STANDING WAVES BETWEEN SINGULARITIES IN AN

ELASTIC CONTINUUM OF INFINITE EXTENSION

BJØRN URSIN KARLSEN

To Elizabeth

Abstract. Waves in an elastic continuum are mainly of two different types,

longitudinal and transversal waves, which are well documented in various text-
books. In this paper I will look into the possibility that there might be a third
alternative, namely standing waves between oscillating nodes in the form of
singularities in an elastic continuum of infinite extension. First I will show that
a standing wave can form between a hypothetical rigid sphere embedded in
the spatial continuum and the center node, thus establishing that a singularity
may form the one endpoint in such oscillations. Next I will show that if the
spatial continuum initially is agitated to an extent that it contains a plethora of
such oscillating nodes, they will tend to organize along endless strings. Finally
I will try to look into the possibility that there might be a coupling between
the two field components in question, irrotational and solenoidal fields.

1. The Navier-Cauchy Equation

In order to find how scalar waves propagate in the spatial continuum we start
with recalling the Navier-Cauchy equation
(1.1) (λs + 2µs )∇ div u − µs curl curl u + b = ρs ü.

or equivalently by the mathematical identity curl curl u = ∇ div u − ∇2 u

(1.2) µs ∇2 u + (λs + µs )∇ div u + b = ρs ü,
At this point it may be appropriate to stress the point that the Navier-Cauchy
equation only treats the limit where deformations can be considered infinitesimal,
and it must not be mixed up with Navier-Stokes equation, which also incorporates
viscosity and takes into account the hydrodynamic property that v̇ may be different
from ∂v/∂t [i.e. v̇ = ∂v/∂t + (v · ∇)v].
According to Helmholtz’s Theorem any vector field satisfying
[∇ · v]∞ = 0,
[∇ × v]∞ = 0,
(no velocities at infinite distance from considered area) may be written as the sum
of an irrotational part and a solenoidal part,
v = −∇φ + ∇ × A,

Date: 20-08-08.
1
2 BJØRN URSIN KARLSEN

where
Z
∇·v
φ=− 0
d3 r0 ,
V 4π|r − r|
Z
∇×v 3 0
A= 0 − r|
d r,
V 4π|r
(see http://mathworld.wolfram.com/HelmholtzsTheorem.html).
As the spatial continuum is of infinite extension, or nearly so, any deformations
have to be confined to a finite part of space, so this theorem will be applicable on all
deformations. Hence the displacement field can be decomposed into two properties
u = u1 + u2 ,
where
u1 = −∇φ = − grad φ,
u2 = ∇ × Ψ = curl Ψ, div Ψ = 0.
Since curl grad φ ≡ 0, and div curl Ψ ≡ 0, the Navier-Cauchy equation (1.1) can
be divided into two independent equations, one for an irrotational field
ρs b1
(1.3) ∇ div u1 = ü1 − ,
(λs + 2µs ) λs + 2µs
and the other for a solenoidal field
ρs b2
(1.4) − curl curl u2 = ü2 − .
µs µs
By defining two new constants
s r
λs + 2µs µs
(1.5) c1 = , c2 = ,
ρs ρs
the N-C equation takes the form
b
(1.6) c12 ∇ div u − c22 curl curl u +
= ü.
ρs
Operating on Equation (1.1) with the div operator and on Equation (1.2) with
the curl operator yields respectively
1 ∂ 2 ( div u) div b
(1.7) ∇2 ( div u) − 2 2
=− ,
c1 ∂t λs + 2µs

1 ∂ 2 ( curl u) curl b
(1.8) ∇2 ( curl u) − =− .
c22 ∂t2 µs
With the outer force, b, set to zero we have two wave equations where the dilatation,
div u, satisfies a wave moving with the speed c1 , while the rotational component
curl u, satisfies a wave moving with the speed c2 . In fact the Propagation theorem
for isotropic bodies states that if a body is isotropic, then a wave is either longitu-
dinal, in which case c = c1 , or transversal, in which case c = c2 [1, page 256]. This
splitting of the Navier-Cauchy equation into one irrotational and one solenoidal
part, allows us to examine these two parts separately and thereby simplifies the
strain-stress relation immensely by reducing the elastic constants to only one single
constant (the wave speed) in each equation (c1 6= c2 ). We see from Equation (1.5)
that the two wave speeds are related to each other with a fixed constant given by
 3

p
the relation c1 = 2 + λs /µs · c2 , where c1 might be about the double of c2 (also
dubbed c without the index in the text to follow). Notice also that all information
of curl u is lost in Equation (1.7) and all information of div u in Equation (1.8).
The energy in a deformation field with no surface trajectories is given by Kelvin’s
theorem [1, page 208]:
Z h i
1 2 1 2 1 2
(1.9) E= 2 ρs u̇ + 2 (λs + 2µ)(div u) + 2 µ(curl u) dv.
B

The theorem states that to a curl u, a div u, and a velocity field u̇ there always
corresponds an energy equal to E, but it does not tell exactly where in the field
the energy is to be found. With this restriction in mind, the local energy density,
e, in a spatial continuum of infinite extension can all the same be define as1
(1.10) e= 1
2 ρs u̇2 + 1
2 (λs + 2µs )( div u)2 + 1
2 µs ( curl u)2 .

