Cubism

Cubism
Cubism is an early-20th-century avant-garde art movement pioneered by Georges Braque and Pablo Picasso, joined by Jean Metzinger, Albert Gleizes, Robert Delaunay, Henri Le Fauconnier, Fernand Lger and Juan Gris[1] that revolutionized European painting and sculpture, and inspired related movements in music, literature and architecture. Cubism has been considered the most influential art movement of the 20th century. The term is broadly used in association with a wide variety of art produced in Paris (Montmartre, Montparnasse and Puteaux) during the 1910s and extending through the 1920s. Variants such as Futurism and Constructivism developed in other countries. A primary influence that led to Cubism was the representation of three-dimensional form in the late works of Paul Czanne, which were displayed in a retrospective at the 1907 Salon d'Automne.[2] In Cubist artwork, objects are analyzed, broken up and reassembled in an abstracted forminstead of depicting objects from one viewpoint, the artist depicts the subject from a multitude of viewpoints to represent the subject in a greater context.[3]

Georges Braque, 1910, Violin and Candlestick, oil on canvas, 60.96 cm x 50.17 cm, San Francisco Museum of Modern Art

Conception and origins

Cubism began between 1907 and 1911. Pablo Picasso's 1907 painting Les Demoiselles d'Avignon has often been considered a proto-Cubist work. Georges Braque's 1908 Houses at LEstaque (and related works) prompted the critic Louis Vauxcelles to refer to bizarreries cubiques (cubic oddities). Gertrude Stein referred to landscapes made by Picasso in 1909, such as Reservoir at Horta de Ebroas, as the first Cubist paintings. The first organized group exhibition by Cubists took place at the Salon des Indpendants in Paris during the spring of 1911 in a room called Salle 41; it included works by Jean Metzinger, Albert Gleizes, Fernand Lger, Robert Delaunay and Henri Le Fauconnier, yet no works by Picasso and Braque were exhibited.[2] By 1911 Picasso was recognized as the inventor of Cubism, while considered to be a major step towards the founding [4] Braques importance and precedence was argued later, with respect to of the Cubist movement his treatment of space, volume and mass in the LEstaque landscapes. But "this view of Cubism is associated with a distinctly restrictive definition of which artists are properly to be called Cubists," wrote the art historian Christopher Green: "Marginalizing the contribution of the artists who exhibited at the Salon des Indpendants in 1911 [...]"[2]
Pablo Picasso, Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, 1907,

Cubism

Historians have divided the history of Cubism into phases. In one scheme, the first phase of Cubism, known as Analytic Cubism, a phrase coined by Juan Gris a posteriori,[5] was both radical and influential as a short but highly significant art movement between 1910 and 1912 in France. A second phase, Synthetic Cubism, remained vital until around 1919, when the Surrealist movement gained popularity. English art historian Douglas Cooper proposed another scheme, describing three phases of Cubism in his book, The Cubist Epoch. According to Cooper there was "Early Cubism", (from 1906 to 1908) when the movement was initially developed in the studios of Picasso and Braque; the second phase being called "High Cubism", (from 1909 to 1914) during which time Juan Gris emerged as an important exponent (after 1911); and finally Cooper referred to "Late Cubism" (from 1914 to 1921) as the last phase of Cubism as a radical avant-garde movement.[6] Douglas Cooper's restrictive use of these terms to distinguish the work of Braque, Picasso, Gris (from 1911) and Lger (to a lesser extent) implied an intentional value judgement.[2]

The assertion that the Cubist depiction of space, mass, time, and volume supports (rather than contradicts) the flatness of the canvas was made by Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler as early as 1920,[7] but it was subject to criticism in the 1950s and 1960s, especially by Clement Greenberg.[8] Contemporary views of Cubism are complex, formed to some extent in response to the "Salle 41" Cubists, whose methods were too distinct from those of Picasso and Braque to be considered merely secondary to them. Alternative interpretations of Cubism have therefore developed. Wider views of Cubism include artists who were later associated with the "Salle 41" artists, e.g., Francis Picabia; the brothers Jacques Villon, Raymond Duchamp-Villon and Marcel Duchamp, who beginning in late 1911 formed the core of the Section d'Or (or the Puteaux Group); the sculptors Alexander Archipenko, Joseph Csaky and Ossip Zadkine as well as Jacques Lipchitz and Henri Laurens; and painters such as Louis Marcoussis, Roger de La Fresnaye, Frantiek Kupka, Diego Rivera, Lopold Survage, Auguste Herbin, Andr Lhote, Gino Severini (after 1916), Mara Blanchard (after 1916) and Georges Valmier (after 1918). More fundamentally, Christopher Green argues that Douglas Cooper's terms were "later undermined by interpretations of the work of Picasso, Braque, Gris and Lger that stress iconographic and ideological questions rather than methods of representation."[2]

Pablo Picasso, 1909-10, Figure dans un Fauteuil (Seated Nude, Femme nue assise), oil on canvas, 92.1 x 73 cm, Tate Modern, London

Technical and stylistic aspects

During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Europeans were discovering African, Micronesian and Native American art. Artists such as Paul Gauguin, Henri Matisse, and Pablo Picasso were intrigued and inspired by the stark power and simplicity of styles of those foreign cultures. Around 1906, Picasso met Matisse through Gertrude Stein, at a time when both artists had recently acquired an interest in primitivism, Iberian sculpture, African art and African tribal masks. They became friendly rivals and competed with each other throughout their careers, perhaps leading to Picasso entering a new period in his work by 1907, marked by the influence of Greek, Iberian and African art. Picasso's paintings of 1907 have been characterized as Protocubism, as notably seen in Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, the antecedent of Cubism.[4]

