temperature of 6008C (11128F) and a soaking time of 10 h are chosen for stress-relief annealing, the residual stresses will,

after this annealing, be reduced to a maximum of 70 N/mm2. Higher temperatures and longer times of annealing may reduce residual stresses to lower levels, as can be seen from Figure 6.53. As in all heat treatment processes where Hollomons parameter is involved, selection of a higher temperature may dramatically shorten the soaking time and contribute substantially to the economy of the annealing process. Dealing with structural steels for hardening and tempering, the stress-relief process and the tempering process can be performed simultaneously as one operation, because Hollomons parameter is also applicable to tempering. In such a case the stress-relief diagram may be used in combination with the tempering diagram to optimize both the hardness and the level of reduced residual stresses. The residual stress level after stress-relief annealing will be maintained only if the cooldown from the annealing temperature is controlled and slow enough that no new internal stresses arise. New stresses that may be induced during cooling depend on the cooling rate, on the cross-sectional size of the workpiece, and on the composition of the steel. Figure 6.54 shows the effect of cooling rate and cross-sectional diameter of forgings made of a CrMoNiV steel on the level of tangential residual stresses after stress-relief annealing. A general conclusion about stress-relief annealing is the following: In the temperature range 4506508C (84212008F), the yield strength of unalloyed and low-alloyed steels is lowered so much that a great deal of residual stress may be reduced by plastic deformation. The influence of the steel composition on the level of residual stresses after annealing can be considerable. While unalloyed and low-alloy steels with Ni, Mn, and Cr after stress-relief annealing above 5008C (9328F) may get the residual stresses reduced to a low level, steels alloyed with Mo or Mo V will retain a much higher level of the residual stresses after stressrelief annealing at the same temperature because of their much higher yield strength at elevated temperature.

6.2.2

NORMALIZING

Normalizing or normalizing annealing is a heat treatment process consisting of austenitizing at temperatures of 30808C (861768F) above the Ac3 transformation temperature (for

Tangential residual stresses, N/mm2

mm . = 100 0

120 100 80 60 40 20 0 0 10

0m m

80

60

Dia m

40

20

m 0m

20 30 40 50 60 Average cooling rate to 400, C/h

80

FIGURE 6.54 Tangential residual stresses in a CrMoNiV alloy steel depending on the cooling rate and ferle (Eds.), Handbuch der Fertigungstechnik, Vol. 4/2, cross-section diameter. (From G. Spur and T. Sto rmebehandeln, Carl Hanser, Munich, 1987.) Wa

2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

1000 Temperature, C 800

a

b c

Ac3 Ac1

600 400 200 0 Time

d

FIGURE 6.55 Timetemperature regime of normalizing. a, Heating; b, holding at austenitizing tem ferle (Eds.), Handbuch der perature; c, air cooling; d, air or furnace cooling. (From G. Spur and T. Sto rmebehandeln, Carl Hanser, Munich, 1987.) Fertigungstechnik, Vol. 4/2, Wa

hypoeutectoid steels) followed by slow cooling (usually in air), the aim of which is to obtain a fine-grained, uniformly distributed, ferritepearlite structure. Normalizing is applied mainly to unalloyed and low-alloy hypoeutectoid steels. For hypereutectoid steels normalizing is performed only in special cases, and for these steels the austenitizing temperature is 30808C (861768F) above the Ac1 transformation temperature. Figure 6.55 shows the thermal cycle of a normalizing process, and Figure 6.56 shows the range of austenitizing temperatures for normalizing unalloyed steels depending on their carbon content. The parameters of a normalizing process are the heating rate, the austenitizing temperature, the holding time at austenitizing temperature, and the cooling rate. Normalizing treatment refines the grain of a steel that has become coarse-grained as a result of heating to a high temperature, e.g., for forging or welding. Figure 6.57 shows the effect of grain refining by normalizing a carbon steel of 0.5% C. Such grain refinement and

1200 1100

1147C E

1000 Temperature, C
G

900
+ Fe3C

800
+ 723C S Pearlite Pearlite + Fe3C K

700 P 600 500

a + Pearlite

0.4

0.8 1.2 1.6 Carbon content, %

2.0

2.4

FIGURE 6.56 Range of austenitizing temperatures for normalizing unalloyed steels depending on their carbon content. (Temperature range above the line SE is used for dissolution of secondary carbides.) ferle (Eds.), Handbuch der Fertigunga, ferrite; g, austenite; Fe3C, cementite. (From G. Spur and T. Sto rmebehandeln, Carl Hanser, Munich, 1987.) stechnik, Vol. 4/2, Wa

