quantitative variation of higher or lower residual stresses in the present research
studyareduetothedifferentmaterialpropertiesi.e.mechanicalpropertieslikeyieldstrength
forbaseandweldfillermetalsalongwithotherparameterssuchasweldgeometryandheat
source parameters etc. The significant related to axial stress fields from Figure 4.16 and
Figure4.17aregiveninthefollowing:
-200
-100
0
100
200
300
400
500
-90 -72 -54 -36 -18 0 18 36 54 72 90
DistancefromW
L
(mm)
I
n
n
e
r

S
t
r
e
s
s

(
M
P
a
)
Axial@50Deg Axial@90Deg
Axial@150Deg Axial@250Deg
UniversityofEngineering&Technology,Taxila-Pakistan
128

Thecompressive andtensilestressfieldsofhigh magnitude areobserved onand


near the FZ for outer and inner surfaces respectively. These stresses are
symmetricacrosstheweldlineduetothesymmetry.
Figure4.16showsabulgeshowingstressvariationsbeneaththeweldcrownnear
theweldlineattheoutersurfaceofcylinder.
Figure 4.16 and Figure 4.17 shows the axial residual stresses on outer and inner
surfaces at four different cross sections (50
o
, 90
o
, 150
o
and 250
o
) and all are
almostofthesamemagnitudeandtrendwithslightlyhighertensileaxialstresses
on inner surface. This previous research [4, 7, 197] shows the same trend. The
axial stresses are weakly dependent on the circumferential location and have
almost homogeneous distribution around the circumferential direction except the
weldstartandnearregion.
4.3.5.2HoopResidualStressFields
Due to the radial expansion and contraction during the welding by heating and cooling
sequence of welding process, the residual hoop stresses are developed parallel to the
directionoftheweldbead.
Figure 4.18 and Figure 4.19 shows the residual hoop stresses distribution for inner and
outersurfacesofcylinderalongtheaxialdirectionsindifferentcrosssections(50
o
,90
o
,150
o

and250
o
)fromtheweldstartpositionrespectively.
Alargetensileandcompressivehoopstressesareobservedonandneartheweldlineon
the inner and outer surfaces respectively. The stress reduction and stress reversal trends are
sameasobservedforhoopresidualstressesinthecaseofaxialresidualstressesandalsoare
inagoodagreementwiththeotherpreviousresearch[4,185,187,189,192-193,197].
However,thequantitativelyvariationisduetothedifferentweldingparameters,material
propertiesandheatsourceparametersrespectively.Themainobservationsareasfollows:
The hoop residual stresses are also symmetric due to symmetry across the weld
line.
Hightensilestressesof146MPaand333MPaareobservedneartheFZonouter
on inner surfaces respectively. A compressive residual stresses of 230 MPa and
208MPaareobservedawayfromtheHAZregionatabout17mmfromweldline
onouterandinnersurfacesrespectively.
Thehoopstressesarebasedonthecircumferentiallocationfromtheweldstartto
weldend.Thehoopresidualstressesatthreedifferentcrosssections(50
o
,90
o
and
250
o
)variesinmagnitudeonouterandinnersurfacesasshowninFigure4.18and
Figure4.19withalmostsimilartrendasshownby[4,7,197].
ExpertSystemforOptimizationofWeldingProcessofThinWalledHSLASteelStructures
129

Fig.4.18Residualhoopstresses(MPa)onoutersurfaceatdifferentcross
sectionsfromtheweldstartposition

Fig.4.19Residualhoopstresses(MPa)oninnersurfaceatdifferentcross
sectionsfromtheweldstartposition
-250
-183
-117
-50
17
83
150
-90 -72 -54 -36 -18 0 18 36 54 72 90
DistancefromW
L
(mm)
O
u
t
e
r

S
t
r
e
s
s

(
M
P
a
)
Hoop@50Deg Hoop@90Deg
Hoop@150Deg Hoop@250Deg
-250
-150
-50
50
150
250
350
-90 -72 -54 -36 -18 0 18 36 54 72 90
DistancefromW
L
(mm)
I
n
n
e
r

S
t
r
e
s
s

(
M
P
a
)
Hoop@50Deg Hoop@90Deg
Hoop@150Deg Hoop@250Deg
UniversityofEngineering&Technology,Taxila-Pakistan
130