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3 The art historian Douglas Cooper states that Paul Gauguin and Paul Czanne "were particularly influential to the formation of Cubism and especially important to the paintings of Picasso during 1906 and 1907".[9] Cooper goes on to say: "The Demoiselles is generally referred to as the first Cubist picture. This is an exaggeration, for although it was a major first step towards Cubism it is not yet Cubist. The disruptive, expressionist element in it is even contrary to the spirit of Cubism, which looked at the world in a detached, realistic spirit. Nevertheless, the Demoiselles is the logical picture to take as the starting point for Cubism, because it marks the birth of a new pictorial idiom, because in it Picasso violently overturned established conventions and because all that followed grew out of it."[4]

Paul Czanne, Quarry Bibmus, 1898-1900, Museum Folkwang, Essen, Germany

The most serious objection to regarding the Demoiselles as the origin of Cubism, with its evident influence of primitive art, is that "such deductions are unhistorical", wrote the art historian Daniel Robbins. This familiar explanation "fails to give adequate consideration to the complexities of a flourishing art that existed just before and during the period when Picasso's new painting developed."[10] Between 1905 and 1908, a conscious search for a new style caused rapid changes in art across France, Germany, Holland, Italy, and Russia. The Impressionists had used a double point of view, and both Les Nabis and the Symbolists (who also admired Czanne) flattened the picture plane, reducing their subjects to simple geometric forms. Neo-Impressionist structure and subject matter, most notably to be seen in the works of Georges Seurat (e.g., Parade de Cirque, Le Chahut and Le Cirque), was another important influence. There were also parallels in the development of literature and social thought.[10] In addition to Seurat, the roots of cubism are to be found in the two distinct tendencies of Czanne's later work: first his breaking of the painted surface into small multifaceted areas of paint, thereby emphasizing the plural viewpoint given by binocular vision, and second his interest in the simplification of natural forms into cylinders, spheres, and cones. However, the cubists explored this concept further than Czanne. They represented all the surfaces of depicted objects in a single picture plane, as if the objects had all their faces visible at the same time. This new kind of depiction revolutionized the way objects could be visualized in painting and art.

Cubism

Important historical study of Cubism began in the late 1920s, drawing at first from sources of limited data, namely the opinions of Guillaume Apollinaire. It came to rely heavily on Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler's book Der Weg zum Kubismus (published in 1920), which centered on the development Picasso, Braque, Lger, and Gris. The terms "analytical" and "synthetic" which subsequently emerged have been widely accepted since the mid-1930s. Both terms are historical impositions that occurred after the facts they identify. Neither phase was designated as such at the time corresponding works were created. "If Kahnweiler considers Cubism as Picasso and Braque," wrote Daniel Robbins, "our only fault is in subjecting other Cubists' works to the rigors of that limited definition."[10] The traditional interpretation of "Cubism", formulated post facto as a Jean Metzinger, La Femme au Cheval, Woman means of understanding the works of Braque and Picasso, has affected with a horse, 1911-1912, Statens Museum for our appreciation of other twentieth-century artists. It is difficult to apply Kunst, National Gallery of Denmark. Exhibited to painters such as Jean Metzinger, Albert Gleizes, Robert Delaunay and at the 1912 Salon des Indpendants, and Henri Le Fauconnier, whose fundamental differences from traditional published in Apollinaire's 1913 Les Peintres Cubistes. Provenance: Jacques Nayral, Niels Cubism compelled Kahnweiler to question their right to be called Bohr Cubists at all. According to Daniel Robbins, "To suggest that merely because these artists developed differently or varied from the traditional pattern they deserved to be relegated to a secondary or satellite role in Cubism is a profound mistake."[10] The history of the term "Cubism" usually stresses the fact that Matisse referred to "cubes" in connection with a painting by Braque in 1908, and that the term was published twice by the critic Louis Vauxcelles in a similar context. However, the word "cube" was used in 1906 by another critic, Louis Chassevent, with reference not to Picasso or Braque but rather to Metzinger and Delaunay: "M. Metzinger is a mosaicist like M. Signac but he brings more precision to the cutting of his cubes of color which appear to have been made mechanically [...]".[10][11][12] The critical use of the word "cube" goes back at least to May 1901 when Jean Bral, reviewing the work of Henri-Edmond Cross at the Indpendants in Art et Littrature, commented that he "uses a large and square pointillism, giving the impression of mosaic. One even wonders why the artist has not used cubes of solid matter diversely colored: they would make pretty revetments." (Robert Herbert, 1968, p.221)[12] The term Cubism did not come into general usage until 1911, mainly with reference to Metzinger, Gleizes, Delaunay, and Lger.[10] In 1911, the poet and critic Guillaume Apollinaire accepted the term on behalf of a group of artists invited to exhibit at the Brussels Indpendants. The following year, in preparation for the Salon de la Section d'Or, Metzinger and Gleizes wrote and published 'Du "Cubisme"[13] in an effort to dispel the confusion raging around the word, and as a major defence of Cubism (which had caused a public scandal following the 1911 Salon des Indpendants and the 1912 Salon d'Automne in Paris). Clarifying their aims as artists, this work was the first theoretical treatise on Cubism and it still remains the clearest and most intelligible. The result, not solely a collaboration between its two authors, reflected discussions by the circle of artists who met in Puteaux and Courbevoie. It mirrored the attitudes of the "artists of Passy", which included Picabia and the Duchamp brothers, to whom sections of it were read prior to publication.[2][10] The concept developed in Du "Cubisme" of observing a subject from different points in space and time simultaneously, i.e., the act of moving around an object to seize it from several successive angles fused into a single image ('multiple viewpoints' or 'mobile perspective'), is now a generally recognized phenomenon of the Cubist style.[14] The 1912 manifetso Du "Cubisme" by Metzinger and Gleizes was followed in 1913 by Les Peintres Cubistes, a collection of reflections and commentaries by Guillaume Apollinaire.[15] Apollinaire had been closely involved with Picasso beginning in 1905, and Braque beginning in 1907, but gave as much attention to artists such as Metzinger,

