Neutron stars

Neutron stars
History
- Baade & Zwicky (Dec. 1933, published 1934): With all reserve we advance the view that supernovae represent the transitions from ordinary stars to neutron stars, which in their final stages consist of extremely closely packed neutrons. - But: Lev Landau completed a paper in (1931) in which he writes for stars heavier than 1.5 M~ the density of matter becomes so great that atomic nuclei come in close contact, forming one gigantic nucleus. Note: the neutron was discovered later by J. Chadwick in January 1932 (publ. Feb. 1932). - 1939: Oppenheimer & Volkoff compute first neutron star model, assuming a free (ideal) neutron gas (EOS) and hydrostatic equilibrium in General Relativity (GR) Mmax = 0.7M~.

- 1967: First Pulsar discovered by J. Bell & A. Hewish, identified as a NS, independently by Pacini (1967) and T. Gold (1968). - Today: more than 1700 radio pulsars discovered. 109 NS in our Galaxy expected!

Neutron stars
Introduction
- NS are remnants of supernova (II) explosions of massive stars, with initial masses between ~(8-10) M~ and ~(25-30) M~. Also, if a WD accretes matter from its companion in a close binary system and exceeds Mch, then it may collapse & explode as a supernova type Ia, or collapse to become a NS. - The main source of the pressure needed to counter balance the gravitational force is the degenerate neutrons, since UR e- degeneracy cannot support objects with M > Mch. remember: Mch is obtained for UR, degenerate (ideal) e- gas, and is independent of rest mass mec2! Since neutrons are also fermions (i.e. obeying Paulis exclusion principle) Mch is also valid as a limiting mass for and ideal, degenerate, UR neutron gas with e=1, but this limit is too high! also: degenerate e- have peculiar property that as increases the e- become more ideal, i.e. the (non-ideal) electrostatic interactions (Coulomb energy) becomes less important compared to the kinetic energy with increasing (or x~1/3):

White dwarfs
REMINDER: (HUSK) Crystallization electrostatic interactions (non-ideal EOS effects)

Pc is negative, i.e. reducing the total pressure (and total energy E)

ideal gas with

e- Fermi gas

approximation breaks down

P reduction increases with Z and decreasing

Pc most important at small M (

reduction of R).

P reduction increases with Z and decreasing

Pc most important at small M (

reduction of R).

Neutron stars
Introduction
- NS are remnants of supernova (II) explosions of massive stars, with initial masses between ~(8-10) M~ and ~(25-30) M~. Also, if a WD accretes matter from its companion in a close binary system and exceeds Mch, then it may collapse & explode as a supernova type Ia, or collapse to become a NS. - The main source of the pressure needed to counter balance the gravitational force is the degenerate neutrons, since e- degeneracy cannot support objects with M > Mch. remember: Mch is obtained for UR, degenerate (ideal) e- gas, and is independent of rest mass mec2! Since neutrons are also fermions (i.e. obeying Paulis exclusion principle) Mch is also valid as a limiting mass for and ideal, degenerate, UR neutron gas with e=1. however: degenerate e- have peculiar property that as increases the e- become more ideal, i.e. the (non-ideal) electrostatic interactions (Coulomb energy) becomes less important compared to the kinetic energy with (or ne): This behaviour is not so for a collection of nucleons, for which the interaction energy between nucleons increases much faster with than kinetic energy!! e- Fermi gas EOS for NS must include nucleon-nucleon (NN) interactions, which is still ongoing research! (1010-1011

Neutron stars
Introduction
- NSs are born hot K) in the collapse of a highly evolved star, but after a few days T~1091010 K, due to efficient neutrino losses; it may even drop to 108 K after 100 years. - 108 K (kT10 keV) is low (cold) compared to the characteristic excitation energies in the nuclei of ~1 MeV (1010K) and to the nearly relativistic & degenerate neutrons (EF 1000 MeV). - During NS formation (i.e. relatively high T) nuclear reactions are very rapid and thermodynamic equilibrium (TD) is reached very quickly. Such matter is called catalyzed matter (T and are the catalysts), also called nuclear equilibrium. The free energy of a macroscopic volume V, containing Nb baryons (nucleons, hyperons, deconfined quarks,), which is electrically neutral, is

- if extrapolated to degenerate (cold) state, the TS term can be neglected and, because EOS (and therefore E) does not depend on T cold catalyzed matter, i.e. NS is in its lowest energy state, the ground state of matter. remember: ground state (@ zero pressure) consists of (i) n & p are packaged in to 56Fe nuclei, the most tightly bound nucleus (up to ~1030dyn cm-2), (ii) Nuclei are arranged in a lattice to minimize configuration energy (free energy, see above) (iii) e- are in ferromagnetic state expect NS surface layers to be a ferromagnetic iron lattice.

