1

Nuclear Moments Nuclear Moments

2
EM moments EM moments
Electric charge E field
Electric current B field
Single charge
Monopole or Zeroth moment
Dipole (First moment)
Quadrupole (Second moment)
2
1
r
E
3
1
r
E
4
1
r
E
+
+
+ + 2
etc
3
EM moments EM moments
Similar for Magnetism (except for the
monopole)
A spherical charge distribution an
electric monopole
A non-spherical charge distribution
an electric quadrupole
A circular current loop a magnetic
dipole

i
an Axial Vector
4
Symmetry restrictions Symmetry restrictions
Parity operator
Parity of moments =
L = 0 Monopole
L = 1 Dipole
L = 2 Quadrupole
L = 3 Octupole
etc
r r
r r

( )
( )

+
Mag
Elec
L
L
1
1
1
5
Symmetry restrictions Symmetry restrictions
All odd-parity multipole
moments must vanish !!
E1 (dipole), M2 (quadrupole),
E3 (octupole) ..
<Moment> =

dv Op
6
Electric Quadrupole Electric Quadrupole
The operator
is a measure of the deviation from
spherical symmetry.
Spherical charge distribution
Planar charge distribution
( )
2 2
3 r z
0
2
3
1
2 2 2
=
= = =
Q
r z y x
2 2
0 r Q z = =
7
Electric Quadrupole Electric Quadrupole
QM
Spherical
Planar
Units of Q = m
2
1 barn (b) = 10
28
m
2
( ) d r z e eQ

=
2 2
3
0 = Q
2
r Q =
0 < Q 0 > Q
Prolate Oblate
8
Electric Quadrupole Electric Quadrupole
0
0
2
1
=
)
`

=
=
Q
I
I
Nuclear energy states with
can be split by the action of electric
field gradients.
NQR, Mssbauer
Wigner-Eckart theorem
176
Lu has Q = +8.0 b
0 Q
( ) ( )
2 2 2 2

3 3 I I r z
z

9
Electric Quadrupole Electric Quadrupole
e.g.
57
Fe Mssbauer Effect
0
2
3
= Q I
0
2
1
= = Q I
gamma
If the nucleus is in an electric field gradient, the
first excited state splits
4 1 2
2
3
= + = I I
Degeneracy of excited state
2
1
2
3
& = =
z z
I I
10
Nuclear Models Nuclear Models
11
Nuclear models Nuclear models
Try to model the behaviour of the
nucleus
What kind of potential do the nucleons
feel ?
Can we reproduce/predict the important
nuclear parameters such as:
Nuclear spin
Nuclear magnetic moments
Nuclear quadrupole moments
Magic numbers
12
Liquid Liquid- -drop model drop model
Constant density
B/A ~ constant (except for low-A)
cf heat of vaporization /mass ~
constant for liquids
Oldest and most classical model
Semi-empirical mass formula
Theory now gives a good account of
the volume term
Pairing term suggests some sort of
shell or energy level model
13
Liquid Liquid- -drop model drop model
Gives a good account of the average
behaviour of nuclei
Some nuclei are unusually stable
MAGIC NUMBERS MAGIC NUMBERS (particular values
of Z and/or N)
2 8 20 28 50 82 126 (n)
All EVEN
cf inert ATOMS He, Ne, Kr, Ar etc
closed electron-shells
Segr chart Z = 20 has 6 stable
isotopes whereas local average ~ 2
Z = 50 has 10 stable isotopes whereas
local average ~ 4
Most of the known spontaneous neutron
emitters have N = Magic + 1 14
Binding energy Binding energy
53 Even Odd Odd
57 Odd Even Odd
8 Odd Odd Even
166 Even Even Even
# stable
nuclei
Z N A
15
Liquid Liquid- -Drop model Drop model
Semi-empirical mass formula
(von Weiszcker 1935)
Treat nucleus as a dense,
incompressible, spherical liquid drop.
( ) MeV
A
B
Krane 3.16
A
16
Volume term Volume term
For
. Const
A
B

30 A
A a B
A R Vol
V V
=

3
~ 8 MeV
A nucleon attracts its closest neighbours
17
Surface term Surface term
A nucleon near the surface has fewer
neighbours
As A , the surface area so the number
of surface nucleons
Need to reduce Binding Energy
3
2
3
2
2
A a B
A R Area
S S
=

18
Coulomb repulsion term Coulomb repulsion term
Proton-proton repulsion makes nucleons
less tightly bound.
Long-distance Coulomb repulsion
Need to reduce Binding Energy
Z protons : how many pp pairs ?
( )
3
1
3
1
1
1
A
Z Z
a B
A
R
energy Coulomb
C C