2. Scalar longitudinal waves in the spatial continuum

By setting φ = div u in Equation (1.7) and consider a field without any outer
forces, we get the wave equation
1 ∂2φ
(2.1) ∇2 φ = ,
c12 ∂t2
or the even simpler wave equation for plane, longitudinal waves
∂2φ 1 ∂2φ
(2.2) = .
∂x2 c12 ∂t2
It can be solved in several ways, but here I will apply d’Alembert’s solution. Let
ξ ≡ c1 t − x
η ≡ c1 t + x.
Since x = f1 (ξ, η) and t = f2 (ξ, η) we have by the chain rule
∂ ∂ ∂ξ ∂ ∂η ∂ ∂
= · + · =− + ,
∂x ∂ξ ∂x ∂η ∂x ∂ξ ∂η
∂ ∂ ∂ξ ∂ ∂η ∂ ∂
= · + · = c1 + c1 .
∂t ∂ξ ∂t ∂η ∂t ∂ξ ∂η
By applying these operators on Equation (2.2) it reduces to
∂2φ
= 0.
∂ξ∂η
This partial differential equation can be integrated in two steps, and the general
solution is
φ = f (ξ) + g(η) or φ = f (c1 t − x) + g(c1 t + x).
The two functions f (c1 t − x) and g(c1 t + x) represent by a certain time t = t0
a disturbance, or wave-formation, which when it first is started, propagates with
velocity c1 in the x-axis’s positive or negative direction respectively.

1The corresponding expression for the energy density in an electromagnetic field has the same
limitation, but nonetheless it is usually interpreted as the local energy density.
4 BJØRN URSIN KARLSEN

In order to find how spherical waves propagate from a disturbance center, I will
write Equation (2.1) in polar coordinates φ = φ(r, v, w):
1 ∂ ³ 2 ∂φ ´ 1 ∂2φ 1 ∂ ³ ∂φ ´
r + + sin w
r2 ∂r ∂r r2 sin2 w ∂v 2 r2 sin w ∂w ∂w
2
1 ∂ φ
= 2 2.
c1 ∂t
In this connection I will only consider the spherical symmetric case so ∂φ/∂v =
∂φ/∂w = 0, and we acquire
1 ∂ ³ 2 ∂φ ´ 1 ∂2φ
r = ,
r2 ∂r ∂r c12 ∂t2
which by the substitution φ = ψ/r goes over in the simpler
∂2ψ 1 ∂2ψ
= .
∂r2 c12 ∂t2
This equation is formally equivalent to Equation (2.2) and has a solution corre-
sponding to what is the case for plane waves:
ψ = f (c1 t − r) + g(c1 t + r).
Hence the general expression for a spherical wave spreading from a given wave-
center is given by
f (c1 t − r)
(2.3) div u = .
r
The other solution is for a spherical wave converging towards a focal point in space:
g(c1 t + r)
(2.4) div u = .
r

3. Irrotational standing waves

In this section I will investigate if standing waves can occur between hypothetical
concentric rigid shells embedded in the spatial continuum, especially in order to see
if standing waves can form between the inside of a spherical shell and the center
node. I perform the thought experiment that imbedded in the spatial continuum is
a hypothetical rigid, undeformable sphere inside which there might be a standing
compression wave bouncing back and forth between the center and the firm shell.
In order to see if such a standing wave is possible, I will set up the Navier-Cauchy
equation and try to solve it with these border conditions. I must, however emphasis
that the N-C equation only is valid for small deformations, in fact only when the
deformations are infinitesimal. When the deformations are significant, we have got
to bring in the full power of the Navier-Stokes equation. The main difference from
the N-C equation is that the time derivative has got to be modified to2
d ∂
(3.1) (·) = (·) + (v · ∇)(·),
dt ∂t
e.g. ü = ∂ u̇/∂t + (u̇∇)u̇. Hence the result may at best be suggestive.

2The N-S equation a also incorporates viscosity, which is not present in the spatial continuum.
 5

First we write the Navier-Cauchy equation for an irrotational field with no ex-
ternal forces (Eq. 1.3):
1
grad div u = 2 ü,
c1
where c1 is the speed of longitudinal waves, and then let us consider a central
symmetric deformation where u = f (r)r̂. From the identities
f
(3.2) div (fr̂) = 2 + f 0,
r
and
(3.3) grad f = f 0 r̂,
we obtain the identity
¡ 2f 0 2f ¢
(3.4) grad div f = f 00 + − 2 r̂.
r r
With these properties inserted, the N-C equation takes the form
¡ 00 u0 u¢ ü
(3.5) u + 2 − 2 2 r̂ = 2 r̂.
r r c1
By the product method, u(r, t) = F (r) · G(t) · r̂, we have
2 2 1
F 00 G + F 0 G − 2 F G = 2 F G̈,
r r c1
F 00 2 F0 2 1 G̈
+ − 2 = 2 .
F r F r c1 G
Since the left and right side of this expression only depend on the arguments r and
t respectively, they can both be set to the same constant −p2 , and hence they can
be separated into the two equations:
2 (−2 + p2 r2 )
(3.6) F 00 + F 0 + F =0
r r2
(3.7) G̈ + c21 p2 G = 0
Equation (3.7) has the general solution
(3.8) G(t) = C1 sin(c1 pt) − C1 cos(c1 pt).
Equation (3.6) may be solved by the Frobenius method (see e.g. [2, Sec. 4.4]):
Any differential equation of the form
b(x) 0 c(x)
y 00 + y + 2 y=0
x x
where the functions b(x) and c(x) are analytic at x=0, has at least one solution that
can be represented in the form
(3.9) y(x) = xr (a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · )
where the exponent r may be any (real or complex) number (and r is chosen so that
a0 6= 0).
The equation also has a second solution (such that these two solutions are lin-
early independent) that may be similar to (3.9) (with a different r and different
coefficients) or may contain a logarithmic term.
6 BJØRN URSIN KARLSEN