P reduction increases with Z and decreasing

Pc most important at small M (

reduction of R).

Neutron stars
Introduction NS characteristics:
From observations: another observation: M ~ 1 2 M~ R ~ 10 20 km most rapidly rotating pulsar ( = 716 Hz; = 4499 s-1):

Neutron stars
Theoretical NS compositions (structures)

-depending on NS mass and rotational frequ., NS may be compressed to densities ~10xnuc. numerous subatomic particle processes are likely to compete with each other (Figure): e.g., generation of hyperons and baryons resonances (,,,), quark (u,d,s) deconfinement, formation of boson condensates (-, K -, H - matter). Mesons are bosons (integer spin) Baryons are fermions (1/2 integer spin)

centrifugal force

gravitational force

(central density is much larger).

Note: nuclear density: nuclei start to touch each other @ NS are like giant atomic nuclei: but NS is hold together by gravity, nuclei by strong forces. Average inter-particle distance: < 1fm (10 -15 m) Temperatures: strong interactions crucial for EOS

surface ~ 106 K, interior up to 1011 K

Schwarzschild radius (event horizon), no signal can escape from within sphere with radius rg

Magnetic fields: 1012 1015 G ! Space-time is strongly curved:

where

H H dybarion (a six-quark composite) CFL colour-flavoured locked quark pairing (QCD): all 3 quark flavours participate symmetrically 2SC two-flavour superconducting phase

Neutron stars
particle overview
m 207 me t 2.2 s m 207x16.8 me t 2.9x10-13 s

Neutron stars
Baryons (composed of 3 quarks)

Credit: P. Haensel (2008)

Baryons (composed of 3 quarks) Neutron stars

Neutron stars
Hyperons (baryon including at least 1 strange quark (s))

Mesons (composed of 1 quark & 1 antiquark)

Neutron stars

Neutron stars
Theoretical NS compositions (structures)

- depending on NS mass and rotational frequ., NS may be compressed to densities ~10xnuc. numerous subatomic particle processes are likely to compete with each other (Figure): SQM: quark (u,d,s) deconfinement: Note: free quarks do not exist, because the force between them increases with distance. One can therefore argue that for very short distances (high T) the force between quarks (gluon) can be neglected Fermi sea of quarks deconfined (quark-gluon matter) with nu = nd = ns and total baryon density nb = (nu + nd + ns ) / 3.

SQM

H H dybarion (a six-quark composite) CFL colour-flavoured locked quark pairing (QCD): all 3 quark flavours participate symmetrically 2SC two-flavour superconducting phase

There are also vector Mesons; there are 24 different Mesons.

Neutron stars
Theoretical NS compositions (structures)

Neutron stars
Crust and outer core

- depending on NS mass and rotational frequ., NS may be compressed to densities ~10xnuc. numerous subatomic particle processes are likely to compete with each other (Figure): Boson condensate: Mesons obey Bose-Einstein statistics; fundamental property: at low enough T an ideal Bose gas will undergo Bose-Einstein condensation (all particles are in the zero-momentum state). It is a condensation in momentum space and not in coordinate space. Phenomenon of superfluidity (frictionless, similar to 4He @ low T). The - and K- mesons in NS will therefore not contribute to the pressure (but to !), and therefore the EOS gets softer (i.e. more compressible).

(if EF > 105.7 MeV).