2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

FIGURE 6.57 Effect of grain refining by normalizing a carbon steel of 0.5% C. (a) As-rolled or forged, grain size ASTM 3 and (b) normalized, grain size ASTM 6. Magnification 500. (From K.E. Thelning, Steel and Its Heat Treatment, 2nd ed., Butterworths, London, 1984.)

homogenization of the structure by normalizing is usually performed either to improve the mechanical properties of the workpiece or (previous to hardening) to obtain better and more uniform results after hardening. In some cases, normalizing is applied for better machinability of low-carbon steels. A special need for normalizing exists with steel castings because, due to slow cooling after casting, a coarse-grained structure develops that usually contains needlelike ferrite (Wid ttens structure), as shown in Figure 6.58. A normalizing treatment at 7809508C mannsta (143617428F) (depending on chemical composition) removes this undesirable structure of unalloyed and alloyed steel castings having 0.30.6% C. After hot rolling, the structure of steel is usually oriented in the rolling direction, as shown in Figure 6.59. In such a case, of course, mechanical properties differ between the rolling direction and the direction perpendicular to it. To remove the oriented structure and obtain the same mechanical properties in all directions, a normalizing annealing has to be performed. After forging at high temperatures, especially with workpieces that vary widely in crosssectional size, because of the different rates of cooling from the forging temperature, a heterogeneous structure is obtained that can be made uniform by normalizing.

FIGURE 6.58 Structure of a steel casting (a) before normalizing and (b) after normalizing. (From H.J. rmebehandlung von Stahl, 2nd ed., VEB Deutscher Verlag fu r Eckstein (Ed.), Technologie der Wa Grundstoffindustrie, Leipzig, 1987.)

2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

FIGURE 6.59 Structure of DIN 20MnCr5 steel (a) after hot rolling and (b) after normalizing at 8808C. ferle (Eds.), Handbuch der Fertigungstechnik, Vol. 4/2, Magnification 100. (From G. Spur and T. Sto rmebehandeln, Carl Hanser, Munich, 1987.) Wa

From the metallurgical aspect the grain refinement and the uniform distribution of the newly formed ferritepearlite structure during normalizing treatment can be explained with the following mechanism. At normalizing, the steel is subjected first to a a ! g (ferrite pearlite to austenite) transformation, and after the holding time at austenitizing temperature, to a recurring g ! a (austenite to ferritepearlite) transformation. The effect of normalizing depends on both austenitization and cooling from the austenitizing temperature. During austenitizing a far-reaching dissolution of carbides is aimed at, but this process competes with the growth of austenite grains after complete carbide dissolution, which is not desirable. Besides the carbide dissolution, the degree of homogenization within the austenite matrix is important for obtaining a new arrangement of ferrite and pearlite constituents in the structure after normalizing. Both dissolution and homogenizing are time- and temperaturedependent diffusion processes that are slower when the diffusion paths are longer (higher local differences in carbon concentration) and the diffusion rates are smaller (e.g., increasing amounts of alloying elements). Therefore, especially with alloyed steels, lower austenitizing temperatures and longer holding times for normalizing give advantages taking into account the austenite grain growth. As shown in Figure 6.60, high austenitizing temperatures result in a coarse-grained austenite structure, which yields a coarse structure after normalizing. Holding time at austenitizing temperature may be calculated using the empirical formula t 60 D (6:35)

where t is the holding time (min) and D is the maximum diameter of the workpiece (mm). When normalizing hypoeutectoid steels (i.e., steels with less than 0.8% C), during cooling from the austenitizing temperature, first a preeutectoid precipitation of ferrite takes place. With a lower cooling rate, the precipitation of ferrite increases along the austenite grain boundaries. For the desired uniform distribution of ferrite and pearlite after normalizing, however, a possibly simultaneous formation of ferrite and pearlite is necessary. Steels having carbon contents between 0.35 and 0.55% C especially tend to develop nonuniform ferrite distributions as shown in Figure 6.61. The structure in this figure indicates overly slow cooling in the temperature range of preeutectoid ferrite precipitation between Ar3 and Ar1. On the other hand, if the cooling through this temperature region takes place too fast, with steels having carbon contents between 0.2 and 0.5%, formation of an undesirable needlelike ttens structure, ferrite (oriented at austenite grain boundaries), the so-called Widmannsta may result as shown in Figure 6.62. Formation of pearlite follows only after complete

