1.

Define the notion of style and name the style and its features, used by John Milton in Paradise Lost. Style refers to the way a writer says what he wants to say. It is usually analyz ed in terms of the diction, the syntax, the density and types of imagery, the rh ythm and sounds. Milton s style is very distinctive and is often referred to as GRAND STYLE. The fe atures are: - The choice of words of Latin origin; - Allusions to the classical world; - Long sentence structures; 2. Speak about Paradise Lost, Milton s masterpiece. Paradise Lost is an epic poem in blank verse by the 17th-century English poet Jo hn Milton (1608-1674). The poem concerns the Biblical story of the Fall of Man: the temptation of Adam and Eve by the fallen angel Satan and their expulsion from the Garden of Eden. M ilton's purpose, stated in Book I, is to "justify the ways of God to men".[3] Paradise Lost is about Adam and Eve how they came to be created and how they came to lose their place in the Garden of Eden, also called Paradise. It's the same s tory you find in the first pages of Genesis, expanded by Milton into a very long , detailed, narrative poem. It also includes the story of the origin of Satan. O riginally, he was called Lucifer, an angel in heaven who led his followers in a war against God, and was ultimately sent with them to hell. Thirst for revenge l ed him to cause man's downfall by turning into a serpent and tempting Eve to eat the forbidden fruit. 3. Speak about Milton s life and his literary activity. John Milton was born in London 1608 into a wealthy, well-educated family. His fa ther instilled in him from an early age a love of learning and strong religious beliefs. By the age of sixteen he could write in Latin and Greek and had a good knowledge of Philosophy. He attended college at Cambridge, where he took his Mas ter of Arts degree. He was an adamant supporter of Cromwell and Parliament. He was rewarded the posi tion of Latin Secretary to the Commonwealth after having written a pamphlet in w hich he voiced his approval of the execution of King Charles I. Having weak eyes ight, he eventually went completely blind and accomplished his works with the ai d of secretaries. After the Restoration Milton spent a brief period in prison for the part he play ed in the Commonwealth. He spent the last years of his life in retirement dedica ting himself to writing. Works: Phase I: early poems and a masque: Ode on the Morning of Christ s Nativity, L Alleg ro, Il Penseroso. Masque Comus. Phase II: prose writings: The Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce, Areopagitica, The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates. Phase III: poetic masterpieces: Paradise Lost, Paradise Regained. 4. Prepare a short report on Alexander Pope s education and his writing career Born in London in 1688, the only son of a cloth merchant. At the age of twelve h e suffered from tuberculosis of the bone, which stunted his growth and left him deformed and sickly for the rest of his life. Because his family was Catholic, h e could not attend public schools or go to university, so he was largely self-ed ucated. He based his studies on the Classics and French and Italian writers. Writing career: When he was just sixteen he wrote Pastorals, based on classical models. Written while still in his mid-twenties, The Rape of The Lock is a maste rpiece of mock-heroic. This was the work that established his reputation in lite rary circles. He formed the Scriblerus Club with Swift and some other friends. H e translated the Illiad and The Odyssey. The Dunciad which appeared in 1728 is P ope s most celebrated satire. Pope spent the last years of his life outside of Lon don and died in 1744.