4.3.5.3AxialandHoopResidualStressFieldsalongtheCircumference
Figure 4.20 shows the comparison of axial andhoop residual stresses distribution at the
weld line for outer and inner surfaces on a circumferential path. The stress distribution
profiles are generally in agreement with the other previous research. The important
observationsaresummarizedas:
Thehoopstressvariesfrom-234MPato117MPaontheoutersurface.However,
someexceptionsatweldstartandendandtackweldlocationsat0
o
and180
o
are
observedandalmostazerohoopresidualstressisobservedattheselocations(0
o

and 180
o
). For hoop residual stresses on inner surface, a slight variation in
magnitudeandtrendisobservedfrom-95MPato140MPa,withsomeexceptions
on weld start and end and tack weld locations. Again the stress values almost to
zeroareobservedattackweldlocations.
Figure 4.20 shows the compressive axial stresses profile on the outer surface
varyingfrom203MPato505MPa.Almostastablestressprofilefromweldstart
to weld end with some exceptions near to the weld start and end and tack
locationsisobservedofalowmagnitude.Thesignificanteffectsofweldstartand
attackweldpointsareobservedforaxialstressoninnersurface.Thecompressive
axial stresses varies from -286 MPa to about 490 MPa in magnitude with a
reductionuptoabout286MPaand222MPaattheweldstartof0
o
andtackweld
locationsof180
o
respectively.

Fig.4.20Axialandhoopresidualstressfieldsoncylinderouterandinner
surfacesonacircumferentialpathattheW
L

-575
-383
-192
0
192
383
575
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
AnglefromWeldStart(
o
)
S
t
r
e
s
s

(
M
P
a
)
Hoop-Inner Axial-Inner
Hoop-Outer Axial-Outer
ExpertSystemforOptimizationofWeldingProcessofThinWalledHSLASteelStructures
131

4.3.6 WeldingDistortions
4.3.6.1AxialTiltofCylinders
Acomparisonofpredictedandexperimentallymeasuredaxialtiltoftherestraintfreeend
ofthecylinderaftertheweldingandcoolingoftheweldmentsisshowninFigure4.21.The
accurate measurement of the face tilt of the cylinder experimentally is a difficult task by
keepinginviewthethicknessofthecylinderface.Keepingtheweldedcylindersfixedinthe
weldingpositioner,adigitaldialindicatorbyfixingatanaveragediameterofthecylinderat
297mmbyusingsomeholdingarrangementswasusedforthemeasurementsbyrotatingthe
weldingpositioner.Fivedifferentreadingsafterthetackweldandcoolingoftheweldments
at room temperature are recorded to minimize the error of data acquisition. Figure 4.21
showstheplotsofanaveragevalueforcomparisonwithpredictedresults.
Themaximumrangeofaxialfacetiltingisobservedfrom-2.61mmto+1.65mmduring
thecylinderfacetrackingofthedialindicatorfrom0
o
to360
o
.Thedegreeofaxialshrinkage
is based on a many factors including welding process parameters, tack weld sizes and
orientation. The maximum axial shrinkage of 2.61 mm at 84
o
is observed whereas the
maximumaxialdeflectionof1.65mmat330
o
isobservedneartheweldendforthewelding
processparametersandtackweldgeometryusedinthethisstudy.TheFEpredictionsshows
thelowervaluesascomparedtoexperimentaldatafrom20%to40%withanaverageof20%
fromtheweldstartpositionat0to150.WhereasagaintheFEpredictionsshowsthelower
values as compared to experimental data with a variation at an average under prediction of
30%fromtheweldstartpositionat150to359.Thevariationisslightlyonthehigherside,
howevertheresultsareinagoodqualitativeagreementfromtheweldstarttoweldend.

Fig.4.21Measuredandpredictedaxialdeformation(facetilt)ofthecylinderface
-3.0
-2.5
-2.0
-1.5
-1.0
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
0 36 72 108 144 180 216 252 288 324 360
AnglefromWeldStart(
o
)
F
a
c
e

T
i
l
t

(
m
m
)
Predicted Experimental
UniversityofEngineering&Technology,Taxila-Pakistan
132