Pion

Kaon H H dybarion (a six-quark composite) CFL colour-flavoured locked quark pairing (QCD): all 3 quark flavours participate symmetrically 2SC two-flavour superconducting phase

Baryon density = nucleon density

Neutron stars
Crust and outer core

Neutron stars
Nuclear equilibrium @ high densities (crust: below neutron drip) - the equilibrium composition is that composition,
for which the total (Gibbs, T=0) energy Gcell (in a Wigner-Seitz cell) is a minimum. Basically one imposes only the baryon number per volume and ask for the corresponding equilibrium composition. Haensel, Potekhin, Yakovlev (2007)
P Pn

relativistic e-

- with increasing the balance between attractive

and repelling forces in isolated nuclei (Z,A) is shifted to heavier and neutron-enriched nuclei, because replacing a proton by a neutron decreases the repulsive Coulomb force (WL) inside the nucleus, and resulting decay is inhibited by Fermi sea (EF~ 2/3).
Gibbs energy per unit cell nucleus Coulomb (Lattice) e-

increase of free neutrons PnPe @ log 12.6 neutron drip (n release) starts @ log 11.6

nuclei dissolved: degen. n-gas & free p & ePL = PN e- chemical potential (potential energy)

free enthalpy h per unit cell

With energetically advantageous to replace (A,Z) by (A, Z) with higher WN but smaller Z/A, because latter (decrease) dominates over first (increase).

Neutron stars
Nuclear equilibrium @ high densities (crust: below neutron drip)

Neutron stars
Nuclear equilibrium @ high densities (below neutron drip)

density jump (phase transition) derived from continuity of pressure P Pe. neutron drip point

Credit P. Haensel (2008)

e is e- chemical potential (units of energy density)

Neutron stars
Inner crust (neutron drip ND)
Haensel, Potekhin, Yakovlev (2007)
P Pn

Neutron stars
Inner crust (neutron drip ND)
Haensel, Potekhin, Yakovlev (2007)
P Pn

relativistic e-

increase of free neutrons PnPe @ log 12.6 neutron drip (n release) starts @ log 11.6

relativistic e-

increase of free neutrons PnPe @ log 12.6 neutron drip (n release) starts @ log 11.6

nuclei dissolved: degen. n-gas & free p & e-

nuclei dissolved: degen. n-gas & free p & e-

Onset of ND has severe consequences for EOS: increase in d mainly increases nn at the expense of ne (which provides the pressure) such that dP increases less EOS becomes more compressible, i.e. the EOS gets softer. At even higher the increasingly freed neutrons contribute increasingly to P.

Onset of ND has severe consequences for EOS: increase in d mainly increases nn at the expense of ne (which provides the pressure) such that dP increases less EOS becomes more compressible, i.e. the EOS gets softer. Later the increasingly freed neutrons contribute increasingly to P. Note: from the figure above, we see that protons are never released, and that the number of free neutrons increases with density!

Neutron stars
Outer core (above neutron drip)
Haensel, Potekhin, Yakovlev (2007)
P Pn

Neutron stars
Outer core (above neutron drip)
Haensel, Potekhin, Yakovlev (2007)
P Pn

relativistic e-

increase of free neutrons PnPe @ log 12.6 neutron drip (n release) starts @ log 11.6

relativistic e-

increase of free neutrons PnPe @ log 12.6 neutron drip (n release) starts @ log 11.6

nuclei dissolved: degen. n-gas & free p & e-

nuclei dissolved: degen. n-gas & free p & e-

Nucleons (n,p) form a strongly interacting Fermi liquid, while e- and muons () constitute nearly ideal Fermi gases. The relative numbers of n and p will be determined by the conditions of beta equilibrium (equilibrium w.r.t. to the weak-interaction processes):
muons () are present only if

note: -equilibrium implies ~10% proton abundance by number (and therefore also e- for charge neutrality) softens EOS !

This (beta) equilibrium is obtained by minimizing the (free) energy (only parameter is baryon density nb) w.r.t. to the constraints: form a closed system of equations, which determines equilibrium composition of & relations between chem. potentials npe matter.

Neutron stars
nucleon-nucleon interactions

3-nucleons interactions

Neutron stars
EOS inner crust (above ND)
main differences due to: ND(Sly) 4x1011 gcm-3, ND(FPS) 6x1011gcm-3. phase transition

stiffer

Hyperon-nucleon (H-N), H-H interacations

various solutions for the quantum many-body problem for nucleon component: perturbative, variatioasl, relativ., etc.