5. Define the mock- heroic poem and illustrate by The Rape of the Lock A mock-heroic or mock-epic poem imitates the elevated style and conventions of t he epic genre in dealing with a frivolous or minor subject. The mock-heroic has been used widely to satirize social vices such as pretentiousness, hypocrisy, su perficiality etc. The inappropriateness of the grandiose epic style highlights t he trivial and senseless nature of the writer s target. The Rape of the Lock is an example of mock-epic form. Pope uses the lofty, serio us style of classical epics not to describe battles or supernatural events, but to satirise the seriousness with which friends in his circle treated a breach of manners at a social gathering, the stealing of a lock of hair. The Rape of the Lock contains all the standards features of the epic genre: A dream message from the gods, arming the heroes, sacrifice to the gods, exhorta tion to the troops, single combat, epic feast, journey to the underworld, genera l combat, intervention of the gods, apotheosis. 6. William Congreve and his literary activity Congreve was born in Bardsey, West Yorkshire, England (near Leeds).[note 1] His parents were William Congreve (1637 1708) and his wife, Mary (ne Browning; 1636? 1715 ); a sister was buried in London in 1672. He spent his childhood in Ireland, whe re his father, a Cavalier, had settled during the reign of Charles II. Congreve was educated at Trinity College in Dublin; there he met Jonathan Swift, who woul d be his friend for the remainder of his life. Upon graduation, he matriculated in the Middle Temple in London to study law, but felt himself pulled toward lite rature, drama, and the fashionable life. Artistically, he became a disciple of J ohn Dryden. William Congreve wrote some of the most popular English plays of the Restoration period of the late 17th century. By the age of thirty, he had written four come dies, including Love for Love (premiered 30 April 1695) and The Way of the World (premiered 1700), and one tragedy, The Mourning Bride (1697) Unfortunately, his career ended almost as soon as it began. After writing five p lays from his first in 1693 until 1700, he produced no more as public tastes tur ned against the sort of high-brow sexual comedy of manners in which he specializ ed. 7. What are the main themes in Congreve s plays? Congreve is the outstanding writer of the English comedy of manners, markedly di fferent in many respects from others of this period of the drama. Taking as its main theme the manners and behavior of the class to which it was addressed, that is, the antipuritanical theatre audience drawn largely from the court, it dealt with imitators of French customs, conceited wits, and fantastics of all kinds; but its main theme was the sexual life led by a large number of courtiers, with their philosophy of freedom and experimentation. Restoration comedy was always s atirical and sometimes cynical. Congreve rises above other dramatists of his tim e in both the delicacy of his feeling and the perfection of his phrasing. 8. Define the term wit . The term wit was originally used to refer to intelligence or inventiveness. In t he 16th and 17th century it came to be used to indicate ingenuity in literary in vention and it was frequently used to describe the brilliant and surprising imag ery of the metaphysical poets. In the second half of the 17th century the term b ecame associated with humor. It was used to refer to the humorous linguistic inv ention and wordplay which characterized the comic style of Restoration dramatist s. An example of wordplay can be seen in Congreve s choice of names for his character s. Each character is called after a particular personality trait. This form of c haracter naming already existed in Morality plays, but Congreve uses it not for didactic purposes, but for comic effect.

9. Describe Millamant from Congreve s play The Way of the World. Millamant is generally conceded to be the most charming heroine in Restoration c omedy. She is a fitting partner-antagonist to Mirabell. She maintains the same s elf-control to the very end of the proviso scene. She too loves but shows no sen timent. She is airy, teasing, light, beautiful, tantalizing, and infuriating. Mi rabell is aware of her faults and comes to love them. The reader is aware of her faults and comes to love them too. She is affected, coy, and arch and we would have her no other way. She can be sweet and charming, but there can be acid and irony in her wit. Above all, Millamant's character is Millamant in love. She and Mirabell are wort hy partners. She, too, will not admit her love to him, for to do so would be to give up one's position of vantage in the game. It is the control of the skillful Restoration wit, which overlays her love, and through which it must operate, th at makes the proviso scene so completely successful. 10. How were women treated in the type of marriage Millamant rejects? In her speech Millamant depicts the typical upper-class marriage, the type of m arriage she rejects. In her view the women in these marriages must abide by too many foolish social conventions like being subjected to being called names, take walks just to show off the relationship, look in love while others were present , lose any autonomy and the right to come and go as they please, wear what they please, to play nice with others just because they were friends of the husband a nd so on and so forth. 11. Describe the language used by Millamant and Mirabel in Congreve s play. I would say the language used by them is a formal and rather refined one. It is the language of a legal contract. Both parties present their terms in what is se en as a cold and detached way, although under the polished phrases and the verba l fencing, the happy couple are very much in love, as Millamant admits at the en d of the scene. 12. Daniel Defoe s literary career Daniel Foe, born circa 1660, was the son of James Foe, a London butcher. Daniel later changed his name to Daniel Defoe, wanting to sound more gentlemanly. Defoe graduated from an academy at Newington Green, run by the Reverend Charles Morton. Not long after, in 1683, he went into business, having given up an earli er intent on becoming a dissenting minister. He traveled often, selling such goo ds as wine and wool, but was rarely out of debt. He went bankrupt in 1692 (payin g his debts for nearly a decade thereafter), and by 1703, decided to leave the b usiness industry altogether. His earliest works were political and largely consisted of pamphlets, essays and articles for journals. He was well respected as a satirist and his satirical pa mphlet The Shortest Way with the Dissenters won him great popularity. It was not until late in literary career that Defoe turned to writing prose fiction. Defoe used the adventures of a sailor, Alexander Selkirk, as a basis for his Robinson Crusoe. After his masterpiece, Defore wrote four more novels Captain Singleton, Moll Flanders, Colonel Jack and Roxana. 13. The features of Defoe s novels All of Defoe s novels share the same characteristics: - They are presented as memoirs or autobiographies and are narrated in the first person; - The setting is contemporary and realistic; - There is no real plot, the protagonist is presented in a chronological series of episodes; - The main character overcomes misfortune through self-reliance, hard work and b elief in God; - Each of the characters repents his evil actions and prays to god for salvation ; - The prose style is plain yet powerfully effective.