Temporary replacing r with x and F with y in Equation (3.6) yields

2 0 −2 + p2 x2
(3.10) y 00 +
y + y = 0.
x x2
This equation has at least one solution of the form
∞
X ∞
X
y(x) = xr am x m = am rm+r .
m=0 m=0

The first and second derivative becomes

∞
X
y 0 (x) = am (m + r)xm+r−1 ,
m=0

∞
X
y 00 (x) = am (m + r)(m + r − 1)xm+r−2 .
m=0

We expand b(x) and c(x) in power series with coefficients

b0 = 2, b1,2,··· = 0, c0 = −2, c1 = 0, c2 = p2 , c3,4,··· = 0.
The indicial equation r(r − 1) + b0 r + c0 = 0 takes the form
r(r − 1) + 2r − 2 = 0
(3.11) r1 = 1, r2 = −2.
Here we have a case 3 situation (roots differing by an integer, r1 − r2 = 3). We
also note that r1 − r2 > 0 so we have the two solutions
(3.12) y1 (x) = xr1 (a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · ),
(3.13) y2 (x) = ky1 (x) ln x + xr2 (A0 + A1 x + A2 x2 + · · · ),
where k may or may not be equal to zero.
The solution and derivatives inserted into the original equation
∞
X
x2 am (m + r)(m + r − 1)xm+r−2
m=0
∞
X
+ 2x am (m + r)xm+r−1
m=0
∞
X ∞
X
m+r 2 2
−2 am x +p x am xm+r = 0.
m=0 m=0

From the indicial equation (3.11) we choose r = 1 and collect the parts with the
same power of x
as (s + 1)sxs+1 + 2as (s + 1)xs+1 − 2as xs+1
+ p2 as−2 xs+1 = 0,
as (s2 + s + 2s + 2 − 2) + as−2 p2 = 0,
as · s(s + 3) = −as−2 p2 ,
−p2
as = as−2 ,
s(s + 3)
 7

and develop the even coefficients of an

a0 · 0(0 + 3) = 0,
a0 = a,
(−p2 ) (−p2 )
a2 = a0 =a ,
2·5 2·5
(−p2 ) (−p2 )2
a4 = a2 =a ,
4·7 2·5·4·7
(−p2 ) (−p2 )3
a6 = a4 =a ,
6·9 2·5·4·7·6·9
·····················
m 3 · (m + 2)
am = a(−1) 2 · pm ,
(m + 3)!
m
h 3 3 i
= a(−1) 2 · pm − , m = 0, 2, 4, 6, · · · ,
(m + 2)! (m + 3)!
h 3 3 i
(3.14) a2n = a(−1)n p2n − , n = 0, 1, 2, 3, · · · .
(2n + 2)! (2n + 3)!
The odd coefficients of an are all zero:
a1 · 1(1 + 3) = 0,
a1 = 0,
(−p2 )
a3 = a1 = 0,
3·6
a5 = a7 = a9 = · · · = 0.

According to (3.12) the first solution is:

∞
X
y1 =xr1 a2n x2n
n=0
∞
X h 3 3 i
=x a0 (−1)n p2n − x2n
n=0
(2n + 2)! (2n + 3)!
³x p2 x3 p4 x5 x p2 x3 p4 x5 ´
=3a0 − + − ··· − + − + ···
2! 4! 6! 3! 5! 7!
3a0 h ³ (px)2 (px)4 (px)6 ´i
= 2 1− 1− + − + ···
p x 2! 4! 6!
3a0 h ³ (px)3 (px)5 (px)7 ´i
− px + px − + − + · · · ,
p3 x2 3! 5! 7!
3a0 3a0
(3.15) y1 = 3 2 sin (px) − 2 cos (px).
p x p x
There may be another solution (3.13) of the form

y2 = ky1 ln(x) + (A0 + A1 x + A2 x2 + · · · ),

where k might or might not be zero. First I try the solution where k is set to zero.
From the indicial Equation (3.11) we choose r2 = −2 and collect the parts with the
8 BJØRN URSIN KARLSEN

same power of x.

Am (m − 2)(m − 3)xm−2 + 2Am (m − 2)xm−2

− 2Am xm−2 + p2 Am xm = 0,
As [(s − 2)(s − 3) + 2(s − 2) − 2] = −p2 As−2 ,
(3.16) As (s − 3)s = −p2 As−2 ,
−p2
As = As−2 , (s 6= 0, 3),
s(s − 3)

and develop the coefficients of An

A0 (0 − 3)0 = 0,
A0 = A0 ,
(−p2 )
A2 = −A0 ,
2·1
2
−p (−p2 )2
A4 = −A2 = A0 ,
4·1 1·2·4
−p2 (−p2 )3
A6 = −A4 = A0 ,
3·6 1·2·3·4·6
······
n
n p (n − 1)
An = −A0 (−1) 2 , n = 0, 2, 4, · · · ,
n!
n
h pn pn i
An = A0 (−1) 2 − , n = 2, 4, 6, · · · ,
n! (n − 1)!
h p2s p2s i
A2s = A0 (−1)s − , s = 1, 2, 3, · · · .
(2s)! (2s − 1)!

