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Readings

• McCoy (2004). Your Voice: An Inside View. Chapter 9 (pp. 107–135)


• Thurman & Welch (2000). Bodymind & Voice. Vol.2, Chapter 6 (pp.356–366)
• Malde, Allen & Zeller (2009). What Every Singer Needs to Know About the Body.
Chapter 1 & 2 (pp. 1–46)

Voice Anatomy 101


Objectives:
1. Briefly review the whole body as an instrument
2. Outline important factors concerning body alignment
3. Identify the structural elements of the larynx and vocal tract; extrinsic & intrinsic.

Outcomes:
This module seeks to provide a brief overview of the vocal instrument; both holistically (as a whole-body
instrument) and topically (larynx and vocal tract). At the end of the session, the student teacher should
be able to label key components of the vocal apparatus and nominate their functional characteristics.

1. The ‘BIG’ Picture


Before zoning in on the apparatus that creates the sound (the larynx), it is important to take a look at
the ‘big’ picture. It is all too easy to forget that the instrument is the whole person. When we see a
guitar we don’t single out the string as the sole component that produces the sound. A guitar is the sum-
total of its parts. Yes, it is the string that vibrates and agitates the air, thus producing sound-wave
patterns. But the string is completely useless without the ‘body’ of the guitar. So it is with our voice. The
vocal folds oscillate to form sound, but the resulting sound is affected by the instrument that encases it.

Kinaesthesia
The first step towards monitoring the voice as a whole (i.e. the body) is to develop
kinaesthetic awareness. MaryJean Allen (2009) defines kinaesthesia as “the perception
of your body in motion: how it moves, where it moves, and the quality of that
movement” (p. 5). Specifically, when we sing, the body moves both on an extrinsic
level (arm gestures, head movements etc.) and on an intrinsic level (empathetic
vibrations, muscular movements etc.).

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Voice Anatomy 101
© 2013 Dr Daniel K. Robinson
Voice: Art & Science (Djarts’ Manuals)

So how does one develop kinaesthetic awareness? Allen provides us with a list of helpful ideas designed
to orientate our awareness to different body parts and motions (pp. 4–5):
a. Study: unlike other instruments such as the piano or violin which are external to our own
bodies, many of the operational characteristics of the voice are internal. This simple fact means
that we need to ensure that our mental picture of what is taking place is anatomically accurate.
It is therefore important to study anatomical models and illustrations to ensure what you
imagine is taking place is anatomically true. Scott McCoy (2012) writes,
As singers and teachers, we face two perennial problems related to physiology: 1) most of the vocal
mechanism is not visible under normal circumstances; 2) kinaesthetic feedback we receive while singing often
is inaccurate. Knowledge of the physiologic connections in the voice, beginning with the respiratory system
and moving on to phonation, resonance, and articulation, helps ameliorate these difficulties. (p. 529)

b. Use the Mirror: We are ‘outward’ looking creatures; that is we are


constantly looking away from ourselves. The use of a mirror is extremely
helpful in observing our bodies in motion. Allen asks the question, “How
does what I see differ from what I expect to see?” (p. 5). Observing yourself
in a mirror can be quite illuminating; revealing those actions we were
otherwise unaware of.
c. Draw the area to be mapped: You don’t have to be Da Vinci to put pen to paper and sketch the
different body parts. Drawing anatomy can be helpful when associating size and proportion.
d. Ask specific questions: Be inquisitive! Sometimes the simple questions can be revealing in the
level of detail that they expose. For example, you might like to consider what are the main
muscles employed when swallowing. This enquiry in turn might lead you to ask, “Are these the
same muscles used when lowering and lifting the larynx?” Furthermore, what does this tell us
about how the larynx acts when it is away from its point of midline rest? And so the questions
keep rolling…
e. Move: Once you have started to form an accurate mental picture with a heightened sense of
physical awareness it’s time to move. Moving the instrument (your body) requires the
monitoring of multiple sensory inputs all at once. Now that you are moving, start singing – what
are you experiencing? Are you able to manage all of your body’s sensory signals at once?
f. Relate: Do you notice any relationships between different body parts and their individual
activities? For example, if your neck tilts back, what do you observe in your voice, your back
and even your feet?