Cubism Gleizes, Delaunay, Picabia, and Duchamp.[2]

Cubism before 1914

There was a distinct difference between Kahnweilers Cubists and the Salon Cubists. Prior to 1914, Picasso, Braque, Gris and Lger (to a lesser extent) gained the support of a single committed art dealer in Paris, Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler, who guaranteed them an annual income for the exclusive right to buy their works. Kahnweiler sold only to a small circle of connoisseurs. His support gave his artists the freedom to experiment in relative privacy. Picasso worked in Montmartre until 1912, while Braque and Gris remained there until after the First World War. Lger was based in Montparnasse.[2] In contrast, the Salon Cubists built their reputation primarily by exhibiting regularly at the Salon d'Automne and the Salon des Indpendants, both major non-academic Salons in Paris. They were inevitably more aware of public response and the need to communicate.[2] Already in 1910 a group began to form which included Metzinger, Gleizes, Delaunay and Lger. They met regularly at Henri le Fauconnier's studio near the Boulevard de Montparnasse. These soires often included writers such as Guillaume Apollinaire and Andr Salmon. Together with other young artists, the group wanted to emphasise a research into form, in opposition to the Neo-Impressionist emphasis on color.[16]

Louis Vauxcelles, in his review of the 26th Salon des Indpendant (1910), made a passing and imprecise reference to Metzinger, Gleizes, Delaunay, Lger and Le Fauconnier as "ignorant geometers, reducing the human body, the site, to pallid cubes."[10] At the 1910 Salon d'Automne, a few months later, Metzinger exhibited his highly fractured Nu la chemine (Nude), which was subsequently reproduced in Les Peintres Cubistes by Apollinaire (1913). The first public controversy generated by Cubism resulted from Salon showings at the Indpendants during the spring of 1911. This showing by Metzinger, Gleizes, Delaunay, le Fauconnier and Lger brought Cubism to the attention of the general public for the first time. Amongst the Cubist works presented, Robert Delaunay exhibited his Eiffel Tower, Tour Eiffel (Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York).[17] At the Salon d'Automne of the same year, in addition to the Indpendants group of Salle 41, were exhibited works by Andr Lhote, Marcel Duchamp, Jacques Villon, Roger de La Fresnaye, Andr Dunoyer de Segonzac and Frantiek Kupka. The subsequent 1912 Salon des Indpendants was marked by the presentation of Marcel Duchamp's Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2, which itself caused a scandal, even amongst the Cubists. It was in fact rejected by the hanging committee, which included his brothers and other Cubists. Although the work was shown in the Salon de la Section d'Or in October 1912 and the 1913 Armory Show in New York, Duchamp never forgave his brothers and former colleagues for censoring his work.[16][18] Juan Gris, a new addition to the Salon scene, exhibited his Portrait of Picasso (Art Institute of Chicago), while Metzinger's two showings included La Femme au Cheval (Woman with a horse) 1911-1912 (Statens Museum for Kunst, National Gallery of Denmark).[19] Delaunay's monumental La Ville de Paris (Muse d'art moderne de la Ville de Paris) and Lger's La Noce, The Wedding (Muse National d'Art

Albert Gleizes, L'Homme au Balcon, Man on a Balcony (Portrait of Dr. Tho Morinaud), 1912, oil on canvas, 195.6 x 114.9 cm (77 x 45 1/4 in.), Philadelphia Museum of Art. Completed the same year that Albert Gleizes co-authored the book Du "Cubisme" with Jean Metzinger. Exhibited at Salon d'Automne, Paris, 1912, Armory show, New York, Chicago, Boston, 1913

Cubism Moderne, Paris) were also exhibited. The Cubist contribution to the 1912 Salon d'Automne created a controversy in the Municipal Council of Paris, leading to a debate in the Chambre des Dputs about the use of public funds to provide the venue for such art. The Cubists were defended by the Socialist deputy, Marcel Sembat.[20][21] It was against this background of public anger that Jean Metzinger and Albert Gleizes wrote Du "Cubisme" (published by Eugne Figuire in 1912, translated to English and Russian in 1913).[22] Among the works exhibited were Le Fauconnier's vast composition Les Montagnards attaqus par des ours (Mountaineers Attacked by Bears) now at Rhode Island School of Design Museum, Joseph Csaky's Deux Femme, Two Women (a sculpture now lost), in addition to the highly abstract paintings by Kupka, Amorpha (The National Gallery, Prague), and Picabia, La Source, The Spring (Museum of Modern Art, New York).