=


( )
( ) 2 / 1
! 2 ! 2
!
=

Z Z
Z
Z
19
Symmetry term Symmetry term
Light, stable nuclei tend to have
Z ~ N ~ A/2.
As A there is more pp Coulomb
repulsion so N > Z
( )
A
Z A
a B
Sym Sym
2
2
=
Reduces the effect as A
Imbalance between N and Z
20
Pairing term Pairing term
EvenEven nuclei are particularly stable
Z = even & N = even.
OddOdd nuclei tend to be unstable
[Later: Shell Model]
=
pair
B
Even Even +
Odd Odd
Even Odd 0
4
3
4
3

A a B
A B
pair pair
pair
21
Energy terms Energy terms
Best fit to experimental Binding Energy
curve yields
MeV a
MeV a
MeV a
MeV a
MeV a
pair
Sym
C
S
V
34
23
72 . 0
8 . 16
5 . 15
=
=
=
=
=
22
Pairing term Pairing term
We can see the effect of the pairing term
in the Mass Parabolas
Krane 3.18
23
Nuclear Models Nuclear Models
Nuclear charge density is approx
constant (from scattering experiments)
( )
( ) [ ] b a r
r
o
/ exp 1 +
=

24
Fermi Fermi- -gas model gas model
Analogous to the free-conduction-
electron gas model of metals
Each nucleon moves in an attractive
NET potential (average of all
interactions with neighbouring
nucleons)
3D finite square-well
( )
( ) [ ] b a r
r
o
/ exp 1 +
=

25
Fermi Fermi- -gas model gas model
( )
MeV J E
R r
A
V
N
n
n
m
E
F
o
F
53 10 5 . 8
4
3
3
2
12
3 3
3
4
2
2
3
2
= =
= = =
=

h
r
V
o
~ 60 MeV
E
F
B.E.
~7 MeV
26
Fermi Fermi- -gas model gas model
n p
often use a composite diagram
n p
Z = N = 3; A = 6
27
Fermi Fermi- -gas model gas model
The proton energy levels are slightly
higher than those of the neutrons due to
Coulomb repulsion
n p
BETA stability: The nucleus will
-decay until nucleons fill the lowest
energy levels
n p OR p n
28
e.g. MIRROR nuclei
n p
both have spin-parity
Li Be
7
3
7
4
&
2 1
1 2
2 1
A A
Z N
Z N
=
=
=

2
3
n p
Convert one of Be protons to a neutron
e
Li e Be + +
7
3
7
4
Electron-capture
d t 3 . 53
2
1
=
29
This model also explains the tendency to
have even-even nuclei
n
p
preferable to
n
p
30
Liquid-Drop model doesnt consider
individual nucleons
Doesnt describe
(1) ground and excited state spins
and parities
(2) Magic numbers
(3) Magnetic moments
(4) Values of energy terms in SEMF
Fermi-gas model suggests the
validity of considering individual
nucleons
31
Shell Model Shell Model
Nucleons move independently
in a net nuclear potential
Form of the potential = ??
Atomic case (H atom) is easy:
electron moves in central
Coulomb potential created by
an external agent i.e. the proton
Nuclear case: the potential is
created internally.
32
Nuclear Potential Nuclear Potential
Spherically-symmetric no or
dependence - easier
Infinite square-well potential
NO
Simple-harmonic oscillator NO
Krane 5.4
33
Weve seen the form of the
nuclear charge density
Try a potential with the same
r-dependence
( )
( ) [ ] b a r
r
o
/ exp 1 +
=

( )
( ) [ ]
skin
o
a R r
V
r V
/ exp 1 +

=
Saxon-Woods potential
34
( )
( ) [ ]
skin
o
a R r
V
r V
/ exp 1 +

=
r
Infinite energy
Sharp edge
Infinite energy
Edge not sharp enough
Nuclear potential
(in-between)
fm a
fm A R
MeV V
skin
52 . 0 ~
25 . 1
50 ~
3
1
0
=
35
Energy level scheme Energy level scheme
s, p, d, f ..
(as in ATOM)
BUT
is NOT the same as in ATOM !
An state has values of
Total degeneracy =
e.g.
2 protons in 1s AND 2 neutrons in 1s
p and n are both fermions but theyre
different particles !
..... 2 , 1 , 0 = l
..... 2 , 1 = n
l 1 2 + l l
m
( ) 1 2 2 + l
s 1
0
0
=
=
l
m
l
One level
Two nucleons
( spin)
36
Shell Model Shell Model
Krane 5.6
37
Spin Spin- -orbit interaction orbit interaction
ATOM
e
B
Orbital motion magnetic field B
Electrons spin magnetic moment interacts with B
An ELECTROMAGNETIC interaction.
NUCLEUS
The spin-orbit interaction CANNOT be
ELECTROMAGNETIC (not strong enough !).
It is a consequence of the nuclear STRONG force.
38
( ) s l r V
so
r
r