“A highly developed kinaesthetic awareness seems to be the hallmark of an advanced


performer, so that he is able to concentrate on many things other than vocal
technique. (Nisbet, 2010, p. 109)”

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Voice: Art & Science (Djarts’ Manuals)

Body Alignment
As we become more aware of the whole instrument we may start to notice the necessity for structural
alignment; i.e. the human body works best as a sound making instrument when the skeletal structure
and the muscular scaffolding has achieved a state of balance and alignment (Shewell, 2009; Thurman et
al., 2000). Unfortunately, the human body does not have a natural propensity for good postural
alignment. Meribeth Bunch Dayme (2009) notes, “Some typical problems teachers will see and have to
correct are improper position of the head, rounded shoulders, a cramped chest, and excessively arched
lower back (lordosis) and locked knees” (p. 59).
So what does good body alignment look like? The first thing to consider when seeking good body
alignment is the structural makeup of the human skeleton. The following image (Figure 1) shows the
human skeleton and its six points of balance:

1. A-O Joint (Atlas-Occiput)

2. Shoulders

3. Thoracic & Lumber Interplay

4. Hip Joints

5. Knee Joints

6. Ankle Joints

Figure 1: Human Skeleton & Points of Balance

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Voice: Art & Science (Djarts’ Manuals)

Allen (2009) states that, “accurately mapping the six places of balance gives singers an extremely
powerful set of singing tools” (p. 25). Let’s define these 6 points of balance:
1. A-O Joint: The skull (occiput) is centrally balanced on the top cervical vertebra (atlas). The A-O
joint provides feedback as to the position and movement of the head in relationship to the rest
of the body situated below it.
2. Shoulders: Apart from housing the shoulder socket in which the arm attaches to the thorax, the
shoulders also contribute to the structure and scaffolding of the ribcage (via the framework of
muscles that attach to the Clavicle and Scapula). Allen highlights, “To balance your arm structure,
the rest of your body must already be in balance” (p. 40).
3. Thoracic and Lumber Interplay: The largest mass of the human body is found in the thorax. If the
thorax is not suitably balanced over the lower points of balance (Hips, Knees, Ankles) then undue
muscular tension may be distributed above the thorax. This in turn forms an undesirable
‘housing of the larynx’; i.e. the larynx will be encased in muscular
tension that is likely to restrict its efficient and sustainable
manoeuvrings.
4. Hip Joints: Beautifully designed, the hip joints evenly distribute the
weight of your body through your legs and into the floor. It is
important to keep your hip joints aligned; ensuring that the pelvis does
not ‘tuck under’ (allowing the position of the spine to collapse into the
pelvic girdle; Figure 2). Equally, the pelvis should not be allowed to
thrust forward (causing the spine to curve through the lumber portion
of the back).
5. Knee Joints: It has been noted with the other points of alignment that
Figure 2: Pelvic Girdle (Hips)
a lack of balance in one place will likely result in poor balance and
alignment in others. So too with the knee joints. If the knee moves into a locked position, the
rest of the body (particularly the thorax) will often compensate with muscular tension that is not
conducive to good singing.
6. Ankle Joints: Free and agile movement of the entire body is dependent on balanced and
responsive ankle joints. Balanced and responsive ankle joints are dependent on the relational
alignment of everything above them as Allen explains:
The ankle joints will stiffen if the thorax is not balanced in relation to the lumber spine, and fluid free
movement will not be available to you. There is also a direct relationship between balance at you’re A-O
joint and balance at your ankle joints. Therefore, first balance at your A-O joint, then balance your thorax in
relation to your lumber spine. Next, balance at your hip and knee joints, and then you will be ready to
balance at your ankle joints. Thus, in order to distribute weight efficiently and easily to the floor, the ankle
joints require upper body balance as described. (p. 38)

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Voice: Art & Science (Djarts’ Manuals)

2. The Larynx & Surrounding Anatomy


Before zoning in on the larynx and surveying its surrounding anatomy, it is important for me to note
here that I am skipping the anatomy of breathing in this module in preference for highlighting
Breath Management as a stand-alone module.1 A second disclaimer must also be applied before
continuing. Laryngeal anatomy is highly complex and our hunger for knowledge about this incredible
instrument is extracting new understanding every day via research conducted across the globe.
Accordingly, that which follows is limited by two factors: (i) the breadth of the subject matter must be
restricted to the scope of this module; i.e. a brief review.2 (ii) All information supplied below is current
(and appropriately referenced) as of the time of writing; but is subject to more highly refined
understandings as they come to light via new research. This might go without saying, but I find it
necessary to remind my readers of this fact given the exciting pace at which our pursuit of new
knowledge is moving. With these two governing factors in place, let’s proceed…