Abstraction and the Ready-made

The most extreme forms of Cubism were not those practiced by Picasso and Braque, who resisted total abstraction. Other Cubists, by contrast, especially Frantiek Kupka, and those considered Orphists by Apollinaire (Delaunay, Lger, Picabia and Duchamp), accepted abstraction by removing visible subject matter entirely. Kupkas two entries at the 1912 Salon d'Automne, Amorpha-Fugue deux couleurs and Amorpha chromatique chaude, were highly abstract (or nonrepresentational) and metaphysical in orientation. Both Duchamp in 1912 and Picabia from 1912 to 1914 developed an expressive and allusive abstraction dedicated to complex emotional and sexual themes. Beginning in 1912 Delaunay painted a series of paintings entitled Simultaneous Windows, followed by a series entitled Formes Circulaires, in which he combined planar structures with bright prismatic hues; based on the optical characteristics of Robert Delaunay, Simultaneous Windows on the City, 1912, Hamburger Kunsthalle, an juxtaposed colors his departure from reality in the depiction of imagery example of Abstract Cubism was quasi-complete. In 191314 Lger produced a series entitled Contrasts of Forms, giving a similar stress to color, line and form. His Cubism, despite its abstract qualities, was associated with themes of mechanization and modern life. Apollinaire supported these early developments of abstract Cubism in Les Peintres cubistes (1913), writing of a new "pure" painting in which the subject was vacated. But in spite of his use of the term Orphism these works were so different that they defy attempts to place them in a single category.[2] Also labeled an Orphist by Apollinaire, Marcel Duchamp was responsible for another extreme development inspired by Cubism. The Ready-made arose from a joint consideration that the work itself is considered an object (just as a painting), and that it uses the material detritus of the world (as collage and papier coll in the Cubist construction and Assemblage). The next logical step, for Duchamp, was to present an ordinary object as a self-sufficient work of art representing only itself. In 1913 he attached a bicycle wheel to a kitchen stool and in 1914 selected a bottle-drying rack as a sculpture in its own right.[2]

Section d'Or
The Section d'Or, also known as Groupe de Puteaux, founded by some of the most conspicuous Cubists, was a collective of painters, sculptors and critics associated with Cubism and Orphism, active from 1911 through about 1914, coming to prominence in the wake of their controversial showing at the 1911 Salon des Indpendants. The Salon de la Section d'Or at the Galerie La Botie in Paris, October 1912, was arguably the most important pre-World War I Cubist exhibition; exposing Cubism to a wide audience. Over 200 works were displayed, and the fact that

Cubism many of the artists showed artworks representative of their development from 1909 to 1912 gave the exhibition the allure of a Cubist retrospective.[23] The group seems to have adopted the name Section d'Or to distinguish themselves from the narrower definition of Cubism developed in parallel by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque in the Montmartre quarter of Paris, and to show that Cubism, rather than being an isolated art-form, represented the continuation of a grand tradition (indeed, the golden ratio had fascinated Western intellectuals of diverse interests for at least 2,400 years).[24] The idea of the Section d'Or originated in the course of conversations between Metzinger, Gleizes and Jacques Villon. The group's title was suggested by Villon, after reading a 1910 translation of Leonardo da Vinci's Trattato della Pittura by Josphin Pladan. The fact that the 1912 exhibition had been curated to show the successive stages through which Cubism had transited, and that Du "Cubisme" had been published for the occasion, indicates the artists' intention of making their work comprehensible to a wide audience (art critics, art collectors, art dealers and the general public). Undoubtedly, due to the great success of the exhibition, Cubism became recognized as a tendency, genre or style in art with a specific common philosophy or goal: a new avant-garde movement.[23]

Intentions and Interpretations

The Cubism of Picasso, Braque and Gris had more than a technical or formal significance, and the distinct attitudes and intentions of the Salon Cubists produced different kinds of Cubism, rather than a derivative of their work. "It is by no means clear, in any case," wrote Christopher Green, "to what extent these other Cubists depended on Picasso and Braque for their development of such techniques as faceting, 'passage' and multiple perspective; they could well have arrived at such practices with little knowledge of 'true' Cubism in its early stages, guided above all by their own understanding of Czanne." The works exhibited by these Cubists at the 1911 and 1912 Salons extended beyond the conventional Czanne-like subjectsthe posed model, still-life and landscapefavored by Picasso and Braque to include large-scale modern-life subjects. Aimed at a large public, these works stressed the use of multiple perspective and complex planar faceting for expressive effect while preserving the eloquence of subjects endowed with literary and philosophical connotations.[2]

Juan Gris, Portrait of Picasso, 1912, oil on canvas, Art Institute of Chicago

In Du "Cubisme" Metzinger and Gleizes explicitly related the sense of time to multiple perspective, giving symbolic expression to the notion of duration proposed by the philosopher Henri Bergson according to which life is subjectively experienced as a continuum, with the past flowing into the present and the present merging into the future. The Salon Cubists used the faceted treatment of solid and space and effects of multiple viewpoints to convey a physical and psychological sense of the fluidity of consciousness, blurring the distinctions between past, present and future. One of the major innovations made by the Salon Cubists, independently of Picasso and Braque, was that of simultaneity,[2] drawing to greater or lesser extent on theories of Henri Poincar, Ernst Mach, Charles Henry, and Henri Bergson. With simultaneity, the concept of separate spatial and temporal dimensions was comprehensively challenged. The subject was no longer considered from a specific point of view at a moment in time, but built following a selection of successive viewpoints, i.e., as if viewed simultaneously from numerous angles (and in four-dimensions) with the eye free to roam from one to the other.[14] This technique of representing simultaneity, multiple viewpoints (or relative motion) is pushed to a high degree of complexity in Gleizes' monumental Le Dpiquage des Moissons (Harvest Threshing), exhibited at the 1912 Salon de la Section d'Or, Le Fauconniers Abundance shown at the Indpendants of 1911, and Delaunay's City of Paris, shown

Cubism at the Indpendants in 1912. These ambitious works are some of the largest paintings in the history of Cubism. Lgers The Wedding, also shown at the Salon des Indpendants in 1912, gave form to the notion of simultaneity by presenting different motifs as occurring within a single temporal frame, where responses to the past and present interpenetrate with collective force. The conjunction of such subject-matter with simultaneity aligns Salon Cubism with early Futurist paintings by Umberto Boccioni, Gino Severini and Carlo Carr; themselves made in response to early Cubism.[2] Cubism and modern European art was introduced into the United States at the now legendary 1913 Armory Show in New York City, which then traveled to Chicago and Boston. In the Armory show Pablo Picasso exhibited La Femme au pot de moutarde (1910), the sculpture Head of a Woman (Fernande) (1909), Les Arbres (1907) amongst other cubist works. Jacques Villon exhibited seven important and large drypoints, his brother Marcel Duchamp shocked the American public with his painting Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2 (1912). Francis Picabia exhibited his abstractions La Danse la source and La Procession, Seville (both of 1912). Albert Gleizes exhibited La Femme aux phlox (1910) and L'Homme au balcon (1912), two highly stylized and faceted cubist works. Georges Braque, Fernand Lger, Raymond Duchamp-Villon, Roger de La Fresnaye and Alexander Archipenko also contributed examples of their cubist works.