We see from (3.16) that A1 = 0, but that A3 may still be 6= 0. We get the odd
coefficients of An :

A1 (1 − 3)1 = 0,
A1 = 0,
A3 (3 − 3)3 = A1 (−p2 ) = 0,
A3 = A3 ,
(−p2 )
A5 = A3 ,
5·2
(−p2 ) (−p2 )2
A7 = A5 = A3 ,
7·4 2·4·5·7
······
n−3 pn−3 · 3 · (n − 1)
An = A3 (−1) 2 · , n = 3, 5, 7, · · · ,
n!
h p2s p2s i
A2s+3 = 3A3 (−1)s − , s = 0, 1, 2, · · · .
(2s + 2)! (2s + 3)!
 9

We first seek the partial solution of (3.13) with the odd coefficients of An set to
zero:

h X∞ ³ p2s p2s ´ 2s i
y21 = x−2 A0 + A0 (−1)s − x
s=1
(2s)! (2s − 1)!
³ (px)2 (px)4 (px)6 ´
= A0 x−2 1 − + − + ···
2! 4! 6!
³ (px)1 (px) 3
(px) 5 ´
+ A0 px−1 − + − ··· ,
1! 3! 5!
A0 p A0
y 21 = sin(px) + 2 cos(px).
x x

Next we seek the partial solution of (3.13) with the even coefficients of An set to
zero:
∞
X
y22 =x−2 A2s+3 x2s+3
s=0
∞
X h 1 1 i
=x−2 3A3 (−1)s p2s − x2s+3
s=0
(2s + 2)! (2s + 3)!
³x p2 x3 p4 x5
=3A3 − + − ···
2! 4! 6!
x p2 x3 p4 x5 ´
··· − + − + ···
3! 5! 7!
3A3 h ³ (px)2 (px)4 (px)6 ´i
= 2 1− 1− + − + ···
p x 2! 4! 6!
3A3 h ³ (px)3 (px)5 (px)7 ´i
− px + px − + − + · · · ,
p3 x2 3! 5! 7!
3A3 3A3
y 22 = 3 2 sin (px) − 2 cos (px).
p x p x

We notice that the partial solution y22 is identical to the partial solution y1 , hence
the complete solution has got to be of the form

y = ky1 ln x + y21 + y22 .

We can test this equation in order to see if k 6= 0.

y = [y1 ] · k ln x + [y21 + y22 ]

1
y 0 = [y10 ] · k ln x + y1 + [y20 1 + y20 2 ]
x
2y 0 1
y 00 = [y100 ] · k ln x + 1 − y1 2 + [y2001 + y2002 ].
x x

We already know that the expressions in square brackets are partial solutions to
Equation (3.6) and zeroes out, hence it only remains to see if the rest of the terms
10 BJØRN URSIN KARLSEN

may be another partial solution with k 6= 0 or if k has got to be zero. We have

2 1 1
x2 (y10 − y1 2 ) + 2x(y1 )
x x x
=2xy10 − y1 + 2y1
=2xy10 + y1
2a 2a ap
=2x[− 3 sin(px) + 2 cos(px) + sin(px)]
px x x
a a
+ 2 sin(px) − cos(px)
px x
3a 3a
= cos(px) − 2 sin (px) + 2ap sin(px).
x px
This expression cannot be zero for any range of r, so k has got to be zero, and the
solution of the differential equation is given by
1h 3A3 i
y = A0 p sin(px) − 2 cos(px)
x p
1 h 3A3 i
+ 2 sin(px) + A 0 cos(px) ,
x p3
and by reentering F = y and r = x we finally acquire the solution of Equation
(3.6):
1h 3A3 i
(3.17) F = A0 p sin(pr) − 2 cos(pr)
r p
1 h 3A3 i
+ 2 sin(pr) + A 0 cos(pr) .
r p3
By (3.8) and (3.17) the displacement vector, u(r, t) = F G · r̂, becomes
(3.18) u(r, t) =[C1 sin(c1 pt) − C2 cos(c1 pt)]
n1h 3A3 i
· A0 p sin(pr) − 2 cos(pr)
r p
1 h 3A3 io
+ 2 sin(pr) + A 0 cos(pr) r̂.
r p3
Equation (3.18) is the complete solution for concentric waves in the spatial contin-
uum. By a suitable choice of constants we can investigate how standing waves may
occur between imaginary fixed spheres in the spatial continuum, but more impor-
tant, we can see if a standing wave may occur between the inside of a fixed sphere
and the center node. There might be a possibility as we can see from the graph
in Figure 1. A0 has got to be zero (else |u| would raise beyond any limits when
r approaches zero), the radius of the sphere is given by the choice of p, and A3
dictates the amplitude of the standing wave. Under these conditions there might
be established a standing wave between r → 0 and r = R1 , which is oscillating with
a frequency, f , given by c1 p = 2πf hence
c1 p 2πf
(3.19) f= , and p = .
2π c1
The displacement function u(r) approaches zero as r → 0 and r = Rn , which is
the necessary condition that there might be a standing wave between these two
 11

div u

u
A>0

A=0
0

A<0

r
0 R1

Figure 1. Standing wave between the inside of a rigid shell with

radius R1 and the center node.

borders. This situation is covered by the expression

h sin(pr) cos(pr) i
(3.20) u(r, t) = A cos(c1 pt) · − r̂
p3 r 2 p2 r
when C1 and A0 are set to zero, and A = −3A3 C2 .
In order to find the radii of the possible spheres, we set u(r, t) = 0 which gives

(3.21) tan(pRn ) = pRn ,

where Rn are possible radii of the firm shell. There is a solution for every tan(pRn ) =
pRn , and we also notice that the first radius to be considered is when pR1 ≈ 4.49341
radians.
By deriving Equation (3.20) one and two times with respect on t we acquire the
velocity and acceleration fields
h sin(pr) cos(pr) i
(3.22) u̇(r, t) = −Ac1 sin(c1 pt) · − r̂,
p2 r 2 pr
and
h sin(pr) cos(pr) i
(3.23) ü(r, t) = −Ac1 2 cos(c1 pt) · − r̂.
pr2 r
12 BJØRN URSIN KARLSEN