14. Tell the story of Robinson Crusoe Robinson Crusoe is the only survivor of a shipwreck. He manages to salvage some equipment and takes it onto a desert island. He is very practical and resourcefu l and manages to build a house, domesticates goats and cultivates crops. When a group of cannibals comes onto the island, he frightens them off and rescues one of their intended victims. He gives him the name Friday and tries to civilize hi m. After twenty-eight years of total isolation from the rest of the world, an En glish ship rescues Robinson and takes him home. 15. Focus on the character of Robinson, in Defoe s novel; illustrate In the fragments studied we can clearly see that Robinson is a middle-class merc hant, literate, with strong religious beliefs. He is practical, relying on the p ower of reason. He is familiar with the world of trade and commerce. He is good and kind to Friday, tries to civilize him and take care of him, but also assumes the role of a leader, acting as a master to him. 16. Define the term narrative technique and explain how does it apply to Defoe s nov el. Narrative technique refers to the way a story is told how the author presents th e reader with the setting, characters, actions and event that make up a work of fiction. In a first-person narrative, like there is in Robinson Crusoe, the reader sees t he events unfold through the eyes of a single character: the narrator speaks as I and is himself a character in the story. When used in fictional works it lends a uthenticity, creating the illusion that the narrator is relating events that he has personally witnessed or experienced. 17. Characterize the language used by Robinson Crusoe. The language used by Robinson Crusoe is one that can be described as balanced, p recise, rational and even journalistic. It is a characteristic of realism, payin g great attention to descriptive detail. 18. What does Robinson s language reveal about his personality? His practical personality. 19. How would you describe (characterize) the relationship between Robinson and Friday? The relationship between Robinson Crusoe and Friday is a rather mixed one. We ca n distinguish two layers in it: the colonial master slave/servant relationship w here Crusoe teaches Friday to call him Master and is quite authoritarian over wh o does what; Friday, regardless to this, takes this relationship well, though it s just, ironically, a master-servant one and he actually welcomes and embraces it in a heavenly thankful manner and displays this affection to the relationship s o well that Crusoe takes it as a submission to servitude. The second layer is th at of the father son relationship where Crusoe holds a pleasant opinion of Frida y and takes very good care of him. 20. How would you describe the style used by Robinson, its effects and its event ual change? 21. Jonathan Swift, the man and the writer. Born on November 30, 1667, Irish author, clergyman and satirist Jonathan Swift g rew up fatherless. Under the care of his uncle, he received a bachelor's degree from Trinity College and then worked as a statesman's assistant. Eventually, he became dean of St. Patrick's Cathedral in Dublin. Most of his writings were publ ished under pseudonyms. He best remembered for his 1728 book Gulliver's Travels. Jonathan Swift was a complex, passionate individual. His biting satirical writin g has often given rise to the idea that he was a misanthrope. However, he showed great concern for his fellow human beings, spending a third of his income on ch arities and dedicating much of his time and writing to the causes of the poor an d the victims of injustice. 22. Define the term realism . The term realism is used to denote the attempt by writers to present an accurate

imitation of life as it is. The realist sets out to write fiction which reflect s a world that is convincing and recognizable to the common reader. He does this by: - Writing about ordinary characters, who have no special gift - Placing the characters in a setting that is familiar to the reader - Using a special literary style that gives the reader the illusion of actual ex perience. The style may be defined as reportorial or journalistic and it seems t o render the events in a matter-of-fact way - Being unselective in his choice of subject matter - Dealing in the same way with both trivial and the extraordinary - Paying great, almost scientific, attention to descriptive detail. 23. Speak about Swift s Modest Proposal (refer to the extract you have studied); w hat aspects does it reveal A Modest Proposal presents Swift s satirical solution of the problem of child pove rty in 18th century Ireland. It talks about the increasing number of abortions, the inability of mothers to work because of their children and how said children are forced to either beg, steal or leave the country and fight for the Pretende r in Spain. It goes on with a statistical analysis and Swift s proposal to sell th e children for meat, describing the many ways in which one could be cooked. 24. Making reference to Swift s Modest Proposal say which would you consider to be the objects of the author s satire in the studied extract? In a Modest Proposal, by Jonathan Swift, the main objective was to draw attentio n to the plight of the Irish people and motivate readers to find a workable solu tion. Swift suggests that the impoverished Irish might ease their economic troub les by selling their children as food for rich gentlemen and ladies.[2] This sat irical hyperbole mocks heartless attitudes towards the poor, as well as Irish po licy in general. A Modest Proposal also targets the calculating way people perce ived the poor in designing their projects. The pamphlet targets reformers who "r egard people as commodities".[6] In the piece, Swift adopts the "technique of a political arithmetician"[7] to show the utter ridiculousness of trying to prove any proposal with dispassionate statistics. 