SLy EOS

Haensel (2003, 2008)

Credit P. Haensel (2008)

degree of stiffness

(Skyrme-Lyon NN forces)

(Friedmann Pandharipande Skyrme NN model)

Credit: P. Haensel (2008)

EOS relatively well know thanks to experimental data (ground state, cold catalyzed matter).

properties of nuclei affected by ambient n-gas, which contributes increasingly to P EOS becomes uncertain.

Neutron stars
EOS for inner/outer core
Differences in EOS due to approximations/deficiencies of many-body theory of dense nucleon matter, and from ignorance of strong interactions in super-dense matter.

Neutron stars
Hyperon softening of EOS (inner core)
(as soon as n+e exceeds in-medium energy of -). (much too low)

Haensel (2008)

The formation of hyperons softens EOS because high-energy neutrons are replaced by more massive low-energy hyperons (producing lower pressure). Hyperons appear due to strangenesschanging weak interactions. Strangeness S is a property of particles, expressed as a quantum number, for describing decay of particles in strong & electromagnetic reactions, which occur in a short period of time.

NN interaction: fits nucleon-nucleon scattering 2H NNN interaction: fits 3H, 4He

Baryon density = nucleon density

Figure: thick lines: with hyperons thin lines: without hyperons

# of strange quarks

# of strange antiquarks

Neutron stars
Model-independent bounds to EOS (inner core)
microscopic stability: causality condition:

Neutron stars
NS models (special relativity effects: mass-energy density)
Neutron pressure Pn 0.8P @ 1.5x1013gcm-3, i.e. Pn essentially determines total P. EOS for ideal, fully degenerate neutrons similar to e- EOS, because n are also fermions, but me is replaced by mn and e by 1 (i.e. one nucleon per fermion): with

Above we have used the rest-mass density instead of 0, to use the total mass-energy density

, but for relativistic configurations one has,

This distinction was not necessary for e- gas, because 0 was always determined mainly by the non-degenerate nuclei (ions) and was therefore always larger than the energy density u/c2 of the degenerated e- gas. Credit P. Haensel (2008) Here, however, both 0 and u/c2 are now provided by the degenerate neutrons!

Neutron stars
NS models (special relativity effects: mass-energy density)

Neutron stars
NS models
We start with a rough estimate of the characteristic radius and density of an NS by assuming that the pressure is provided by an ideal, degenerate (non-relativistic, 0) neutron gas: (non-relativistic) degenerate pressure:

For non-relativistic neutrons 0 >> u/c2 and 0. For relativistic neutrons u/c2. For a relativistic gas we also have
internal energy per unit volume

where (only neutrons):

and consequently the pressure provided by the degenerated neutrons can be written as For a polytrope we can derive from the Lane-Emden equation (exercise!):

where Also, the squared sound speed is Non-ideal effects (e.g. electrostatic interactions) become important already for 0 < 6x1015 gcm-3.

Neutron stars
hence:

Neutron stars
NS models (including GR)
Hydrostatic equilibrium in General Relativity (GR): Note: GR becomes important

NS models

With

Tolman-Oppenheimer-Volkoff (TOV) equation:

together with mass-conservation equation (gravitational mass!):

Note: = mass-energy density!

For
Note: this idealized result is only slightly larger than the observations of R ~ 10km, because we neglected relativistic effects (incl. GR), considered only degenerate, ideal, neutrons, but EOS is much more complex, (non-ideal effects) as indicated before, etc.

! With an EOS the NS equations can be solved numerically, to construct NS models.

Neutron stars
NS models (including GR)
Hydrostatic equilibrium in General Relativity (GR): Note: GR becomes important

Neutron stars
NS models (including GR) Gravitational mass
The total stellar mass M is always the gravitational mass, which is the value measured from an outside observer, i.e. it is the mass that would be detected through Keplers law for the orbital motion if the star were a component of a well-separated binary system. In the Newtonian limit

Gravity is enhanced by coupling to pressure in the general relativistic Tolman-Oppenheimer-Volkoff (TOV) equation: description.

can be unambiguously interpreted as the mass contained within the radius r. For relativistic stars (including space-time curvature) we have
total binding energy (int.+grav.)

together with mass-conservation equation (gravitational mass!):

Note: = mass-energy density!

with

! With an EOS the NS equations can be solved numerically, to construct NS models. The gravitational mass M=m(R) is less than the proper (baryon) rest mass M0=m0(R) !