In order to see that u, u̇, and ü really approach zero when r → 0, we can apply
l’Hôpital’s rule:
sin(pr) − pr cos(pr) [sin(pr) − pr cos(pr)]0
lim = lim
r→0 (pr)2 r→0 [(pr)2 ]0
1
(3.24) = lim sin(pr) = 0.
r→0 2

By applying the identity, div (f (r)r̂) = 2f (r)/r + f 0 (r), on Equation (3.20), we

acquire
2u ∂u
div u = +
r ∂r
h 2 sin(pr)
2 cos(pr)
= A cos(c1 pt) −
p3 r 3 p2 r2
2 sin(pr) cos(pr) cos(pr) p sin(pr) i
− + 2 2 + 2 2 +
p3 r3 p r p r p2 r
sin(pr)
(3.25) div u = A cos(c1 pt) ,
pr
and by the identity, grad (f (r)) = f 0 (r)r̂
h sin(pr) cos(pr) i
(3.26) grad div u = −A cos(c1 pt) − r̂.
pr2 r
It is noteworthy that even if the node itself is a mathematical singularity such that
r 6= 0, the limit of both the displacement u and the divergence of u have finite
limits when r is approaching zero3.
We easily verify from Equation (3.26) and (3.23) that the N-C equation for a
solenoidal field (1.3) is satisfied.
The amplitude of the displacement from inside a sphere of radius r = π/p where
div u is positive is given by
Z π/p
sin(pr)
D= A 4πr2 dr
0 pr
4πA h sin(pr) r cos(pr) iπ/p
= −
p p2 p 0
2
4π A
(3.27) = .
p3
This thought experiment shows that standing waves may be established between
a single node and a fixed concentric shell, but it also suggests that individual points
in space may be nodes in a more complicated system of standing waves.

4. Solenoidal standing waves

The Navier-Cauchy equation for solenoidal deformations is
1
(4.1) curl curl u = − ü.
c2

3Note that lim sin(x)

x→0 x
= 1.
 13

Solving this equation for a deformation around a singularity may be a bit tricky,
so first I will try to guess a solution of the form:
(4.2) u(r, t) = g(r, t)(m̂ × r̂),
where m̂ is a fixed direction in space.
By the identities curl (φA) = φ curl A+ grad φ×A, curl (c×r) = 2c, curl r = 0,
grad (cr) = c, and A × (B × C) = (AC)B − (AB)C where c is a constant vector,
r a radius vector, and φ a scalar field, we develop
g
curl [g(m̂ × r̂)] = curl [ (m̂ × r)]
r
g g
= curl (m̂ × r) + grad × (m̂ × r)
r r
2g g0 g
= m̂ + ( − 2 )r̂ × (m̂ × r)
r r r
2g g
= m̂ + (g 0 − )[(r̂ · r̂)m̂ − (r̂ · m̂)r̂
r r
¡g ¢ ¡ g0 g¢
= + g 0 m̂ − − 2 (r · m̂)r̂,
r r r
and further
g g
curl curl [g(m̂ × r̂)] =( + g 0 ) curl m̂ + grad ( + g 0 ) × m̂
r r
¡ g0 g¢ ¡ g0 g¢
− − 2 (r · m̂) curl r̂ − grad [ − 2 (r · m̂)] × r̂
r r r r
g0 g 00
¡ g0 g ¢0
=( − 2 + g )(r̂ × m̂) − − 2 r̂(r · m̂)] × r̂
r r r r
¡ g0 g¢
− − 2 grad (r · m̂) × r̂
r r
g0 g ¡ g0 g¢
=( − 2 + g 00 )(r̂ × m̂) − − 2 (m̂ × r̂)
r r r r
2g 0 2g
=(g 00 + − 2 )(r̂ × m̂).
r r
With these terms inserted into Equation (4.1) we acquire
2g 0 2g 1
(4.3) (g 00 + − 2 )(r̂ × m̂) = 2 g̈(r̂ × m̂),
r r c
or the scalar differential equation
2g 0 2g 1
(4.4) g 00 + − 2 = 2 g̈,
r r c
which is exactly like Equation (3.5) except for the value of c, and it gives the same
solution, hence
h sin(qr) cos(qr) i
(4.5) u = M cos(cqt) − (r̂ × m̂),
q3 r2 q2 r
By deriving Equation (4.5) one and two times with respect on t we acquire the
velocity and acceleration fields
h sin(qr) cos(qr) i
(4.6) u̇ = −M c sin(cqt) · − (m̂ × r̂), ,
q 2 r2 qr
14 BJØRN URSIN KARLSEN

and
h sin(qr) cos(qr) i
(4.7) ü = −M c2 cos(cpt) · − (m̂ × r̂)..
qr2 r
It follows from the above equations and some straightforward work that
h sin(qr) cos(qr) i
(4.8) curl curl u =M cos(cqt) − (m̂ × r̂),
qr2 r
which together with Equation (4.7) inserted into the Navier-Cauchy equation con-
firms that Equation (4.5) is a solution. We notice that the irrotational and solenoidal
components of u are orthogonal to each other as expected.
It might be of interest to see how curl u behave when r approaches zero. By
applying l’Hôpital’s rule we find in a straight forward way that
(4.9) lim curl u = 32 M cos(cqt)m̂.
r→0

This interesting result confirms that curl u - and hence also curl u̇ - has a finite
value in the vicinity of an oscillating singularity.