25. What is satire ? Satire is the art of ridiculing a subject through laughter and scorn. While come dy evokes laughter as an end in itself, satire uses laughter as a weapon against a vice. Satire may be directed at an individual, a type of person, a social cla ss, an institution, a political ideology, a nation or even the entire human race . Satirists try to use their art to improve the world we live in. By making the vice they target contemptible and repulsive, they hope to contribute to its elim ination. 26. Define the unreliable narrator. In fiction, as in life, the unreliable narrator is a narrator who can't be trust ed. Either from ignorance or self-interest, this narrator speaks with a bias, ma kes mistakes, or even lies. Part of the pleasure and challenge of these first-pe rson stories is working out the truth, and understanding why the narrator is not straightforward. It's also one tool an author uses to create an aura of authent icity in his or her work. Through Pamela's accounts in her letters to her parents and then in her own jour nal we can only see her as an unreliable narrator. She is always unsure about he r feelings towards the squire, sometimes feeling hatred, sometimes drawn to him in ways she can't explain. 27. ***Speak about Samuel Richardson s literary activity. Samuel Richardson (19 August 1689 4 July 1761) was an 18th-century English write r and printer. Richardson was an established printer and publisher for most of h is life and printed almost 500 different works, with journals and magazines. He is best known for his three epistolary novels: Pamela: Or, Virtue Rewarded (1740 ), Clarissa: Or the History of a Young Lady (1748) and The History of Sir Charle

s Grandison (1753). He quickly adopted the epistolary novel form, which granted him "the tools, the space, and the freedom to develop distinctly different characters speaking direc tly to the reader".[4]:235 The characters of Pamela, Clarissa, and Grandison are revealed in a personal way, with the first two using the epistolary form for "d ramatic" purposes, and the last for "celebratory" purposes.[4]:236 In his first novel, Pamela, he explored the various complexities of the title ch aracter's life, and the letters allow the reader to witness her develop and prog ress over time.[4]:237 The novel was an experiment, but it allowed Richardson to create a complex heroine through a series of her letters.[4]:239 When Richardso n wrote Clarissa, he had more experience in the form and expanded the letter wri ting to four different correspondents, which created a complex system of charact ers encouraging each other to grow and develop over time.[4]:243 However, the vi llain of the story, Lovelace, is also involved in the letter writing, and this l eads to tragedy.[4]:245 By the time Richardson writes Grandison, he transforms t he letter writing from telling of personal insights and explaining feelings into a means for people to communicate their thoughts on the actions of others and f or the public to celebrate virtue.[4]:258 The letters are no longer written for a few people, but are passed along in order for all to see.[4]:259 28. Define the novel of incident and the novel of character . A novel of incident is an article writing technique where the plot normally cont ains a foreseeable story line. It follows a classic narrative arc which has a na tural flow and tension that keeps the reader engaged. In a novel of incident, th e incident appears fully formed and has an immediate impact on the protagonist. Character based novels, similiarly, aim to take characters from bad, petrified s ituations, where they are stuck, by a process of events to a place where they ha ve a degree of insight and further emotional growth is possible. 29. Tell the story of Pamela. Pamela tells the story of a beautiful 15-year old maidservant named Pamela Andre ws, whose nobleman master, Mr. B, makes unwanted advances towards her after the death of his mother, whose maid she was since age 12. Mr. B is infatuated with h er, first by her looks and then her innocence and intelligence, but his high ran k hinders him from proposing marriage. He abducts her, locks her up in one of hi s estates, and attempts to seduce and rape her. She rejects him continually, but starts to realize that she is falling in love with him. He intercepts her lette rs to her parents; reading them, he becomes even more enamored by her innocence, intelligence, and continuous escape attempts. Her virtue is eventually rewarded when he sincerely proposes an equitable marriage to her. In the novel's second part, Pamela attempts to build a successful relationship with him and to acclima te to upperclass society. 30. How was the novel Pamela written and what were the effects created by the pe culiar style? Richardson first began writing Pamela as a conduct book , but as he was writing, the series of letters turned into a story. He then decided to write in a differ ent genre: the new form, the novel, which attempted to instruct through entertai nment. In fact, most novels from the mid-18th century and well into the 19th, fo llowed Richardson's lead and claimed legitimacy through the ability to teach as well as amuse. 31. Which narrative techniques does Richardson use most? The most used narrative techniques by Richardson are first-person point of view in letters that the character writes or in a journal in which the character repo rts daily happenings as well as the contents of letters received. An omniscient narrator intrudes briefly to inform the reader of events outside the scope of the character's purview. The author presents the chapters in the fo rm of letters or journal entries. After the conclusion, the author presents obse rvations intended to instruct the reader.