The Superstructure
The major framework of the larynx
consists of one bone (hyoid) and a
number of cartilages (Figure 3). The
superstructure of the larynx is
suspended underneath the hyoid bone
and “because the hyoid has no joint
connecting it to the skeleton, it enjoys a
substantial freedom of movement”
(McCoy, 2004, p. 113). The hyoid bone
also provides the anchor point for many
of the extrinsic muscles which in turn Figure 3: Larynx Cartilages - Sagittal Section
are important for swallowing.
Many structures important in singing share common points of origin and attachment; improper postures
and tensions therefore are easily transferred from one location to another. This is particularly true of jaw
and tongue tensions, which are passed directly along to the larynx from the hyoid. (p. 114)

1
For some, this might break with the natural flow of inquiry, however I believe that Breath Management and the
accompanying review of associated anatomy requires in-depth investigation and break-down; given that breath is
fundamental to all sound – moreover, breath fuels the voice and advances every other vocal activity that might be
nominated.
2
Those wishing to know more about the anatomy of the larynx are directed to read the excellent works written by Thurman
& Welch (Bodymind & Voice), McCoy (Your Voice: An Inside View), Sunberg (The Science of the Singing Voice), and many
others.

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Voice: Art & Science (Djarts’ Manuals)

There are five cartilages that form the superstructure of the larynx:
1. Thyroid Cartilage: Often referred to as the ‘Adam’s Apple’ the thyroid cartilage is often seen to
protrude from the neck on most men. The word thyroid has been taken from the Greek word
which literally means ‘shield-like’; because the thyroid cartilage, the largest piece of structure in
the larynx is like a shield protecting the inner workings of the mechanism.
2. Cricoid Cartilage: Shaped like a signet ring (large portion at the back, smaller band at the front)
the cricoid cartilage sits directly below the thyroid cartilage. “The cricoid is attached to the
inferior horns of the thyroid cartilage through synovial joints3, which allow the cartilages to both
pivot and slide in position relative to each other” (p. 114). The cricoid cartilage is both the top of
the tracheal stem (windpipe) and the base of the larynx.
3. Arytenoid Cartilage: Situated at the rear of the mechanism, the two (left and right) arytenoid
cartilages straddle the cricoid cartilage like a rider mounts a horse. “Synovial joints connect the
arytenoids to the cricoid, permitting them to rotate on its surface and to slide together and
apart” (p. 115).
4. Epiglottis: Arguably the most important piece of moving structure within the larynx, the
epiglottis “forms the front wall of the space above the vocal folds, with the aryepiglottic folds
running back from the epiglottis to the arytenoid cartilages” (Shewell, 2009, p. 163). The
epiglottis is crucial to the survival of the human being because it directs food and fluid into the
oesophagus and away from the larynx by closing off the airway; thus preventing chocking and/or
drowning.
5. Tracheal Stem: The tracheal stem is made-up of incomplete cartilaginous rings. These rings are
connected by a flexible membrane which in turn allows for the lowering and lifting of the larynx.

Extrinsic Muscles
Situated directly beneath the jaw and mouth, the larynx sits front and
centre in the neck (Figure 4). Lieberman and Chapman (1998)
describe the position of the larynx stating, “Anatomically, the larynx is
not attached to the spinal column, but is suspended between the skull
and the sternum through a complicated network of muscles” (p. 2).
The extrinsic musculature not only suspends the larynx in place, but
also directly influences the activity of the larynx and in doing so can
impact phonation both positively and negatively. Scott McCoy (2004),
Figure 4: Position of Larynx in his book, Your Voice: An Inside View, groups the extrinsic

3
A synovial joint is different to a cartilaginous joint or a fibrous joint because of the existence of small cushions (filled with
lubricating synovial fluid) that sit between the articulating structures.