5. Standing waves between singularities

In the preceding section I discussed the possibility that there might be a standing
wave between a node and a concentric firm shell. The most important result was
that a singularity may form the one endpoint in a standing wave. An imaginary
firm shell is of course not realizable in a spatial continuum of infinite extension, but
singularities are indeed possible entities. The question therefore naturally arises if
standing waves can still be formed in the spatial continuum without the participa-
tion of any firm shells.
By the identity
(5.1) sin x cos y = 12 [sin(x + y) + sin(x − y)],
Equation (3.25) can be rewritten into:
A
div u = cos(c1 pt) sin(pr)
pr
A £ ¤
(5.2) = sin(pr + c1 pt) + sin(pr − c1 pt) ,
2pr
which can be interpreted as the sum of two spherical waves bouncing back and forth
in opposite directions between the firm shell and the center node. The two waves
can be said to be reflected successively from the firm shell and the singularity at the
center. We realize that standing waves can be treated as the superposition of two
or more progressive free waves. This makes the mathematics simpler, and we can
investigate more complex systems of standing waves. In this case the waves move
with the speed, c1 . The frequency is f = c1 p/2π, and the wavelength is λ = 2π/p.
Next let us have a look at the energy which is involved in the standing wave
between the center node and the shell. At the time t = 0 the whole energy is in
the div u-field because the u̇-field equals zero all over the considered volume. By
Equation (1.10) the energy inside a thin shell at the distance r from the center is
λ + 2µ
de = ( div u)2 · 4πr2 dr,
2
 15

Figure 2. Considering a point in spherical coordinates

and inside a shell with radius Rn

Z
2π(λ + 2µ)A2 Rn 2
ERn = sin (pr)dr
p2 0
2π(λ + 2µ)A2 h Rn sin(2pRn ) i
= 2
− .
p 2 4p

We notice that the total energy inside the sphere approaches infinity when Rn
grows without any limit. Hence a single oscillating node cannot exist in the spatial
continuum.
Let us, however, make a new thought experiment. Inside a sphere with a great
radius and many wavelengths of standing waves, there are two oscillating nodes
oppositely placed at a short distance, z1 = +d and z2 = −d, from the center, and
let the the two nodes oscillate in opposite phase with each other (see Figure 2).
Then by adjusting Rn a little, it should be possible to let two progressive waves
move from one node via the firm shell and encounter the other node in tune with
the oscillation of that node, where it is reflected. We then would have a system of
two separate waves bouncing back and forth between the two nodes via the firm
shell. The superposition of the free waves would form a standing wave, and the
problem is now to find the total energy in the new system. If it is finite and the
energy is kept in the surrounding of the singularities, it may indicate that we could
get rid of the reflecting shell and end up with a pure oscillating dipole.
First I will only consider the energy in a volume element dV at a distance r from
the center that is great in comparison with the distance 2d between the nodes. Then
the angle between the axis through the two nodes and the direction towards the
volume element can be considered to be the same, namely φ, from both nodes and
the center point. The divergence in the volume element at P is the superposition
16 BJØRN URSIN KARLSEN

of the divergence from the two nodes at the time t = 0

h sin p(r + d cos φ) sin p(r − d cos φ) i
div u = A −
p(r + d cos φ) p(r − d cos φ)
A£ ¤
≈ sin(pr + pd cos φ) − sin(pr − pd cos φ)
pr
A
= cos(pr) · sin(pd cos φ).
pr

The energy in a zone between Rm À d and Rn when n À m in the two half

spheres is
ZZZ
λs + 2µs
E= ( div u)2 dV
2
Z Z Z
λs + 2µs Rn π π A2 n o
=2 2 2
cos2 (pr) · sin2 (pd cos φ)r2 sin φ dφ dθ dr
2 Rm 0 0 p r
2 Z Rn Z π Z π
(λs + 2µs )A 2 2
= cos (pr)dr · sin (pd cos φ) sin φ dφ dθ
p2 Rm 0 0
Z ¯ cos φ sin(pd cos φ) cos(pd cos φ) ¯π ¯ ¯π
(λs + 2µs )A2 Rn ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
= 2
cos2 (pr)dr¯ − + ¯ ¯θ ¯
p Rm 2 2pd 0 0
2h i Z Rn
π(λs + 2µs )A sin(2pd)
E= 2
1− cos2 (pr)dr.
p 2pd Rm

The property sin(2pd)/2pd has a maximum value of unity when 2dp approaches zero,
hence the total energy has no upper bounds except when either d or p approaches
zero. Hence we can conclude that a single isolated dipole cannot exist because it
would take an unlimited amount of energy to keep it up. Notice by the way that E
is vanishing in the equatorial direction from the origin and increases when φ shrinks
towards zero (i.e. it has its maximum value in the z-direction).
The next possibility I will examine is whether a chain of oscillating nodes may
exist. So let an infinite chain of oscillating nodes with the same strength be orga-
nized along a straight line separated with a distance d and organized such that one
node always oscillate in opposite phase with its two adjacent nodes. Hence the next
node that oscillates in the same phase is at a distance λ1 = 2d. The divergence in
a point P at a distance r from the chain and an offset z along the chain from node
#0, is given by the superposition of the effects from all the nodes in the chain
¯ ¡ p ¢¯
X∞ ¯ 2 2 ¯
n ¯ sin p r + (nd − z) ¯
div u = A cos(c1 pt) (−1) ¯ p ¯.
¯ p r2 + (nd − z)2 ¯
n=−∞

Let pd = π, and 0 < z < d, then we acquire

c1
div u =A cos(2π t)
2d ¯ ¯
X∞ ¯ sin ¡p( πr )2 + (πn − πz )2 ¢ ¯
¯ ¯
· (−1)n ¯ p πrd 2 d
πz 2 ¯.
n=−∞
¯ ( d ) + (πn − d ) ¯
 17

This formula should be valid for all of space, but let us see what div u amounts to
strictly along the chain axis where r = 0.
X∞ ¯ πz ¯¯
c1 ¯
n ¯ sin(πn − d ) ¯
div u = A cos(2π t) (−1) ¯ ¯
2d n=−∞ πn − πz
d

X∞ ¯ πz ¯
c1 ¯
n ¯ sin(− d )(−1) ¯
n¯
= A cos(2π t) (−1) ¯ ¯
2d n=−∞ πn − πzd

c1 ¯¯ ¡ πz ¢¯¯ X
∞
(−1)n
= A cos(2π t)¯ sin ¯ ,
d d n=−∞ |nπ − zπ
d |

which is a alternating harmonic series that can be shown to be convergent.