Neutron stars
NS models
Haensel (2003) density within core rather uniform for M=1.2,,1.5 M~; most pronounced drop occurs near the crust bottom edge. There is a steepening in the density drop near the neutron drip, where EOS is softer. Increasing M leads to a sharper drop of the density profiles and to thinner crust as a result of the increasing gravitational pull, most pronounced at M=Mmax . Medium-stiff BBB2 EOS (core) leads to a crust containing 1.4% & 10.8% for Mgrav = 1.24 & 1.51 M~ with a crust thickness of 1.01km & 0.72km. For Mmax, Mcrust/Mmax = 0.2% & 0.29km crust thickness. For softer (core) EOS the crust mass and thickness are smaller.

Neutron stars
NS models
Although crustal EOS is reasonable well known, the crust structure depends also on the core EOS through the cores gravitational pull; hence different core EOS will also lead to different crust structures (see Figure). The crust thickness ranges from 0.7km for the softest core EOS (BPAL12) up to 1.3km for the stiffest (BalbN2=BGN12). Dependence of crust mass fraction is even more dramatic: 0.7% for BPAL12 and 2.2% for the stiffest EOS (BalbN2). BBB2 is a typical medium-stiff EOS for which the crust thickness is ~0.8km and crust mass fraction ~ 1%.

Haensel (2003)

Mmax for this EOS

Neutron stars
Maximum mass of a NS
Haensel (2003)

stiffness

Neutron stars
NS models (EOS effect)
c is (single) parameter in NS model family.

Curves exhibit maximum mass, which strongly depend on EOS, and is reached at central densities of several 0. Configurations with M>Mmax are unstable and collapse to BH. Note: replacing EOS by a free (non-interacting) Fermi gas of neutrons (extremely soft EOS) leads to Mmax = 0.72M~, the values obtained by O&V (1939). This is in contraction with the measured mass of the binary radio pulsars of ~1.44 M~ (shaded horizontal band). This implies that nucleon-nucleon (NN) interaction are sufficiently repulsive at supranuclear densities to lift Mmax by more than 100% from the non-interacting nucleon gas value. But: Hyperon-nucleon (H-N) & (H-H) interactions soften EOS and reduce Mmax value.

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Neutron stars
NS models (EOS effect)

Neutron stars
NS models
Choosing a central density c the TOV equation, together with the mass conservation equation and an EOS, can be integrated from = 0 to the surface, where = 0 (P=0) R(c), M(c). Mmin & Mmax are critical points in the model computations at which a detailed stability analysis shows that the stability of the equilibrium models changes (dynamical stability): . stable . unstable Mmax for (small) GR effects ( ):
Newtonian limit:

Mmax Mmin

infinite number of max. & min. limiting point reached for

GR makes star more unstable; only the stiffest EOS would lead to stability!

Neutron stars
NS models
Choosing a central density c the TOV equation, together with the mass conservation equation and an EOS, can be integrated from = 0 to the surface, where = 0 (P=0) R(c), M(c). Mmin & Mmax are critical points in the model computations at which a detailed stability analysis shows that the stability of the equilibrium models changes (dynamical stability): . stable . unstable @Mmin: curve leads to WD; this instability is a result from lowering in connection with neutron drip: release of free n from nuclei (CCM in ground state) leads to < 4/3 for 4x1011 . 7x1012 gcm-3. Typical models for the minimum mass of a stable NS suggest Mmin 0.009M~, R 160km, c 1.5x1014 gcm-3.

Neutron stars
Maximum mass of a NS (effect of EOS)
c is (single) parameter in NS model family.
stiffest

Curves exhibit maximum mass, which strongly depend on EOS, and is reached at central densities of several 0. Configurations with M>Mmax are unstable and collapse to BH.

Mmax Mmin

softest

stiffest

Increasing the stiffness (1 7) makes matter less compressible; for given M one expects a larger R and a smaller c. Or, for given c more mass can be put on top until reaching the surface with = 0. This lowers the gravity inside the model and Mmax is higher.