4.3.6.2AxialShrinkage
Theaxialshrinkageatfourdifferentsections(50
o
,90
o
,150
o
and250
o
)fromtheW
L
at
cylinder outer surface is shown in Figure 4.22. The shrinkage on restraint free end is
observedasbylocatingthecoordinateaxisontheweldline.Themaximumaxialshrinkage
of 1.0 mm and 1.25 mm are observed for axial sections at 50
o
and 90
o
from the weld start
positionneartheweldlineat10mmfromweldlinetowardsrestraintfreeendrespectively.
The minimum axial shrinkage value of 0.05 mm is observed as the axial shrinkage
decreasesawayfromtheweldlinetowardsthefreeend.Themaximumaxialshrinkageof1.4
mmisobservedatadistanceofabout10mmfromtheweldlineforallthesections(50
o
,90
o
,
150
o
and250
o
)ontheconstrainedend.Aminimumshrinkageequaltoaboutzeroisshownat
therestrainedendastheaxialshrinkagecontinuouslydecreasesawayfromtheweldline.

Fig.4.22AxialshrinkageatfourdifferentcrosssectionsfromtheW
L
oncylinderouter
surface

-2.00
-1.50
-1.00
-0.50
0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
DistancefromWeldLine(mm)
A
x
i
a
l

S
h
r
i
n
k
a
g
e

(
m
m
)
Axial-50 Axial-90
Axial-150 Axial-250
ExpertSystemforOptimizationofWeldingProcessofThinWalledHSLASteelStructures
133

4.3.6.3Radialshrinkage
Figure 4.23 shows the transient forces primarily responsible for the radial shrinkage
during the welding phenomenon incase of circumferentially welded cylinders. This
phenomenon can be explained with the concept of advancing solidification front [89]. A
commonobservationduringtheweldingisshrinkageoftheweldbeadtransversetoweldline
and along the weld path. A nearly hemispherical solidification front advance at rear of the
weld pool exerts three-dimensional forces as shown in Figure 4.23. Figure 4.24 shows the
radialshrinkageonoutersurfaceofthecylinderatvariouscrosssections(50
o
,90
o
,150
o
and
250
o
)fromtheweldstart.

Fig.4.23Schematicrepresentationoftransientforcesonsolidifyingweldpool

Fig.4.24RadialshrinkageatdifferentcrosssectionsfromtheW
L
oncylinderoutersurface
-2.50
-1.57
-0.64
0.29
1.21
2.14
3.07
4.00
-100 -75 -50 -25 0 25 50 75 100
DistancefromWeldLine(mm)
R
a
d
i
a
l

S
h
r
i
n
k
a
g
e

(
m
m
)
Radial-50 Radial-90
Radial-150 Radial-250
UniversityofEngineering&Technology,Taxila-Pakistan
134

4.4 ExperimentalSetupforValidationofFEModels
To validate the FE models, Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) experiments were
carriedout.Theappropriatewaytoensurethereliabilityofthenumericalsimulationsforthe
utilizationoftheresearchworkforapplicationsisbyconductingthefull-scaleexperimentsin
actual with proper instrumentation for data measurement. This section describes the
experimental welding set-up, data measuring and acquisition systems used in the present
research work for circumferential welding with the methodologies for experimental
procedures.
4.4.1 ExperimentalSetup
Duetothevariationsassociatedwiththeskilloftheoperatorsandrotarysynchronization
problems in the manual arc welding, an automatic welding setup with minimum human
intervention is used for arc welding experiments. The skill is mandatory for the proper
validation of numerical simulations results because the heat source moves with constant
speed i.e. the phenomenon is quasi-stationary in numerical simulations. A proper data
acquisition system is required for the careful data measurement and analysis during the
experiments.
The TIG welding setup consisting of SAF TIGMATE 270 AC/DC power source,
automaticrotarypositioner,andfully automatictorchcontrolandmovementsystemisused
toconducttheexperiments.TIGMATE270weldingpowersourceasshowninFigure3.1in
chapter 3 is a computerized waveform control technology for high quality TIG welds with
thecontrolofrequiredparameters.