Cubist sculpture
Just as in painting, Cubist sculpture is rooted in Paul Czanne's reduction of painted objects into component planes and geometric solids (cubes, spheres, cylinders, and cones). And just as in painting, it became a pervasive influence and contributed fundamentally to Constructivism and Futurism. Cubist sculpture developed in parallel to Cubist painting. During the autumn of 1909 Picasso sculpted Head of a Woman (Fernande) with positive features depicted by negative space and vice versa. According to Douglas Cooper: "The first true Cubist sculpture was Picasso's impressive Woman's Head, modeled in 1909-10, a counterpart in three dimensions to many similar analytical and faceted heads in his paintings at the time."[25] These positive/negative reversals were ambitiously exploited by Alexander Archipenko in 191213, for example in Woman Walking.[2] Joseph Csaky, after Archipenko, was the first sculptor in Paris to join the Cubists, with whom he exhibited from 1911 onwards. They were followed by Raymond Duchamp-Villon and then in 1914 by Jacques Lipchitz, Henri Laurens and Ossip Zadkine.[26][27]

Pablo Picasso, Woman's Head, Head of a Woman (Fernande), fall 1909. Bronze, height 41.3 cm (16 1/4 inches). Exhibited at the 1913 Armory Show, New York, Chicago, Boston

Indeed, Cubist construction was as influential as any pictorial Cubist innovation. It was the stimulus behind the proto-Constructivist work of both Naum Gabo and Vladimir Tatlin and thus the starting-point for the entire constructive tendency in 20th-century modernist sculpture.[2]

Cubism after 1918

The most innovative period of Cubism was before 1914. After World War I, with the support given by the dealer Lonce Rosenberg, Cubism returned as a central issue for artists, and continued as such until the mid-1920s when its avant-garde status was rendered questionable by the emergence of geometric abstraction and Surrealism in Paris. Many Cubists, including Picasso, Braque, Gris, Lger, Gleizes, and Metzinger, while developing other styles, returned periodically to Cubism, even well after 1925. Cubism reemerged during the 1920s and the 1930s in the work of the American Stuart Davis and the Englishman Ben Nicholson. In France, however, Cubism experienced a decline beginning in about 1925. Lonce Rosenberg exhibited not only the artists stranded by Kahnweilers exile but

Cubism others including Laurens, Lipchitz, Metzinger, Gleizes, Csaky, Herbin and Severini. In 1918 Rosenberg presented a series of Cubist exhibitions at his Galerie de lEffort Moderne in Paris. Attempts were made by Louis Vauxcelles to claim that Cubism was dead, but these exhibitions, along with a well-organized Cubist show at the 1920 Salon des Indpendants and a revival of the Salon de la Section dOr in the same year, demonstrated it was still alive.[2] The reemergence of Cubism coincided with the appearance from about 191724 of a coherent body of theoretical writing by Pierre Reverdy, Maurice Raynal and Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler and, among the artists, by Gris, Lger, and Gleizes. The occasional return to classicismfigurative work either exclusively or alongside Cubist workexperienced by many artists during this period (called Neoclassicism) has been linked to the tendency to evade the realities of the war and also to the cultural dominance of a classical or Latin image of France during and immediately following the war. Cubism after 1918 can be seen as part of a wide ideological shift towards conservatism in both French society and culture. Yet, Cubism itself remained evolutionary both within the oeuvre of individual artists, such as Gris and Metzinger, and across the work of artists as different from each other as Braque, Lger and Gleizes. Cubism as a publicly debated movement became relatively unified and open to definition. Its theoretical purity made it a gauge against which such diverse tendencies as Realism or Naturalism, Dada, Surrealism and abstraction could be compared.[2]

Architecture
The notion that Cubism formed an important link between early-20th-century art and architecture is widely accepted. The historical, theoretical, and socio-political relationships between avant-garde practices in painting, sculpture and architecture had early ramifications in France, Germany, the Netherlands and Czechoslovakia. Though there Le Corbusier, Assembly building, Chandigarh, India are many points of intersection between Cubism and architecture, only a few direct links between them can be drawn. Most often the connections are made by reference to shared formal characteristics: faceting of form, spatial ambiguity, transparency, and multiplicity.[28] Architectural interest in Cubism centered on the dissolution and reconstitution of three-dimensional form, using simple geometric shapes, juxtaposed without the illusions of classical perspective. Diverse elements could be superimposed, made transparent or penetrate one another, while retaining their spatial relationships. Cubism had become an influential factor in the development of modern architecture from 1912 (La Maison Cubiste, by Raymond Duchamp-Villon and Andr Mare) onwards, developing in parallel with architects such as Peter Behrens and Walter Gropius, with the simplification of building design, the use of materials appropriate to industrial production, and the increased use of glass.[29]