32. Describe Mr. B in the extract from Pamela A country squire, 25 or 26 years of age, with properties in Bedfordshire, Lincol nshire, Kent, and London. He is Pamela s employer, pursuer, and eventual husband. Richardson has censored Mr. B. s name in order to protect the pretense of non-fict ion, but scholars have conjectured based on manuscripts that the novelist had Bra ndon in mind. Mr. B. has rakish tendencies, and he attempts to compel Pamela s reci procation of his sexual attentions, even to the point of imprisoning her in his Lincolnshire estate. His fundamental decency prevents him from consummating any of his assaults on her, however, and under her influence he reforms in the middl e of the novel. 33. Tell the story of Swift s novel Gulliver s Travels. During his first voyage, Gulliver is washed ashore after a shipwreck and finds h imself a prisoner of a race of tiny people, less than 6 inches tall, who are inh abitants of the island country of Liliput. After giving assurances of his good b ehaviour, he is given a residence in Lilliput and becomes a favorite of the cour t. From there, the book follows Gulliver's observations on the Court of Lilliput . He is also given the permission to roam around the city on a condition that he must not harm their subjects. Gulliver assists the Lilliputians to subdue their neighbours, the Blefuscudians, by stealing their fleet. However, he refuses to reduce the island nation of Blefuscu to a province of Lilliput, displeasing the King and the court. Gulliver is charged with treason for, among other "crimes", "making water" in the capital (even though he was putting out a fire and saving countless lives.) He is convicted and sentenced to be blinded, but with the assi stance of a kind friend, he escapes to Blefuscu. Here he spots and retrieves an abandoned boat and sails out to be rescued by a passing ship, which safely takes him back home. 34. How would you define Gulliver s attitude towards the king? Gulliver s attitude towards the king is a patronizing one. He feels superior to hi m and his race and shows it. He talks about the king s narrowness of thinking, con fined education, narrow principles and short views. He is amazed of what he perc eives to be ignorance on the king s part. 35. Characterize Gulliver. Lemuel Gulliver is an unremarkable and unimaginative man from middle-class Engla nd whose voyages to foreign lands form the central plot. He is morally upright a nd honest but, as his name suggests, somewhat gullible. As he himself is honest, he naively assumes that everyone else is as honest, and hence believes what he is told. He is an everyman through whose eyes the reader sees and judges the peo ple he encounters. 36. How would you define Swift s style Swift's style is, in its line, perfect; the manner is a complete expression of t he matter, the terms appropriate, and the artifice concealed. It is simplicity i n the true sense of the word.

37. Which are the targets of Swift s satire; what does the writer satirize? Swift used the Lilliputians to satirize English politicians of his time, and sev eral Lilliputians are founded on real people with whom Swift was acquainted. Fli mnap, the Lord High Treasurer and most agile of the rope-dancers, is thought to be modeled upon Sir Robert Walpole, leader of the Whig party and the first prime minister of England in the modern sense. The Lilliputian king's agreement to th e plan that Gulliver be blinded and starved, presented ironically as an example of his mercy and justice, is a satirical reference to King George I's treatment of captured Jacobite rebels. George had them executed after he had been lauded i n Parliament as merciful.