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musculature into three groups according to their collective roles (pp. 125–129):
i. Constrictor Muscles: wrapping around the entire vocal tract, constrictor muscles assist in
swallowing. Additionally, the constrictors (superior, middle, inferior) influence pitch-control.
ii. Laryngeal Elevators: These muscles serve to raise and lower the larynx.
a. Thyrohyoid Muscle: situated between the hyoid bone and thyroid cartilage, the thyrohoid muscle
serves to lift the larynx and partially close the gap between the two structural points. “Excess[ive]
tension in this muscle is [a] common factor in the vocal pathology known as muscular tension
dysphonia, which can lead to a chronic breathy sound resulting from incomplete glottal closure”
(p. 127).
b. Anterior & Posterior Digastric: Dual purpose muscles, the paired digastric both raise the larynx
and lower the jaw. McCoy notes that “unfortunately, this muscle is very adept at performing
these two functions simultaneously…the juxtaposition of a tight, over extended jaw with a lifted
larynx is frequently seen in younger singers” (p. 127)
c. Stylohyoid: Associated mostly with swallowing, this muscle pulls the thyroid (via the hyoid) both
up and back.
d. Mylohyoids: Forming the muscular floor of the mouth these muscles raise the hyoid bone or
lower the mandible.
e. Geniohyoid: Extending from the point of the chin back to the hyoid bone, the geniohyoid muscle
either depresses the mandible or raises the larynx via a lifting of the hyoid bone.
f. Hyoglossus: This powerful muscle acts to assist swallowing by depressing the back of the tongue.
g. Genioglossus: Known as the ‘tongue-sticker-outer’ muscle (p. 128), the genioglossus is the
largest tongue muscle.

iii. Laryngeal Depressors: Also known as the infrahyoid muscles, this group of muscles “mostly exert
a lowering influence on the larynx and hyoid bone. When they are unnecessarily engaged during
speaking or singing, they can contribute to a common interference with the internal laryngeal
muscles…especially when singing so-called low pitches” (Thurman, Welch, Theimer, Feit, &
Grefsheim, 2000, p. 364). There are three laryngeal depressors:
a. Sternothyroid: Connected between the inside surface of the sternum and the lower edge of the
thyroid cartilage. A singers “ultimate goal should be the release of tension from these muscles
that would elevate the larynx” (McCoy, 2004, p. 128).
b. Sternohyoid: An over-active sternohyoid muscle may drag the larynx downwards as it reduces the
distance between the sternum and the hyoid.
c. Omohyoid: These large muscles originate from the shoulder blades (scapula – omo). “Presence of
these muscles gives further explanation as to why excess tension in the shoulders can negatively
impact the singing voice” (p. 129).

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The false depressors are normally used in swallowing, eating, and other non-vocal
tasks and can involve inappropriate tensions not conducive to good voicing. Of
particular concern are the use of tongue root and jaw muscles. The only true depresses
of the larynx are the sternothyroid, the sternohyoid, and omohyoid muscles. In singing
the most important of these is the sternothyroid. (Chapman & Morris, 2006a, p. 74)

Figure 5: Posterior view of Larynx Intrinsic Muscles


The external muscles of the larynx are given to the positioning
of the larynx within the neck, and although they have an
indirect bearing on the production of sound, it is the intrinsic
muscles of the larynx which are directly responsible for
phonation. There are seven intrinsic muscles which combine to
form vocal sounds:
1. Thyroarytenoid (TA): Also known as the TA muscle, the
thyroarytenoid is the largest intrinsic muscle. As its name
suggests, it runs between the thyroid and arytenoid cartilages;
thus, there are two thyroaytenoids (left and right). This muscle
forms the body of the vocal fold and is responsible for the
shortening and thickening of the vocal folds.
2. Cricothyroid (CT): Working in team with cricoarytenoid
muscles the Cricothyroid (CA) serves to elongate (lengthen) the
vocal folds. It does this by working both with and against the thyroarytenoid muscles. This is
called an agonistic-antagonistic relationship.4
3. Lateral Cricoarytenoid (LCA): Primarily engaged for the adduction (closure) of the vocal folds,
the lateral cricoarytenoids “rotate the arytenoids, bringing the vocal processes together to close
the anterior portion of the glottis” (McCoy, 2004, p. 118).
4. Interarytenoid–transverse & oblique (IA): Without the interarytenoid muscle the action of the
lateral cricoarytenoid alone would produce an incomplete closure of the vocal folds.
5. Posterior Cricoarytenoid (PCA): The lateral cricoarytenoid, with the help of the interarytenoids,
draws the vocal folds together (abduction). Of course this must be appropriately countered with
musculature designed to retract the adduction. The posterior cricoarytenoids do just that! “On

4
A similar relationship is observed between the bicep and the tricep. Muscles can only contract. They need another muscle
to pull them out of that contraction. When you lift your arm the bicep contracts pulling the passive tricep out of its
contraction; which had the arm extended. This agonistic-antagonistic relationship is required for the shortening (TA) and
lengthening (CA & CT) of the vocal folds.