As stated above, the result is only valid strictly along the chain axis, but a simple
consideration shows that the result is valid also when P is outside the axis. First
take the sum when −m < n < m. It is of course finite. Then let m be so great that
md À r. Then we can set r = 0 for the rest of the series, and the reminder will
also be finite making the whole series finite. Even when r grows beyond all limits,
the effect from one node will be canceled out by the effect from its neighbor nodes.
This proves that a string of oscillating nodes may have a finite energy per unit
length. Say that an extreme situation in the spatial continuum, with release of
an enormous amount of energy, initiated a boiling phase where nodes of the type
described above where formed. Then the nodes would have got to organize in a way
that required the least amount of energy, i.e. along strings. Hence if oscillating
nodes at all can be present in the spatial continuum, they will tend to organize along
strings.
The important result, that standing waves may form between nodes in long
strings, opens for the possibility that space can be filled with a plethora of faint
oscillating nodes that organize and reorganize along strings - not necessarily formed
as straight lines - in an ever changing pattern.

6. Chains of irrotational and solenoidal oscillating nodes

Since div u has a finite value at every point in space, we could express it as a
function of type
c1 πz
div u = A(r, z) cos(2π t) sin( ),
2d d
where A(r, z) is the amplitude at the point P . The oscillatory frequency is
c1
(6.1) f1 = .
2d
By the identity, cos a sin b = 1/2 sin(a + b) − 1/2 sin(a − b), we can decompose the
function above into
1 n £π ¤ £π ¤o
div u = A(r, z) sin (c1 t + z) − sin (c1 t − z) ,
2 d d
which can be interpreted as the superposition of two waves moving in opposite
directions along the chain of nodes with velocity c1 .
In much the same way as considered above, it should even be possible to assume
a solenoidal standing wave in another chain of nodes that is given by a function of
18 BJØRN URSIN KARLSEN

the type
1 n £ 2π ¤ £ 2π ¤o
curl u = A(r, θ, z) sin (ct + z) − sin (ct − z) .
2 d d
The main difference between these two set of waves, is that the latter moves with
the velocity c, which is probably about half of the velocity c1 , and the frequency
c
(6.2) f2 = .
2d
Both sets of deformation fields can, however, be expressed as two progressive waves
moving in opposite directions in space, and the resultant of these waves are standing
waves along separate strings in space.
So far all the deductions are done on the basis of the Navier-Cauchy equation, but
in the N-C representation there is no coupling between the two types of oscillations.
Hence a chain with both types of oscillation represented in the same set of nodes is
not feasible in the N-C representation, but that doesn’t mean that a more thorough
examination rules out this possibility.

7. The Navier-Stokes equation and Coupled oscillations

In this section I will discuss the possibility that the two basic types of oscillation
can occur in the same set of nodes. In the Navier-Cauchy representation the two
wave equations are independent of each other and cannot interact, but not so in
the Navier-Stokes representation of a continuous medium. Disregarding viscosity
and the influence of any outer forces, the N-S equation takes the form
h ∂ u̇ i
(λs + 2µs ) grad div u − µs curl curl u = ρs + (u̇ · ∇)u̇ ,
∂t
or by the identity, grad (A · A) = 2[A × curl A + (A · ∇)A]:
h ∂ u̇ 1 i
(λs + 2µs ) grad div u − µs curl curl u = ρs + grad u̇2 − u̇ × curl u̇
∂t 2
where the additional term is the directional derivative of u̇ with respect on t along
the tangent vector to the velocity field. We now turn back to the central case with
standing waves bouncing back and forth between a center node and an imaginary
firm concentric sphere. The displacement vector u can as seen earlier be split into
a radial component u1 = f (r, t)r̂ and a tangential component u2 = g(r, t)(m̂ × r̂),
which are orthogonal to each other. We see that the equation no longer can be split
into two independent equations. We have at our hands two different oscillation
systems which have a mutual coupling between them. I think that the Navier-
Stokes equation is too complicated to be solved by conventional methods, so instead
of solving the equation, I will try to figure out what the new terms will do to the
partial solutions of the Navier-Cauchy equation.
Let us first single out the term ρ(u̇ × curl u̇) and see what impact it may have on
the oscillatory system. The effect is only significant with relatively great deforma-
tions in the near vicinity of the node. Here the N-S equation takes the form (note
that u̇1 ⊥ u̇2 , div u2 = 0, curl u1 = 0):
(λ + 2µ) grad div u1 − µ curl curl u2
¡ ∂ u̇1 ∂ u̇2 1 1 ¢
=ρ + + grad u̇12 + grad u̇22 − u̇1 × curl u̇2 − u̇2 × curl u̇2 .
∂t ∂t 2 2
 19