(a) (b)
Fig.4.25Automaticrotarypositionerwithclampingandstraingagesarrangements
ExpertSystemforOptimizationofWeldingProcessofThinWalledHSLASteelStructures
135

Tocontrolandlocatethetorchmovement,anautomatictorchpositioningsystemisused.
Initially, the tack welded cylinders clamped according to the desired structural boundary
conditions are rotated by rotary chuck with torch positioning at 90
o
to the cylinder. For
details of automatic rotary positioner along with TIG torch, clamping and strain gages
arrangementsisgiveninFigure4.25.
4.4.2 FEModelsValidation
The welded part is subjected to a highly non-uniform and rapidly changing temperature
field during welding approaching to temperatures above the melting point and the heat
conducts away from the weld by convection and radiation to the surroundings. Numerous
factors of the thermal field distribution during welding are the welding heat input, the
thermalmaterialproperties,theamountofconvectiveflowintheweldpool,thelatentheatof
melting and solidification, cooling to the surroundings, and contact with the surrounding
materials as shown in Figure 4.26 [200]. Figure 4.27 shows the overall experimental
validationapproachofTIGweldinginthepresentresearchforcircumferentialwelding.

Fig.4.26Factorsaffectingtheheatdistributionduringwelding[200]

Fig.4.27Overallexperimentalvalidationapproachforcircumferentialwelding
TIGWELDINGEXPERIMENTS
(CircumferentailWelding)
Thermal
modelvalidation

Transient
temperature
measurement

Weldpool
measurement
bymacrograph
Structural
modelvalidation

Residualstress
measurement

Distortion
measurement

UniversityofEngineering&Technology,Taxila-Pakistan
136

4.4.2.1ThermalModelValidation
Generally two different types of experimental approaches are used for the validation of
weld thermal model. The first approach is based on transient temperature measurements
through thermocouples directly mounted on welded surface or by using the infrared
pyrometers [201-208] whereas the second approach mostly acceptable is the comparison of
FZandHAZfromexperimentalmacrographasgivenby[18,208-212].
Both temperature measurement approaches at some specified locations by using
thermocouples and experimental macrograph for the measurement of FZ and HAZ are used
togetdataforthecalibrationofthermalFEmodels.TIGweldingexperimentsareperformed
onthin-walledstructure(cylinders)forcircumferentialweldandthesampleformacrograph
is cut by using water jet cutting process from the cylinders in rectangular cross section to
avoidtheundesiredheateffectsby gasormachinecuttingprocess.Thesampleiscutaway
from the weld start and end, and tack weld locations in order to avoid the major effects
relatedtotheselocations.Figure4.28showsthesampleandtheweldedcylinderafterwater
jet cutting. The macrograph is prepared as shown in Figure 4.29 (front view of the sample
withFZandHAZ)bydoingthesestepsassamplepreparationbywetcutting,mountingof
thepreparedsampleincast,sequentialgrindingbyusingsiliconcarbideabrasivepaperwith
varyinggritsizesintheorderof300,500,700,800and1000,diamondpastepolishingwith
particlesizesof9m,6m,3m,and1m,theetchingofthesampleby2%nitalsolution
andwashingthesampletostudytheHAZandFZdimensionsofthesample.


Fig.4.28Macrographsampleafterwaterjet Fig.4.29Lowmagnification
cuttingfromcylinder metallographicsampleofFZandHAZ

K-type thermocouples are mounted directly on the outer surface of the cylinder prior to
welding and connected directly to multi-channels data logging system for transient
temperature history measurement. The temperature profile during welding at any specified
timecanbeeasilystoredincomputerreadableformatslikeMSExcelfordataprocessingand
comparison with FE results later on. The thermocouples and data logger (acuracy and
resolution=1
o
C)usedinresearchworkareshowninFigures4.30and4.31respectively.
ExpertSystemforOptimizationofWeldingProcessofThinWalledHSLASteelStructures
137

Fig.4.30K-typethermocouplesfortransienttemperaturemeasurement

Fig.4.31Multi-channelsdataloggingsystemwiththermocouplesconnected
Thethermocouples arenotsuitablefortheaccuratemeasurementoftemperaturehistory
within the FZ due to the limitations. The high precision general purpose infrared optical
pyrometers (Cyclopes) from Minolta/Land are used to validate the temperature within the
weld bead. Two Cyclopes with temperature measurement range of 800
o
C to 3000
o
C are
utilized to measure the temperature with the FZ and on the weld line respectively. The
pyrometerusedisshowninFigure4.32.