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Voice: Art & Science (Djarts’ Manuals)

contraction, the arytenoids are rotated in a direction opposite of the action induced by the
lateral cricoarytenoid muscles, thereby opening the glottis” (p. 118).
6. Aryepiglottic: Used primarily for the folding of the epiglottis to protect the airway during
swallowing, the aryepiglottic muscle is also used in the production of the contemporary
resonance quality referred to as ‘twang’.
7. Thyroepiglottic: Working in team with the aryepiglottic muscle the thyroepiglottic is primarily
employed for the function of swallowing.

The Vocal Folds


The final stop on our whirlwind tour of the larynx reviews the
section which actually makes the sound: the vocal folds. “Both
vocal folds have a cartilaginous portion (posterior two-fifths of
the length) and a membranous portion. The vocal processes of
the two arytenoid cartilages are ‘wedged’ into the posterior
two-fifths of the two folds making them somewhat rigid”
(Thurman, Welch, et al., 2000, p. 362).
Also known as ‘vocal cords’ the vocal folds are “approximately 3
mm long in the new born infant and grow to about 9 to 13 mm
and 15 to 20 mm in adult female and males respectively”
(Sundberg, 1987, p. 6).
Figure 6: Larynx – Sagittal Section Christina Shewell (2009), in her text Voice Work: Art and Science
in Changing Voices displays Mathieson’s table of the “vocal
folds and how they move” (p. 168). The table is reproduced
below:

The Five Histological Layers The Two Functional Layers


(see Figure 7, p. 2)

Epithelium (the outer layer); covered by mucous membrane


The Cover
Superficial layer of lamina propria: gelatinous (Reinke’s space). This travels over the vocal fold body in ‘mucosal waves’. These
Strong vibrations in phonation. begin on the under surface of the fold and travel up and over the
top of the body of the fold, so its movement is in a
Intermediate layer of lamina propria: elastic fibres. vertical dimension.

Deep layer of lamina propria: collagenous fibres


The Body
Vocalis muscle: the middle part of the thyroarytenoid muscle. It This ‘bounces’ inwards and outwards in a slightly elliptical path.
controls the shape and tone of the vocal fold.

Table 1: Mathieson's Vocal Fold Layers

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Voice: Art & Science (Djarts’ Manuals)

Vocal Fold Movement


The complexity of vocal fold movement is what separates
it from other ‘man-made’ instruments.
The manner in which the sound commences
(onset: aspirate/simultaneous/glottal), the vibratory
nature (thick/thin fold, long/short, long phase/short
phase etc.) and the release (offset) of sound all
contribute to unique sounds – not to mention what
happens to the sound once it travels through the vocal
tract via the resonators and articulators.
McCoy (2004) describes vocal fold oscillation as eight
Figure 7: Vocal Fold Histology
steps across a single cycle of vibration (p. 111):
i. The vocal folds are gently closed by muscular
forces within the larynx;
ii. Air pressure increases beneath the closed folds;
iii. Increasing air pressure begins to open the glottis. Because of the ability of the cover to move
independently of the body, this opening begins on the underside of the glottis;
iv. The glottis continues to open from the
bottom to top, until air begins to escape;
v. As the air begins to flow through the
glottis, its velocity increases and its pressure
decreases through the Bernoulli Effect;5
vi. Reduced pressure in the flowing air is no
longer sufficient to hold the glottis open;
vii. As soon as the glottis is fully closed, the
process begins again, repeating as many times
per second as the frequency of the pitch being
spoken or sung.

Figure 8: Vocal Fold Oscillation

5
For more information on the ‘Bernoulli Effect’ the interested reader is encouraged to review McCoy’s excellent explanation
in his text, Your Voice: An Inside View (McCoy, 2004, p. 110).