38. ***What were Fielding s most memorable works? Henry Fielding is remembered as a novelist and playwright, who, with Samuel Rich ardson, is considered a founder of the English novel. Among his major novels are Joseph Andrews (1742) and Tom Jones (1749). Worthwhile reading on its own is hi s Author's Preface from Joseph Andrews in which he describes his ideas about the new genre, the novel, in which he is writing as well as his view of the nature of comedy. 39. What are the innovative elements in Fielding s novels? Fielding s novels inherited some techniques of expression or art inclination, at t he same time added his unique creation in many aspects. Fielding is the first wr iter who described the society and human life massively, exposed mercilessly and satired bitterly variety of evil social practices and dark phenomenon in Englis h political society. 40. Which narrative mode is used in the extract from Tom Jones? How would you de fine the narrator? The narrative mode in this novel is a third-person omniscient and the narrator i s considered intrusive. The narrator enters the novel from the beginning and rar ely leaves for an extended length of time. He explains every nature of the story , both the plot and the method of writing. He shows how the plot thickens with e ach added character and explicates why he utilizes a specific form of writing in one instance rather than in another (such as the use of a quasi-epic style). Al so, every book begins with a formal introduction from the narrator. 41. How are the characters presented in the passage from Tom Jones? What about t he tone of the literary fragment? The characters are presented through their actions and words. The tone of the fr agment is a satirical and light-hearted one. 42. Fielding described his novel as a comic epic in prose . Can you mention both ep ic and comic elements which appear in the fragment? An epic has a strong protagonist who does heroic deeds and has a broad scope of action; that is, the events take place over a wide range of time and place. Tom Jones fulfills all these requirements of an epic. The picaresque novel is after synonymous with comedy and low comedy at that. Tom Jones is no exception. Certain characters like Thwackum , Squire Western and ev en Tom Jones himself are the source of great humour. While Thwackum reveals hims elf as charlatan masquerading as a philosopher, the hollowing figure of Squire W estern certainly belongs to stage comedy. 43. What is the narrator ? Define each type of narrator. In a novel, the person who is telling the story is reffered to as the narrator . Th e narrator may be first-person or third-person. - The first-person narrator has a part in the story. He speaks as I and usually tal ks about himself although he may also narrate a story about other people; - The third-person narrator stand outside the story. He always refers to the cha racters by names or third-person pronouns. He may be omniscient or non-omniscien t; - The omniscient narrator knows everything about the fictional world he is in. - The non-omniscient narrator tells the story in the third person, but limits hi mself to what is experienced, thought and felt by a single character or at most by a very limited number of characters in the story; - The intrusive narrator has opinions about the characters and expresses his vie ws on the personalities or events; - The non-intrusive narrator does not comment or evaluate. He remains impartial. 44. Referring to the definitions of the narrator and the fragment from Fielding s Tom Jones, explain why the narrator in Fielding s novel is defined as a third-pers

on omniscient intrusive narrator. The narrator is considered intrusive for the reason that he explains the plot an d the method of writing. He also does exactly what he says, such as ending a cha pter directly when he says he will end it. The chapter closes and the next opens . The narrator openly communicates whit the audience, to the point of dictating exactly who makes up the audience at specific times. 45. Tell the story of Fielding s novel Tom Jones Tom Jones is a foundling discovered on the property of a very kind, wealthy land owner, Squire Allworthy, in Somerset in England's West Country. Tom grows into a vigorous and lusty, yet honest and kind-hearted, youth. He develops affection f or his neighbour's daughter, Sophia Western. On one hand, their love reflects th e romantic comedy genre that was popular in 18th-century Britain. However, Tom's status as a bastard causes Sophia's father and Allworthy to oppose their love; this criticism of class friction in society acted as a bitingsocial commentary. The inclusion of prostitution and sexual promiscuity in the plot was also origin al for its time, and the foundation for criticism of the book's "lowness." 