The terms in this formula are representing different components of force. If we

multiply them with the velocity at a site, we get the power, or energy transfer per
units of time and volume, that are transferred between the different fields. For
example the formula
∂ u̇1
u̇1 · (λ + 2µ) grad div u1 = u̇1 · ρ ,
∂t
represent the energy transferred between the local potential and kinetic energies
in an irrotational oscillation per time unit at a given moment. If both sides are
negative, the energy transfer is from potential to kinetic energy, and if they are
positive, the energy transfer is from kinetic to potential energy. By the way, this
component of the oscillation is between compression and rarefaction and will not
result in any net displacement of spatial mass.
Now let us multiply the N-S equation with the velocity u̇ = u̇1 + u̇2 , and neglect
all terms that are orthogonal to each other (note that the vector product of two
vectors is orthogonal to both of them). We obtain
∂ u̇1 ∂ u̇2
c12 u̇1 · grad div u1 − c22 u̇2 · curl curl u2 = u̇1 · + u̇2 ·
∂t ∂t
1
+ u̇ · grad u̇2 − u̇2 · (u̇1 × curl u̇2 ) − u̇1 · (u̇2 × curl u̇2 ).
2
The two last terms representing components of the power exerted by the two fields
can be set like
w1 = u̇1 · (u̇2 × curl u̇2 ),
w2 = u̇2 · (u̇1 × curl u̇2 ).
We see by the sequence in which the three terms occur that when one of the
properties is positive, then the other is negative and vice versa. Clearly this shows
that there may be an energy transfer back and forth between the irrotational and
the solenoidal field in the vicinity of an oscillating node. Hence the two fields are
coupled and there might be some normal modes of oscillation where the two fields
can oscillate within the same firm shell with a common frequency. The three vectors
u̇1 , u̇2 , and curl u̇2 make up a parallelepiped with volume w1 = w2 . Hence the
energy that is given up from one field is exactly like the energy received by the
other field. It is also implicit that the two velocity fields has got to be a quarter
out of phase with each other such that the maximum displacement coincides with
the maximum rotation. By (3.22) and (4.6) we could end up with two equations of
the form
u̇1 = A1 sin 2πνf (r)r̂
(7.1)
u̇2 = A2 sin (2πν + ψ)f (r)(r̂ × m̂),
where ψ is the phase shift between the two fields. According to the above assump-
tion it might be like π/4.
In Figure (3) I have tried to visualize some possible standard modes of oscillation
which could occur depending of the initial condition. In the left columns the energy
is shifted from displacement to rotation, and in the right columns the energy is
shifted from rotation to displacement. In the upper row the oscillation remains
symmetric, while in the lower row the oscillation becomes asymmetric, meaning that
the inflation (or rarefaction) phase is stronger than the rarefaction (or inflation)
phase, or the right/left orientation is stronger than the corresponding left/right
20 BJØRN URSIN KARLSEN

Rotation enhanced mode Displacement enhanced mode

Asymmetric rotation enhanced mode Asymmetric displacement enhanced mode

Figure 3. Coupled oscillations. The blue solid lines represent the

div u-field and the red solid lines the curl u̇-lines. The smaller
graphs in the middle represent the transfer of movement between
the two main oscillations, and the thick solid lines are the resulting
amplitudes.

orientation. I also suspect that if these modes of oscillation (or something like
them) at all can occur in a string of nodes, the lower ones would curl up along an
interwound line while the two upper ones could occur along a straight line. Well,
so much for speculations.
Finally I will try to estimate what effect the term grad ( 12 ρ u̇2 ) can have on the
displacement of spatial mass. The gradient of the kinetic energy density, 12 ρ u̇2 , can
be taken up by the force (λs + 2µs ) grad div u1 , hence we can set up the equation
ρs
(λs + 2µs ) grad div u = grad u̇2 ,
2
and because u = u1 + u2 , u1 ⊥ u2 , and div u2 = 0 we get
ρs
(λs + 2µs ) grad div u = grad (u̇12 + u̇22 ),
2
and further, since the deformation is zero at infinity, we obtain
ρs
div u = (u̇ 2 + u̇22 ).
2(λs + 2µs ) 1
The displacement D from a volume V is given by
Z
D= div u dV.
V
 21

By Equation (7.1) we acquire the displacement from inside a sphere with radius R
ρs nZ R £ ¤2
D= A1 sin(2πνt)f (r) 4πr2 dr
2(λ + 2µ) 0
Z RZ π o
£ ¤2
+ A2 sin(2πνt + ψ)f (r) sin φ 2πr sin φ r dφ dr
0 0
Z R
ρs £ 2 2 ¤
= A1 sin (2πνt) + 23 A22 sin2 (2πνt + ψ) · f (r)2 4πr2 dr.
2(λ + 2µ) 0
If we set ψ = ±π/2, the two oscillations are shifted one quarter of a period in
relation to each other, and moreover if
(7.2) A12 = 2/3A22
the displacement is independent of time and we get
Z Z R
0 ρs 2
( div u1 )dV = A f (r)2 4πr2 dr,
V 2(λ + 2µ) 1 0
Z
1 ρs 2
= u̇ dV,
(λ + 2µ) V 2 1
or
E0
D= ,
λ + 2µ
where E 0 is the kinetic energy inside the sphere.
In the Navier-Cauchy representation of a string of oscillating node there is no
net displacement of spatial mass from the system - the compression into one node
is like the displacement from another node - but the above equation shows that the
presence of kinetic energy will inevitably lead to a net displacement of spatial mass
from the entire string. The energy component E1 is only a part of the total energy,
E, in the system, so if it should happen to be like one third of the total energy, the
displacement amounts to
E
D= ,
3(λ + 2µ)
which corresponds to the energy-displacement relation that I found in the paper
Elastodynamics in a continuum of infinite extension.

References
1. S. Flűgge (ed.), Mechanics of solids ii, Encyclopedia of Physics, vol. VIa/2, Springer, 1972.
2. Erwin Kreyszig, Advanced engineering mathematics, 8 ed., JOHN WILEY and SONS, INC,
1999.
E-mail address: ukarlsen@online.no