Fig.4.32Digitalinfraredpyrometer(CyclopesfromMinolta/LAND)
UniversityofEngineering&Technology,Taxila-Pakistan
138

4.4.2.2StructuralModelValidation
Two different types of validation i.e. residual stresses and distortion are required to
validatetheweldstructuralmodelasalreadyshowninFigure4.27.Transientaxialandradial
distortions are measured on the welded cylinders for distortion measurement. Further, the
hoop and axial residualstresses are also measured on the same welded cylinder to compare
theresults.
4.4.2.2.1ValidationofDistortions
Transient axial deformation during the welding at the cylinder face and residual radial
deformation near the weld line are measured and compared with the related predicted data
from the FE analysis. A digital dial indicator ( 0.001 mm) is carefully located to track the
transient distortion at the restraint free face of the cylinder for the measurement of axial
shrinkageandprecisionmicrometers(0.01mm)areusedtomeasurethepostweldresidual
radial shrinkage on the specified points along the entire surface of welded cylinders in the
HAZnearweldlineasshowninFigure4.33.

Fig.4.33Experimentalsetupusedfordistortionmeasurement
4.4.2.2.2 ValidationofResidualStresses
As already shown in Figure 3.16 in chapter 3, the hole-drilling method is used for the
measurement of residual stresses and the equipment for hole-drilling strain gage along with
P3500 strain meter from Vishay Group as already discussed is used for experimental
determinationofresidualstressfieldsincircumferentialwelding.ThemillingguideRS-200
asshowninFigure3.16canbeusedforcylindricalsurfaceswithsomespecialarrangements.
AseparatefixturetoholdtheweldedcylinderforpropermountingofRS-200millingguide
is used for hole-drilling and measurements. Complete experimental setup for residual stress
measurementincircumferentialweldingisshowninFigure4.34.Thedetailofsixbasicsteps
involvedformeasurementofresidualstressesbyhole-drillingmethodisdiscussedinsection
3.3 of chapter 3. The two strain gage rosettes (EA-XX-062RE-120 and CEA-XX-062UM-
120)areusedasalreadyshowninFigure3.18.
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139

Fig.4.34Experimentalsetupusedforexperimentalmeasurementofresidualstresses

4.5 ChapterSummaryandConclusions
In this chapter, the theoretical background and finite element modeling aspects of the
thermal-mechanical behavior during arc welding was discussed. In order to validate the FE
models, Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) experiments were carried out to ensure the
reliabilityofthenumericalsimulationswithproperinstrumentationfordatameasurement.
Computational methodology and techniques based on finite element analysis (FEA) for
thepredictionoftemperatureprofilesandsubsequentweldinducedresidualstressfieldsand
distortionpatternsinGTAweldedthin-walledcylindersofhighstrengthlowalloysteelwere
developed and implemented successfully with close correlation to the experimental
investigations. The results related to residual stress fields and distortion was discussed in
detail.Thesignificantconclusionsfromtheresultsare:
1. Duetosymmetryacrosstheweldline,theresidualstresses(bothhoopandaxial)are
symmetric. Along and near the weld line, a high tensile and compressive axial
residual stresses occurs on the cylinder inner and outer surfaces respectively.
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140

Compressiveandtensileaxialresidualstressesproducedoninnerandoutersurfaces
awayfromtheweldline.Axialstressesareweaklydependentonthecircumferential
locationsfromweldstart.
2. Hoop residual stresses are sensitive to the angular location from the weld start
position.Ontheinnersurface,theweldstarteffectismoresevereforbothaxialand
hoop stresses and is dominant in the weld start direction. The significant effect of
tacksontheaxialstressontheinnersurfaceisobservedatangularpositionsof0and
180fromtheweldstartpoint,whereas,theeffectoftacksonhoopstressesisnotas
prominent. The stress distribution is no more axis-symmetric for a single pass butt
circumferential weld with initial tacks. However, if the weld start/end effects are
ignoredhoopstressesarealmostuniform.
3. Maximum axial and radial deflection is observed near the weld line. The axial
shrinkage decreases continuously away from the WL and a minimum shrinkage of
almost zero shown at the restrained end. However, on the restraint free end some
deflectionwithfacetiltingisobserved.
Further,thischapterdescribedthedetailsofexperimentalweldingset-up,datameasuring
andacquisitionsystemsusedforthevalidationofdevelopedFEmodels.
TheFEmodeldevelopedprovestobeveryeffectiveandefficientforconductingvirtual
experiments for the prediction of residual stresses and distortion by using design of
experiments (DOE) for optimizing the TIG welding process of thin walled structure
(cylinder)andalsotoprovidethedatafordevelopingtheexpertsystem.

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