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10

Cubism was relevant to an architecture seeking a style that needed not refer to the past. Thus, what had become a revolution in both painting and sculpture was applied as part of "a profound reorientation towards a changed world".[29][30] The Cubo-Futurist ideas of Filippo Tommaso Marinetti influenced attitudes in avant-garde architecture. The influential De Stijl movement embraced the aesthetic principles of Neo-plasticism developed by Piet Mondrian under the influence of Cubism in Paris. De Stijl was also linked by Gino Severini to Cubist Le Corbusier, Centre Le Corbusier (Heidi Weber Museum) in Zurich-Seefeld theory through the writings of Albert Gleizes. (Zrichhorn) However, the linking of basic geometric forms with inherent beauty and ease of industrial applicationwhich had been prefigured by Marcel Duchamp from 1914was left to the founders of Purism, Amde Ozenfant and Charles-douard Jeanneret (better known as Le Corbusier,) who exhibited paintings together in Paris and published Aprs le cubisme in 1918.[29] Le Corbusier's ambition had been to translate the properties of his own style of Cubism to architecture. Between 1918 and 1922, Le Corbusier concentrated his efforts on Purist theory and painting. In 1922, Le Corbusier and his cousin Jeanneret opened a studio in Paris at 35 rue de Svres. His theoretical studies soon advanced into many different architectural projects.[31]

La Maison Cubiste (Cubist House)

At the 1912 Salon d'Automne an architectural installation was exhibited that quickly became known as Maison Cubiste (Cubist House), signed Raymond Duchamp-Villon and Andr Mare along with a group of collaborators. Metzinger and Gleizes in Du "Cubisme", written during the assemblage of the "Maison Cubiste", wrote about the autonomous nature of art, stressing the point that decorative considerations should not govern the spirit of art. Decorative work, to them, was the "antithesis of the picture". "The true picture" wrote Metzinger and Gleizes, "bears its raison d'tre within itself. It Raymond Duchamp-Villon, 1912, Study for La Maison Cubiste, Projet can be moved from a church to a drawing-room, d'Hotel (Cubist House). Image published in Les Peintres Cubistes, by Guillaume Apollinaire, 17 March 1913 from a museum to a study. Essentially independent, necessarily complete, it need not immediately satisfy the mind: on the contrary, it should lead it, little by little, towards the fictitious depths in which the coordinative light resides. It does not harmonize with this or that ensemble; it harmonizes with things in general, with the universe: it is an organism...".[32] "Mare's ensembles were accepted as frames for Cubist works because they allowed paintings and sculptures their independence", writes Christopher Green, "creating a play of contrasts, hence the involvement not only of Gleizes and Metiznger themselves, but of Marie Laurencin, the Duchamp brothers

Cubism (Raymond Duchamp-Villon designed the facade) and Mare's old friends Lger and Roger La Fresnaye".[33] La Maison Cubiste was a fully furnished house, with a staircase, wrought iron banisters, a living roomthe Salon Bourgeois, where paintings by Marcel Duchamp, Metzinger (Woman with a Fan), Gleizes, Laurencin and Lger were hungand a bedroom. It was an example of L'art dcoratif, a home within which Cubist art could be displayed in the comfort and style of modern, bourgeois life. Spectators at the Salon d'Automne passed through the full-scale 10-by-3-meter plaster model of the ground floor of the facade, designed by Duchamp-Villon.[34] This architectural installation was subsequently exhibited at the 1913 Armory Show, New York, Chicago and Boston,[35] listed in the catalogue of the New York exhibit as Raymond Duchamp-Villon, number 609, and entitled "Facade architectural, plaster" (Faade architecturale).[36][37]

11

Cubism in other fields

The influence of cubism extended to other artistic fields, outside painting and sculpture. In literature, the written works of Gertrude Stein employ repetition and repetitive phrases as building blocks in both passages and whole chapters. Most of Stein's important works utilize this technique, including the novel The Makings of Americans (190608) Not only were they the first important patrons of Cubism, Gertrude Stein and her brother Leo were also important influences on Cubism as well. Picasso in turn was an important influence on Stein's writing. In the field of American fiction, William Faulkner's 1930 novel As I Lay Dying can be read as an interaction with the cubist mode. The novel features narratives of the diverse experiences of 15 characters which, when taken together, produce a single cohesive body. The poets generally associated with Cubism are Guillaume Apollinaire, Blaise Cendrars, Jean Cocteau, Max Jacob, Andr Salmon and Pierre Reverdy. As American poet Kenneth Rexroth explains, Cubism in poetry "is the conscious, deliberate dissociation and recombination of elements into a new artistic entity made self-sufficient by its rigorous architecture. This is quite different from the free association of the Surrealists and the combination of unconscious utterance and political nihilism of Dada."[38] Nonetheless, the Cubist poets' influence on both Cubism and the later movements of Dada and Surrealism was profound; Louis Aragon, founding member of Surrealism, said that for Breton, Soupault, luard and himself, Reverdy was "our immediate elder, the exemplary poet."[39] Though not as well remembered as the Cubist painters, these poets continue to influence and inspire; American poets John Ashbery and Ron Padgett have recently produced new translations of Reverdy's work. Wallace Stevens' "Thirteen Ways of Looking at a Blackbird" is also said to demonstrate how cubism's multiple perspectives can be translated into poetry.[40]

References
[1] MoMA collection Cubism, details, Oxford University Press (http:/ / www. moma. org/ collection/ details. php?theme_id=10068& section_id=T020541) [2] Christopher Green, 2009, Cubism, MoMA, Grove Art Online, Oxford University Press (http:/ / www. moma. org/ collection/ details. php?theme_id=10068& displayall=1#skipToContent) [3] Jean Metzinger, 'Note sur la peinture, Pan (Paris), OctoberNovember 1910 [4] Cooper, 24 [5] Honour, H. and J. Fleming, (2009) A World History of Art. 7th edn. London: Laurence King Publishing, p. 784. ISBN 9781856695848 [6] Douglas Cooper, "The Cubist Epoch", pp. 11221, Phaidon Press Limited 1970 in association with the Los Angeles County Museum of Art and the Metropolitan Museum of Art ISBN 0-87587-041-4 [7] D.-H. Kahnweiler. Der Weg zum Kubismus (Munich, 1920; Eng. trans., New York, 1949) [8] C. Greenberg. The Pasted-paper Revolution, ARTnews, 57 (1958), pp. 469, 6061; repr. as Collage in Art and Culture (Boston, 1961), pp. 7083 [9] Cooper, 20-27 [10] Daniel Robbins, 1964, Albert Gleizes 1881 - 1953, A Retrospective Exhibition, Published by The Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation, New York, in collaboration with Muse National d'Art Moderne, Paris, Museum am Ostwall, Dortmund. (http:/ / archive. org/ stream/ albertgleizes1881robb#page/ n3/ mode/ 2up)