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Voice: Art & Science (Djarts’ Manuals)

Your true vocal folds are neurally connected to you biceps. Your false vocal folds are
neurally connected to your triceps muscles…The nerve pathways linked to triceps and
biceps get the story about your death-grip on the mike stand and pass that constricting
tension down the line to your true and false vocal folds…you think your grabbing that
mike in order to add passion and power to your voice, and all it really does is to restrict
the range of your sound by forcing your vocal folds to constrict. (Wilson, 2001, p. 59)

3. The Vocal Tract: Resonators & Articulators


Once the sound (having been initiated by the oscillation of the vocal folds) enters the vocal tract it is
shaped and manipulated by the resonators and articulators. Sally-Anne Chalmers (2009) describes the
developmental pathway of the voice well when she writes:
The Voice is often described as having several components. The Actuator is the breath, the power source
and energy of the voice. The Vibrator is the pair of vocal folds which is the valve-like structure of muscle
and tissue. The Resonator is the vocal tract, a combination of the larynx, the pharynx and the oral cavity
amplifying the sound. And finally the Articulators are primarily the tongue and lips which shape the sound
into meaningful units. (pp. 8-9)

Frontal Sinus

Nasal Cavity

Hard Palate Sphenoidal Sinus

Oral Cavity
Nasopharynx

Teeth Soft Palate

Uvula
Lips
Oropharynx

Tongue
Epiglottis

Mandible Laryngopharynx

Figure 9: Sagittal Section showing Resonators & Articulators

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The Resonators
Gillyanne Kayes (2004) in her book Singing and the Actor notes, “What voice trainers and singers call
resonance is a form of sound filtering. Each part of the vocal tract (the tube of the larynx, the nose, the
mouth and the pharynx) has its own resonating frequency” (p. 110). Simply, the resonators influence the
sound as it travels through the vocal tract, and the result of these influences is called ‘resonance’.
Let’s briefly survey each of the resonators along the vocal tract (shown in Figure 9, p. 2; above):
• The Larynx: Not only is sound produced within the larynx, it also immediately influences the
timbre of that sound. For example, twang is added to the sound “in the collar of the larynx or the
aryepiglottic area” (Chapman & Morris, 2006b, p. 83).
• The Pharynx: The highest level of influence on the sound (and its resonance) is exerted via the
pharynx because of its high degree of malleability. Often referred to as ‘the throat’, the pharynx
can be split into three sections:
a) Laryngopharynx – the lower end of the pharynx.
b) Oropharynx – the middle of the pharynx; also the entrance into the oral cavity.
c) Nasopharynx – the top of the pharyngeal space and the entrance into the nasal cavity.
• The Oral Cavity: Housing most of the articulators, “the mouth is another resonating chamber, as
it is used to shape the vocal tone emanating from the pharynx into vowels and consonants” (p.
85).
• The Nasal Cavities: Lifting and lowering the velum allows singers to direct the sound away from
or into the nasal cavity.
It is important to note that the sinuses are not resonators! Janice Chapman & Ron Morris (2006b)
explain,
Similarly to the chest and nasal cavities the sinuses are the sensation traps, not resonating chambers.
Singers can use these sensations to monitor the quality of their singing but they must remember that
these sensations are not the cause of their vocal quality. (p. 88)

One could also say that a resonator resonates at certain frequencies, or that it
possesses resonances (formants in the case of the vocal tract) at certain frequencies.
Thus, the ability of the vocal tract to transmit sound is greatest at the formant
frequencies. Most resonators possess a number of resonance frequencies. In the vocal
tract the four or five lowest formants are the most relevant ones. The two lowest
formants determine most of the vowel colour; all of them are of great significance to
voice timbre. (Sundberg, 1987, p. 12)

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The Articulators
The resonant quality of the sound is extremely important – it is what makes the sound desirable to listen
to. However, resonance without articulation is incomprehensible. It is articulation that allows us to
shape the resonance into understandable patterns for speech and language. Johan Sundberg (1987)
defines articulation as the “name for the manoeuvres made in order to adjust the shape of the vocal
tract during phonation. This is achieved by means of the articulators: the lips, the tongue, the jaw, the
velum, and the larynx” (p. 91).
Let’s briefly survey each of the articulators along the vocal tract (shown in Figure 9, p. 2; above):
• Velum: As was highlighted earlier, the velum determines whether a sound will be nasalised or
not.
• Tongue: A major contributor to the formation of vowels and consonants, the tongue is shapes
and connects with other articulators to form speech patterns.
• Teeth: also known as the alveolus, the teeth helps shape consonants such as /t and /s.
• Mandible: The mandible (jaw) is a secondary articulator and is primarily used for mastication
(chewing). It also plays a role in the formation of resonance because it is used to develop space
in the oral cavity.
• Hard and Soft Palate: Both the hard and soft palates provide a contact surface for the tongue to
engage with; thus producing many of the consonants.
• Lips: The lips are the end of the vocal tract. The lips can elongate the length of the vocal tract by
protruding forward (away from the teeth) and assist in the shaping of consonant and vowel.
• Vocal Folds: Although the vocal tract is not shown on Figure 9, it is important to note its
contribution to articulation via ‘voiced and unvoiced’ sounds.
Finally, Morris and Chapman (2006) remind us that,