46. ***Present the life and work of Laurence Sterne. What do you think the aster isks represent and why does the narrator choose to use them? (1713 - 1768) Novelist, born in Clonmel, County Tipperary, Ireland. Laurence Sterne came of a distinguished family, though he gained no advantage from it. At Cambridge, where he was a poor discontented scholar, he became friendly with John Hall-Stevenson who later in life placed at his disposal a large private library and encouraged him to join the carousing and crack-brained fun of a club called the Demoniacs which met at Crazy Castle. Apart from these bouts of conviviality, Sterne was ordained in 1738 and settled to his career as a conscientious country parson who earned some reputation both as a wit and as a preacher. In 1759 he wrote the first two volumes of his eccentric and influential comic no vel The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy. These were issued locally at his o wn expense; soon, however, they were so popular in London itself that he was abl e to obtain a contract for a new volume each year during the rest of his life. The remaining volumes appearing between 1761 and 1767. Unfortunately, success ha d barely reached him when tuberculosis showed itself. From 1762 he lived mainly abroad for health reasons. A second trip in search of health resulted in A Senti mental Journey in 1768, a jocose mixture of travel, gossip and novel spiced with oddity yet sweetened with sentimentalism. It was while he was in London supervi sing the publication of this book that he suffered a sudden relapse and died. His Letters from Yorick to Eliza (1775-1779) contained his correspondence with a young married woman to whom he was devoted. A profusion of dashes, a cluster of asterisks, and blank spaces are familiar fea tures of Laurence Sterne s prose, and have attracted comment since his eighteenthcentury readers first handled his books. Both The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman (1759-67) and A Sentimental Journey through France and Italy ( 1768) repeatedly manipulate their typographical and rhetorical components to sug gest meanings that lie beyond printed words. [1] This, of course, is an appare ntly hidden meaning left to the reader to unravel; it is he or she who might gue ss where one of Sterne s many signature dashes might lead, he or she who might att empt to substitute a word where asterisks conceal potential bawdy with seeming d elicacy, such as Toby s innocent suggestion that Mrs Shandy prefers a female midwi fe as she does not care to let a man come so near her **** 47. How is the tone used by the author in the passage? In the fragments studied the tone of the author is playful and friendly. 48. Sterne is acknowledged as an innovator, transforming his readers into active contributors; in what way is the reader called upon to make an active contribut

ion to the text you have studied? The reader must interpret the graphical innovations used by Sterne, in this frag ment the asterisks. The reader is also addressed directly by the narrator in sev eral places. 49. Define the term anti-novel and Sterne s contribution to it; mention the anti-nov el features in Tristram Shandy A non-conventional plot in which the hero of the story is born in the third volu me of the book; an eccentric narrator who, for example, tells the reader to turn back several pages and read a passage a second time; syntactical, layout and ty pographical innovations such as unfinished sentences, blank pages and dashes or asterisks which the reader must interpret. 50. Speak about the emergence of Journalism in the Restoration period The new middle-class readership was largely Puritan and preferred factual writin g over fiction, which they regarded to some extent as lying. In response to this taste there was a remarkable proliferation of journalistic writing. Two great f igures stand out Richard Steele and Joseph Addison. Steele- started publishing The Tatler in 1709. He understood that the readers ne eded to be entertained as well as informed, so he included in his newspaper arti cles on fashion, taste, gossip, dueling and gambling as well as serious pieces o n the political issues of the day. Addison Steele later joined with Addison to publish a new periodical called The Spectator (1711-1714). This one contained more essays on literary and moral issu es and was less concerned with political news. 51. Prose in the Restoration Age The great political and social turmoil of the first half of the 17th century was reflected in the prose writing of the time. The burning issues of religion, edu cation, politics and philosophy were the subjects of pamphlets, essays and treat ies. Robert Burton The Anatomy of Melancholy (1621) is an analysis of the causes, sym ptoms and cures for melancholy, which was considered an illness at the time. Thomas Browne Religio Medici (1642) is a spiritual autobiography in which he sho ws that religion and science can coexist. John Milton Although he preferred poetry, he wrote some excellent pamphlets incl uding Areopagitica (1644) a defense of free speech and writing, and Of Education (1664) in which he expresses his opinions on how young people should be educate d. The writings are very influenced by Latin. Thomas Hobbes Wrote Leviathan (1651) in which he expresses his support for absol ute monarchy. John Locke Supported the opposite viewpoint in his Two Treatises of Government ( 1690) The second half of the century saw the emergence of a new literary form the diar y. Worth mentioning for their diaries are Samuel Pepys, John Evelyn 52. Poetry in the Restoration Age: the Cavalier poets, the Metaphysical poets The Cavalier Poets defended the monarchy against the Puritans during the reign o f Charles I. They included Robert Herrick, Thomas Carew, Robert Lovelace and Sir John Suckling. They wrote poetry for occasions such as births, marriages or gre at parties. They are remembered primarily as the first poets to celebrate the ev ents of everyday life. The Metaphysical poets, who included George Herbert, Richard Crashaw and Henry V aughan, followed in the tradition of John Donne. The features of Metaphysical po etry are the use of conceits, the argumentative quality of the love poems, the d ramatic quality of the language, the wide range of subjects, the use of wit. John Donne although he lived in the Elizabethan period, his poems were published posthumously and belong both thematically and stylistically in this period. In S