Cubism
[11] Louis Chassevent, Les Artistes Indpendants, 1906, Quelques Petits Salons. Paris, 1908. Chassevent discussed Delaunay and Metzinger in terms of Signac's influence, referring to Metzinger's "precision in the cut of his cubes..." [12] Robert Herbert, Neo-Impressionism, The Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation, New York, 1968 [13] A. Gleizes and J. Metzinger. Du "Cubisme", Edition Figuire, Paris, 1912 (Eng. trans., London, 1913) [14] David Cottington, 2004, Cubism and its Histories, Manchester University Press (http:/ / books. google. es/ books?id=KFGgxn7lfq0C& pg=PA92& lpg=PA92& dq=Cubism,+ mobile+ perspective& source=bl& ots=rm_znb7YtG& sig=8jHfIJBskeVW31AU_0hqno0HLBY& hl=fr#v=onepage& q=Cubism, mobile perspective& f=false) [15] G. Apollinaire. Les Peintres cubistes: Mditations esthtiques (Paris, 1913) [16] Fondation Gleizes, Chronologie (in French) (http:/ / www. fondationgleizes. fr/ pdf/ fag-chronologie-gleizes. pdf) [17] Robert Delaunay, Eiffel Tower (Tour Eiffel), 1911 (dated 1910 by the artist). Oil on canvas, 79 1/2 x 54 1/2 inches (202 x 138.4 cm). Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York (http:/ / www. guggenheim. org/ new-york/ collections/ collection-online/ show-full/ piece/ ?search=Solomon R. Guggenheim Founding Collection& page=1& f=Major Acquisition& cr=8) [18] Philadelphia Museum of Art, Marcel Duchamp, Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2 (http:/ / www. philamuseum. org/ collections/ permanent/ 51449. html?mulR=24120|3) [19] Statens Museum for Kunst, National Gallery of Denmark, Jean Metzinger, Woman with a Horse, 19111912, oil on canvas, 162 x 130 cm (http:/ / www. smk. dk/ en/ explore-the-art/ the-royal-collections/ french-art-1900-1930/ highlights/ jean-metzinger-woman-with-a-horse/ ) [20] Patrick F. Barrer: Quand l'art du XXe sicle tait conu par les inconnus, pp. 93-101, gives an account of the debate. [21] Peter Brooke, Albert Gleizes, Chronology of his life, 1881-1953 (http:/ / www. peterbrooke. org. uk/ a& r/ chronology) [22] Fondation Gleizes, Son Oeuvre (http:/ / www. fondationgleizes. fr/ albert-gleizes-oeuvre. html,) [23] The History and Chronology of Cubism, p. 5 (http:/ / www. serdar-hizli-art. com/ art_history/ abstract_art/ history_and_chronology_of_cubism_page_5. htm) [24] La Section d'Or, Numro spcial, 9 Octobre 1912 (http:/ / 1. bp. blogspot. com/ _s8JyxbYrSG0/ TJZ4b_6VYNI/ AAAAAAAABfo/ 5RCFXVta2yk/ s1600/ La+ Section+ d'Or+ numro+ spcial+ 9+ octobre+ 1912+ couv. jpg) [25] The Cubist Epoch, (1970) p.232 [26] Robert Rosenblum, "Cubism," Readings in Art History 2 (1976), Seuphor, Sculpture of this Century [27] Edith Balas, 1998, Joseph Csaky: A Pioneer of Modern Sculpture, American Philosophical Society (http:/ / books. google. es/ books?id=rUPz18-QeyEC& q=csaky#v=onepage& q=csaky& f=false) [28] Architecture and Cubism, Eve Blau, Nancy J. Troy, MIT Press/Canadian Centre for Architecture, 1997, pbk. 2002 (http:/ / www. gsd. harvard. edu/ #/ projects/ architecture-and-cubism-1. html) [29] Christopher Green, 2009, Cubism, II. Architecture, MoMA, Grove Art Online, Oxford University Press (http:/ / www. moma. org/ collection/ details. php?theme_id=10068& section_id=T020551#skipToContent) [30] P. R. Banham. Theory and Design in the First Machine Age (London, 1960), p. 203 [31] Choay, Franoise, le corbusier (1960), pp. 10-11. George Braziller, Inc. ISBN 0-8076-0104-7 [32] Albert Gleizes and Jean Metzinge, except from Du Cubisme, 1912 (http:/ / www. learn. columbia. edu/ monographs/ picmon/ pdf/ art_hum_reading_46. pdf) [33] Christopher Green, Art in France: 1900-1940, Chapter 8, Modern Spaces; Modern Objects; Modern People, 2000 (http:/ / books. google. es/ books?id=vlY6SLmg-xEC& pg=PA161& lpg=PA161& dq="maison+ cubiste"+ 1912& source=bl& ots=jv-hGOpwJc& sig=0m8pM6Oi2mPGtmB6uB0Fe3s9YAQ& hl=en#v=onepage& q="maison cubiste" 1912& f=false) [34] La Maison Cubiste, 1912 (http:/ / www. kubisme. info/ kt324a. html) [35] Kubistische werken op de Armory Show (http:/ / www. kubisme. info/ kt315s. html) [36] Duchamp-Villon's Faade architecturale, 1913 (http:/ / www. aaa. si. edu/ collections/ images/ detail/ detail-duchampvillons-faade-architecturale-14604) [37] "Catalogue of international exhibition of modern art: at the Armory of the Sixty-ninth Infantry, 1913, Duchamp-Villon, Raymond, Facade Architectural (http:/ / archive. org/ stream/ catnter00unse/ catnter00unse_djvu. txt) [40] Illinois Wesleyan University - The American Poetry Web (http:/ / titan. iwu. edu/ ~wchapman/ americanpoetryweb/ stevthir. html)