The articulatory system certainly does change resonance and is, of course, responsible for articulating
vowels and consonants but:
▪ Deviations in articulatory postures can influence vocal tone.
▪ Inefficient use of the speech physiology can affect voice quality and vocal tone.
▪ The articulatory system can act as a monitor to what is occurring at the level of the larynx and
even below at the level of the breath support system. (pp. 97–98).

Who is Dr Daniel K. Robinson?


Daniel is a freelance artist and educator. In 2011 Daniel completed his Doctor of Musical Arts degree at the Queensland
Conservatorium Griffith University. He has served as National Vice President (2009–11) and National Secretary for the
Australian National Association of Teachers of Singing (2006–11). Daniel is the principal Singing Voice Specialist for Djarts
(www.djarts.com.au) and presents workshops to singers across Australia and abroad. Over the past two decades, while
maintaining his own performance career, Daniel has instructed thousands of voices. This vast experience enables Daniel to
effortlessly work with voices of all skill levels: beginners to professionals.

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Zeller (Eds.), What every singer needs to know about the body (pp. 1–9). San Diego, CA: Plural
Publishing Inc.
Chalmers, S.-A. (2009, July). Breathing for singing. Voiceprint, 35, 8–12.
Chapman, J. L. (2006). Singing and teaching singing: A holistic approach to classical voice. San Diego, CA:
Plural Publishing Inc.
Chapman, J. L., & Morris, R. (2006a). Phonation and the speaking voice. In J. L. Chapman (Ed.), Singing
and teaching singing: A holistic approach to classical voice (pp. 59–80). San Diego, CA: Plural
Publishing Inc.
Chapman, J. L., & Morris, R. (2006b). Resonance. In J. L. Chapman (Ed.), Singing and teaching singing: A
holistic approach to classical voice (pp. 81–96). San Diego, CA: Plural Publishing Inc.
Dayme, M. B. (2009). Dynamics of the singing voice (5th ed.). Austria: SpringerWienNewYork.
Kayes, G. (2004). Singing and the actor (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.
Lieberman, J., & Chapman, J. (1998). Posture and voice: Safeguarding children's future singing.
Mastersinger, 30, 2–3.
McCoy, S. (2004). Your voice: An inside view (2 ed.). Princeton, NJ: Inside View Press.
McCoy, S. (2012). Some thoughts on singing and science. Journal of Singing, 68(5), 527–530.
Morris, R., & Chapman, J. L. (2006). Articulation. In J. L. Chapman (Ed.), Singing and teaching singing: A
holistic approach to classical voice (pp. 97–128). San Diego, CA: Plural Publishing Inc.
Nisbet, A. (2010). You want me to think about what?!: A discussion about motor skills and the role of
attentional focus in studio voice teaching. In S. D. Harrison (Ed.), Perspectives on teaching
singing: Australian vocal pedagogues sing their stories (pp. 101–121). Brisbane, QLD: Australian
Academic Press.
Shewell, C. (2009). Voice work: Art and science in changing voices. West Sussex, United Kingdom: Wiley-
Blackwell.
Sundberg, J. (1987). The science of the singing voice. Dekald, IL: Northern Illinois University Press.
Thurman, L., Pryor, A., Theimer, A., Grefsheim, E., Feit, P., & Welch, G. (2000). The most fundamental
voice skill. In L. Thurman & G. Welch (Eds.), Bodymind and voice: Foundations of voice education
(Vol. 2, pp. 326–338). St. John's University, MI: The VoiceCare Network.

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Voice: Art & Science (Djarts’ Manuals)

Thurman, L., Welch, G., Theimer, A., Feit, P., & Grefsheim, E. (2000). What your larynx is made of. In L.
Thurman & G. Welch (Eds.), Bodymind and voice: Foundations of voice education (Vol. 2, pp.
356–366). St. John's University, MI: The VoiceCare Network.
Wilson, P. (2001). The singing voice: an owners manual (2nd ed.). Strawberry Hills NSW, Australia:
Currency Press.

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