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Neutron stars
Maximum mass of a NS
- NS are subject to a Mmax (similarly as WD), because of (1) the degenerate behaviour of cold matter at ultrahigh densities and (2) General Relativity. - Mmax important also for identifying compact objects with M >Mmax as black holes (BH). - Simple argument for the existence of Mmax << 5 M~ by neglecting GR effects, but including special relativity (SR) effects ( i.e. considering u/c2 in addition to neutron (n) rest mass): from hydrostatic support: from the ideal (polytropic) EOS: non-relativistic: relativistic: somewhere in between these limits must exist when n start to become relativistic, i.e. u/c2 rest mass 0.
one nucleon per fermion

Neutron stars
Maximum mass of a NS
- NS are subject to a Mmax (similarly as WD), because of (1) the degenerate behaviour of cold matter at ultrahigh densities and (2) General Relativity. - The EOS behaviour at high densities was considered (first) by Landau (1932), who assumed an ideal Fermi gas of UR neutrons in a Newtonian, self-gravitating sphere of M & R containing Ab neutrons: Fermi energy of UR ( ) neutrons: internal energy Gravitational energy produced by rest mass For fixed Ab, stable equilibrium is reached at the minimum of the total energy with

neutron density

; with

Note: was obtained with neglecting the energy density term (SR effect) u/c2, i.e. =0 !
Note: MCh does also not depend on rest mass!

Neutron stars
Maximum mass of a NS
Effect of GR (& SR) using the TOV equation: we have 2 constraints:

Neutron stars
Maximum mass of a NS

we consider idealized case of an incompressible gas (infinite stiff) with = inc = constant;

Integrating the TOV equation (separation of variables) leads to (exercise): Note, we assumed: inc max stiffness (incompressible) central pressure: Oppenheimer-Volkoff limit for Mmax of a NS

no infinite pressure in nature:

nuclear mass density

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Neutron stars
Maximum mass of a NS

Neutron stars
Maximum mass of a NS (effect of EOS)
c is (single) parameter in NS model family.
stiffest

Curves exhibit maximum mass, which strongly depend on EOS, and is reached at central densities of several 0. Configurations with M>Mmax are unstable and collapse to BH.

softest

stiffest

Increasing the stiffness (1 7) makes matter less compressible; for given M one expects a larger R and a smaller c. Or, for given c more mass can be put on top until reaching the surface with = 0. This lowers the gravity inside the model and Mmax is higher.

Haensel (2008)

Neutron stars
Maximum mass of a NS
- upper mass limit for NS depends on EOS (soft/stiff). - is there a way to estimate an upper limit that is independent of EOS? - YES: Rhodes & Ruffini (1974) reported such a way with the help of the causal condition: (1) adopt GR (&SR), i.e. use the TOV equation for hydrostatic support (2) EOS satisfies microscopic stability condition: (3) EOS satisfies causality condition: (4) EOS is known below some, i.e. < u , matching density u .

Neutron stars
Maximum mass of a NS
Perform variational calculation to determine (unknown) EOS for > u , to maximize M: (a) known EOS: P<(r) := 0 < P Pu

(b) unknown EOS: P>(r) for P > Pu (c) and treat Mmax[P>(r)] as a functional, i.e. a quantity that depends on a function, e.g. a set of unknown EOSs, P>(r), which satisfy (2 & 3), i.e.

Result: Mmax is found to be the maximum for the so-called causal-limit (CL) EOS: Rhodes & Ruffini (1974) then performed a variational calculation to determine which EOS above This is quite a plausible result, because the CL EOS is the stiffest EOS possible for > 0 , [i.e. producing the largest mass M(R) (see previous Figure)].

u maximizes the mass, subject to contraints (2) & (3).

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Neutron stars
Maximum mass of a NS
Numerical integration of the TOV (here given in dimensionless form), using convenient units:

Neutron stars
Maximum mass of a NS

Mmax for any EOS ( > u) with subluminal sound speed (s<c) is lower than the above upper bound.

dimensionless TOV:

Compact object with

cannot be a Neutron star

it is a black hole (BH) !

Observations: Hulse-Taylor binary pulsar: together with a known EOS for u and the CL EOS for > u, leads to
nuclear density

A good theory has to predict

Effect of neutron interaction (also NNN, NH, HH): Mmax for any EOS ( > u) with subluminal sound speed (s<c) is lower than the above upper bound.
OV (1939) result: 0.72 M~

Neutron stars
Maximum mass of a NS

P. Haensel (2008)

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