12

Further reading
Alfred H. Barr, Jr., Cubism and Abstract Art, New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1936. John Cauman (2001). Inheriting Cubism: The Impact of Cubism on American Art, 1909-1936. New York: Hollis Taggart Galleries. ISBN0-9705723-4-4. Cooper, Douglas (1970). The Cubist Epoch. London: Phaidon in association with the Los Angeles County Museum of Art & the Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN0-87587-041-4. John Golding, Cubism: A History and an Analysis, 1907-1914, New York: Wittenborn, 1959. Richardson, John. A Life Of Picasso, The Cubist Rebel 1907-1916. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1991. ISBN 978-0-307-26665-1

Cubism

13

External links
On-Line Picasso Project (http://picasso.tamu.edu) Video decoding a Picasso Cubist still-life (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J0su_tnBI28)

Article Sources and Contributors

14

Article Sources and Contributors

Cubism Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=568424629 Contributors: -jkb-, 1717, 2D, 62.252.64.xxx, 7&6=thirteen, 90, A-giau, A8UDI, Aandrew13, Abrech, Adambro, Adamelhedhli, Addshore, AdjustShift, Afasmit, Aff123a, Afitillidie13, Ahoerstemeier, Ajaxfiore, Alansohn, Ale jrb, Alex.muller, Alexandria, Alexgladman2, Algont, Allreet, Almightymoom, Alp1776, Alsandro, Amaury, Anbu121, Andy Xucha, Andy-106, Angela, Anndrew jones1213, Antandrus, Apparition11, Aquahelper, Archfalhwyl, Arctic Kangaroo, Arguepower22, Arpingstone, Artybrad, Atchernev, Athf1234, Austriacus, AxelBoldt, Aziz1005, Badgernet, Bald Zebra, Ballista, Bamber gascoigne, Banaticus, Bassbonerocks, Belovedfreak, Bencherlite, Bender235, Bennie Noakes, Berek, Bgwhite, Bieberfever, Biglovinb, Billyjoekini, Blehfu, Blue520, Bluemoose, Bluerasberry, Bluewind, Bobianite, Bobrayner, Bolsen, Bomac, Bongwarrior, Bpeps, Brendastyvesant, Bus stop, Butros, Buzzard74, C.ronaldo69, CIreland, Cacophony, Cactus.man, Cal Poly 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Zweidinge, , 2122 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

File:Violin and Candlestick.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Violin_and_Candlestick.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Georges Braque Image:Les Demoiselles d'Avignon.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Les_Demoiselles_d'Avignon.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Pablo Picasso File:Pablo Picasso, 1909-10, Figure dans un Fauteuil (Seated Nude, Femme nue assise), oil on canvas, 92.1 x 73 cm, Tate Modern, London.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pablo_Picasso,_1909-10,_Figure_dans_un_Fauteuil_(Seated_Nude,_Femme_nue_assise),_oil_on_canvas,_92.1_x_73_cm,_Tate_Modern,_London.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Pablo Picasso File:Paul Czanne 163.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Paul_Czanne_163.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Boo-Boo Baroo, Bukk, EDUCA33E, Julius1990, Yone Fernandes, ZH2010, Zolo Image:Jean Metzinger, 1911-12, La Femme au Cheval - The Rider.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jean_Metzinger,_1911-12,_La_Femme_au_Cheval_-_The_Rider.jpg License: unknown Contributors: ALH, Coldcreation Image:Albert Gleizes, l'Homme au Balcon, 1912, oil on canvas, 195.6 x 114.9 cm, Philadelphia Museum of Art.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Albert_Gleizes,_l'Homme_au_Balcon,_1912,_oil_on_canvas,_195.6_x_114.9_cm,_Philadelphia_Museum_of_Art.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Coldcreation File:Delaunay-Windows.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Delaunay-Windows.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Franciselliott at en.wikipedia Image:Juan Gris - Portrait of Pablo Picasso - Google Art Project.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Juan_Gris_-_Portrait_of_Pablo_Picasso_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Daderot, Dcoetzee, , 2 anonymous edits File:Womans Head Picasso.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Womans_Head_Picasso.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: Ben Sutherland from Forest Hill, London, European Union File:Palace of Assembly Chandigarh 2006.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Palace_of_Assembly_Chandigarh_2006.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: duncid File:Zrich - Seefeld - Corbusier - Heidi Weber Museum IMG 1552.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Zrich_-_Seefeld_-_Corbusier_-_Heidi_Weber_Museum_IMG_1552.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Roland zh

File:Raymond Duchamp Villon, La Maison Cubiste, Projet d'Hotel (Cubist House), in Les Peintres Cubistes, Guillaume Apollinaire, 17 March 1913, Maison Figuiers et Cie.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Raymond_Duchamp_Villon,_La_Maison_Cubiste,_Projet_d'Hotel_(Cubist_House),_in_Les_Peintres_Cubistes,_Guillaume_Apollinaire,_17_March_1913,_Maison_Figuiers_ License: unknown Contributors: User:Coldcreation

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