2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

T2

T2 > T1 > A1

Austenite T1 A1 Pearlite

Heating

Cooling

FIGURE 6.60 Schematic presentation of the influence of austenitizing temperature on the grain size of rmethe structure of a eutectoid steel after normalizing. (From H.J. Eckstein (Ed.), Technologie der Wa r Grundstoffindustrie, Leipzig, 1987.) behandlung von Stahl, 2nd ed., VEB Deutscher Verlag fu

precipitation of ferrite by transformation of the remaining austenite structure at temperature Ar1. It starts first at the boundaries of ferrite and austenite and spreads to the interior of the austenite grains. The greater the number of the pearlitic regions formed, the more mutually hindered the pearlite grains are in their growth, and consequently the finer the grains of the normalized structure. The influence of alloying elements on the austenite to ferrite and pearlite transformation may be read off from the relevant CCT diagram. Care should be taken to ensure that the cooling rate within the workpiece is in a range corresponding to the transformation behavior of the steel in question that results in a pure ferritepearlite structure. If, for round bars of different diameters cooled in air, the cooling curves in the core have been experimentally measured and recorded, then by using the appropriate CCT diagram for the steel grade in question, it is possible to predict the structure and hardness after normalizing. To superimpose the recorded cooling curves onto the CCT diagram, the timetemperature scales must be equal to those of the CCT diagram. Figure 6.63 shows, for example, that the unalloyed steel DIN Ck45 will attain the desired ferritepearlite structure in the core of all investigated bars of different diameters cooled in

FIGURE 6.61 Nonuniform distribution of ferrite and pearlite as a consequence of unfavorable temperature control during normalizing of unalloyed DIN C35 steel. Magnification 100. (From G. Spur ferle (Eds.), Handbuch der Fertigungstechnik, Vol. 4/2, Wa rmebehandeln, Carl Hanser, and T. Sto Munich, 1987.)

2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

FIGURE 6.62 Formation of needlelike ferrite at grain boundaries after normalizing of the unalloyed ferle steel DIN C35, because of too fast a cooling rate. Magnification 500. (From G. Spur and T. Sto rmebehandeln, Carl Hanser, Munich, 1987.) (Eds.), Handbuch der Fertigungstechnik, Vol. 4/2, Wa

air. On the other hand, as shown in Figure 6.64, the alloyed steel DIN 55NiCrMoV6 cooled in the same way in air will transform to martensite and bainite. In this case, to obtain a desired structure and hardness after normalizing, a much slower cooling of about 108C/h (508F/h), i.e., furnace cooling, has to be applied from the austenitizing temperature to the temperature at which the formation of pearlite is finished (%6008C (%11008F)).

6.2.3 ISOTHERMAL ANNEALING

Hypoeutectoid low-carbon steels for carburizing as well as medium-carbon structural steels for hardening and tempering are often isothermally annealed, for best machinability, because

1000 Hardness HV 900 800 Temperature, C 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 Q1
722 702 654 576 438 348 278 244 228 213 174 15 85 20 85 80 40 30 Ferrite 60 70 Pearlite 45 55

Ac3 Ac1

Austenite
3 1 35 10

10

dia m. =1
300

150

10

600

30

75

Bainite
Ms 2 15 20 3

000 mm

Martensite

1 Time, s

101 1

102 2 4

103 8 15 min 60

104

105

1 2

4 h

8 16 24

FIGURE 6.63 CCT diagram of the unalloyed steel DIN Ck45 (austenitizing temperature 8508C), with superimposed cooling curves measured in the core of round bars of different diameters cooled in air. ferle (Eds.), Handbuch der Fertigungstechnik, Vol. 4/2, Wa rmebehandeln, Carl (From G. Spur and T. Sto Hanser, Munich, 1987.)

2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.