( ) ( )
[ ]
( ) ( ) ( ) [ ]
2
2
1
2
1
1 1 1
2
h
r
r
r r
r r
r r
r
r
r r r
r r r
r
r
r
r
r r
r
r
r
+ + + =
=
+ + =
+ + =
+ =
s s l l j j s l
s s l l j j s l
s s s l l l
s l s l j j
s l j
39
A nucleon has
e.g 1p state
2
1
= s
2
1
= = l s l j
2
3
2
1
, 1 = = j l
40
Degeneracies are given by the
values of
Energy splitting
p 1
2
1
1p
2
3
1p
j
1 2 + j
j
m
( )
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
h
r
r
r
r
+ =

= + =
l
s l s l
l j l j
41
Shell Model Shell Model
Predicts Magic Numbers (occur at
large gaps in energy level scheme)
Predicts ground state spins of
nuclei
Pb
208
82

=
=
126
82
N
Z
Both MAGIC
Completely filled sub-shells for both p and n
Exclusion Principle: spin and orbital angular
momenta are paired
0 = I
42
Shell Model Shell Model
Z or N = MAGIC 1
Exclusion Principle: the extra
nucleon (or hole) determines I.
O
15
8
O
17
8
O
16
8
5/2 0 1/2 I
One n
in
1d(5/2)
1p (1/2)
full
One n
in
1p(1/2)
Level
9 8 7 N
8 8 8 Z
Doubly Magic
43
Shell Model Shell Model
Krane 5.7
44
Magnetic Moments Magnetic Moments
Schmidt limits (1937) Schmidt limits (1937)
Calculate the expected magnetic
moment due to the odd (unpaired)
nucleon
( ) [ ] 2 /
2
1
2
1
s l
g j g
l j
+ =
+ =

( )
( ) ( )
(

+
+
=
=
1 2 1
2
3
2
1
j
g
j
j j
g
l j
s
l

45
Schmidt limits Schmidt limits

=
n
p
g
l
0
1

+
=
n
p
g
s
83 . 3
59 . 5
One obvious flaw: model assumes that
g-factors for nucleons in a nucleus are the
same as the free-nucleon values above
46
Schmidt limits Schmidt limits
Odd-neutron
Krane 5.9a
47
Schmidt limits Schmidt limits
Odd-proton
Krane 5.9b
48
Electric Quadrupole Moments Electric Quadrupole Moments
Nucleus with a single, unpaired proton
( )
3
2
2
5
3
2
5
3
2
2
2
1 2
1 2
A R R r
r
j
j
QM
r Q
o
= =
+

=
Theory gives sign but not
magnitude (factor 2 3)
49
Electric Quadrupole Moments Electric Quadrupole Moments
Krane 5.10
50
Collective Model Collective Model
Shell Model assumes independent
behaviour of nucleons
Liquid-Drop Model assumes the
opposite
Collective Model takes features from
both.
Nucleons in unfilled subshells move
independently in a net potential created
by the filled core nucleons (as in
Shell Model)
The potential is allowed to deform, as
in a liquid. (The Shell Model assumes a
static, spherically symmetric potential).
Valence nucleons
51
Collective Model Collective Model
Rainwater (1950): a single valence
nucleon outside the core interacts and
deforms the core nuclear potential
Every even-even nucleus has a first
excited state
+
= 2 I
Eisberg & Resnick 15.21
52
Vibrational states Vibrational states
Even-even nuclei
A vibrating liquid drop.
Average shape is spherical
Dipole mode violates conservation of
momentum.
Centre of mass is displaced cant be
the result of internal forces.
Krane 5.18
53
Vibrational states Vibrational states
Quadrupole mode: adds a 2
nd
-order
spherical harmonic to the nuclear
wavefunction
2 units of angular momentum (l)
Phonon a quantized vibration
Two phonons result in a triplet
Energy = 2 x Energy of one-phonon
state
( ) 1 1 + = =
l

+ +
2 0
+ + +
4 , 2 , 0
+
2
54
Vibrational states Vibrational states
Octupole mode: adds a 3
rd
-order
spherical harmonic to the nuclear
wavefunction
3 units of angular momentum (l)
( ) 1 1
3
= =
+
3 0
Krane 5.19
Te
120
1-phonon state
2-phonon state
3-phonon state
55
Rotational states Rotational states
Only observed in nuclei with non-
spherical equilibrium shapes
A range: 150 to 190; > 220
Rotational inertia
2
2
1
= K
= l

=
2
2
l
K
h I l
( )

+
=
2
1
2
I I
K
h
56
Rotational states Rotational states
The symmetry of even-even nuclei
means that I = even
|
|

\
|

=
|
|

\
|

=
|
|

\
|

=
|
|

\
|

=
=
+
+
+
+
+
2
72 ) 8 (
2
42 ) 6 (
2
20 ) 4 (
2
6 ) 2 (
0 ) 0 (
2
2
2
2
h
h
h
h
E
E
E
E
E
etc
57
Rotational states in Rotational states in
164 164
Er Er
Krane 5.22