ongs and Sonnets Donne deals with the theme of love in a way that strongly contra sts with the Elizabethan tradition. In Holly Sonnets he deals with religious theme s in an equally original way. The poet addresses God in a tone that is often irr everent. Andrew Marvell Combined features of both schools. John Milton Paradise Lost John Dryden Also shows classical influence. He became a master of the heroic cou plet and rhetorical devices. His best work is political Absalom and Achitophel, written in support of the court in a period of political crisis. He was a great influence on Alexander Pope. 53. The Enlightenment, a general background The Enlightenment was a sprawling intellectual, philosophical, cultural, and soc ial movement that spread through England, France, Germany, and other parts of Eu rope during the 1700s. Enabled by the Scientific Revolution, which had begun as early as 1500, the Enlightenment represented about as big of a departure as poss ible from the Middle Ages the period in European history lasting from roughly the fifth century to the fifteenth. The Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment, however, opened a path for inde pendent thought, and the fields of mathematics, astronomy, physics, politics, ec onomics, philosophy, and medicine were drastically updated and expanded. The amo unt of new knowledge that emerged was staggering. Just as important was the enth usiasm with which people approached the Enlightenment. Seventeenth-century England endured a pair of tense struggles for political powe r that had a profound impact on the philosophers of the English Enlightenment. T he first power struggle came in 1649, when the English Civil War resulted in the execution of King Charles I and the establishment of a commonwealth under Olive r Cromwell. Although this republic endured for a decade, it also essentially dev olved into dictatorship, and England ended up reverting to monarchy with the res toration of Charles II to the throne. The reestablished monarchy had clear limit s placed on its absolute power, however, as was made clear in the bloodless Glor ious Revolution of 1688, in which the English people overthrew a king they deeme d unacceptable and basically chose their next rulers. The English people rallied behind James II s Protestant daughter, Mary, and her husband, William of Orange, who led a nonviolent coup that dethroned James II and sent him to France. Thomas Hobbes Wrote Leviathan (1651) in which he expresses his support for absol ute monarchy. John Locke Supported the opposite viewpoint in his Two Treatises of Government ( 1690) 1649 English Civil War overthrows Charles I, installs Cromwell 1651 Hobbes publishes Leviathan 1688 Glorious Revolution unseats James II, installs William and Mary 1689 English Bill of Rights drafted 1690 Locke publishes Essay Concerning Human Understanding and Two Treatises of G overnment 54. The development of the English novel in the Augustan Age The 18th century novel was, to a large degree, an evolution of the non-fictional prose-writing of the period. Prose fictional works of the previous centuries, b ased on legends, ancient battles and chivalrous medieval adventures had little a ppeal for the new middle-class readers who wished to read about themselves and t he world they lived in. Five towering literary figures Daniel Defoe, Samuel Rich ardson, Henry Fielding, Jonathan Swift and Laurence Sterne moulded fictional pro se into a literary form that appealed to the 18th century reader. In doing so th ey created the dominant literary genre of the next three centuries: the modern n ovel. Defoe: presented his story as a true one, making it more acceptable to middle-cl ass readers. His hero also had a strong appeal for the new readership as he was a perfect example of the Puritan ideal of a self-made man. Richardson: His contribution to the development of the novel lies in the attenti

on he paid to his character s psychological profiles. His characters are not simpl y men of action involved in perilous adventures: they have inner worlds of feeli ng and emtions which he explores with insight and sensitivity. Fielding: He considered the novel to be a comic epic in prose , dealing not with th e heroic actions of the classic epic poems but with the unimportant and preferab ly humorous events of daily life. He was the first English novelist to create a well-structured complex plot involving many characters drawn from different soci al classes. Swift: While Fielding employed humor to criticize the failings of the 18th centu ry society, Swift used hard-hitting and at times bitter satire. He stands out am ong English writers of his century as the one who attacked most fiercely the sho rtcomings of his society and of man in general. Sterne: Perhaps the most innovative work in the new field of novel-writing was d one by Lawrence Sterne, an Anglican priest who seemed to adhere to none of the r ules that had been established for the new genre. Sterne seems to suggest that t he orderly chronological narration of events which could be found in other novel s of the period did not reflect the perception of time and space which exists in the human mind. In his attempt to capture human consciousness, Sterne foreshado ws the work of 20th century novelists such as James Joyce and Virginia Woolf.