Poultry Manual For Trainers and Producers

GOOD PRACTICES IN SMALL SCALE POULTRY PRODUCTION:
A manual for trainers and producers in East Africa
FAO ECTAD REGIONAL UNIT EASTERN AFRICA, NAIROBI, KENYA
GOOD PRACTICES IN SMALL SCALE POULTRY PRODUCTION: A manual for trainers and producers in East Africa
Good practices in small scale poultry production
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of contents 3 Acknowledgements 7 Introduction 8 1. The different production systems 10 1.1 The traditional free-range system 11 1.2 The improved free-range system 13 1.3 The small scale confined system (Broilers) 13 1.4 The small scale confined system (Layer) 14 2. The management of free-range and small scale confined poultry units 15 2.1 What you will find in this chapter 15 2.2 Biosecurity issues 15 2.3 How to improve management (free-range systems) 15 2.3.1 Flock management 16 2.3.2 Housing and hygiene 16 2.3.3 Feed and water 16 2.3.4 Health 19 2.3.5 Understanding poultry behaviour 20 2.3.6 Daily rhythm and careful observation 22 2.3.7 Controlled brooding 22 2.3.8 Natural incubation and hatching 23 2.3.9 Management of young chickens using a basket system 25 2.4 Simple rules for better management in free-range systems 27 2.5 How to improve management (small-scale confined systems) 28 2.5.1 Flock Management 28 2.5.2 Housing and hygiene 28 2.5.3 Feed and water 28 29 2.5.4 Health 2.5.5 Behaviour 29 2.6 Simple rules for better management in small scale confined systems 29 3. Selection and breeds 30 3.1. What you will find in this chapter 30 3.2. Background information 30 3.3. How to improve selection 30 3.3.1 Animal Selection 31 3.3.2 Breed selection 33 3.3.3 Cross-breeding 35 3.3.4 Challenges of cockerel exchange programs 35 3.4. Simple rules to choose the right breed and improve selection 36 3.5. Recommendations for improvement of biosecurity Breeding stock and their products 36 4 Housing 37 4.1. What you will find in this chapter 37 4.2. Common practices in free-range systems 37 4.2.1 Biosecurity issues related to housing in free-range systems 37 4.3. How to improve sheltering in free-range systems 37 4.4. Simple rules to make a better shelter in free range systems 45 4.5. Common practices in small scale confined systems 46 46 4.5.1. Broilers 46 4.5.2. Biosecurity issues in broiler houses 4.5.3. Layers 46 3
4.5.4. Biosecurity issues in layer houses 46 4.6. How to improve housing in small-scale confined systems 47 4.7. Simple rules for better housing in small-scale confined systems 47 5. Feeds and Feeding 48 5.1. What you will find in this chapter 48 5.2. Scavenging 48 5.3. Supplementary feeding 49 5.3.1. What feed? 49 5.3.2. How much? 52 5.3.3. How? 53 5.4. Mixing and formulating feeds 55 5.5. Simple techniques for growing maggots and termites 57 5.6. Feeds and feeding for small scale confined chickens 59 5.7. Feeders and drinkers 59 5.8. Feeds and risk of disease transmission 61 5.9. Simple rules for better feeding 61 5.10. Requirements for improved biosecurity - Feeds and water 62 6. Health and Disease Management 63 6.1. What you will find in this chapter 63 6.2. Background information 63 6.3. Biosecurity issues 64 6.4. How to improve disease control 64 6.5. Brief description of the main diseases affecting poultry 68 6.5.1 Viral diseases 68 6.5.2 Bacterial diseases 70 6.5.3 Parasites 70 6.5.4 Fungal diseases 73 6.5.5 Nutritional diseases 73 6.6. About vaccination 74 6.6.1 Vaccination methods 74 6.6.2 Vaccination and disease prevention calendar 78 6.7. Simple rules for better health of chickens 80 81 7. Profitability and marketing of products 7.1 What you will find in this chapter 81 7.2 Background 81 7.3 Biosecurity issues 81 7.4 How to improve marketing of poultry and poultry products 81 7.4.1 Marketing of free-range birds: 82 7.4.2 Marketing of eggs 84 7.4.3 Keeping records 84 7.4.4 Materials and feed 85 7.5 Economic analysis and simple risk assessment 88 7.5.1 Cost-benefit calculation 89 7.5.2 Risk assessment 90 7.6 Simple rules to achieve higher profitability 92 7.7 Recommendations for improvement of biosecurity - Marketing of products 94 8. Glossary 95
Illustration 1: A poorly managed unit 13 Illustration 2: Example of simple housing for up to five hens (night basket) 17 Illustration 3: Example of a single house for 10-20 birds (From Senegal) 17 Illustration 4: The house, feeders and drinkers should be cleaned regularly. 17 Illustration 5: Lime-washing the inside of the house for disinfection 18 Illustration 6: Drinkers and feeders should be kept clean to avoid spread of diseases 19 Illustration 7: A separate shed or cage may be necessary to isolate ill or newly purchased birds 20 Illustration 8: Dust bathing is important for poultry to keep clean 21 Illustration 9: Careful observation of the flock on a daily basis is important 22 Illustration 10: Pecking often occurs if birds are kept inside for days 22 Illustration 11: Home-made egg candlers using either your hand or a wooden box and a torch 23 Illustration 12: a) infertile egg; b) egg with a dead embryo c) egg after 7 days of incubation 24 Illustration 13: Inadequate management for brooding hens 24 Illustration 14: Good management for brooding hens 25 Illustration 15: Day basket with a jute mat, a feeder and a drinker inside 26 Illustration 16: Management of young chickens using the day basket system 27 Illustration 17: Physiognomy of healthy and strong cock and egg-layer 31 Illustration 18: A healthy chick 31 Illustration 19: a) Hen in lay; b) hen outside lay 32 Illustration 20: Different ecotypes: Frizzled feathers, naked neck and dwarf 34 Illustration 21: Classical shape of breeds producing a) eggs, b) meat and c) both 34 Illustration 22: Housing should first of all protect against predators and bad weather at night 38 Illustration 23: A badly constructed chicken house 40 Illustration 24: A well constructed chicken house 40 Illustration 25: Perches should have an appropriate diameter 41 Illustration 26: Sticks should match the size of the birds feet 41 Illustration 27: Battery of nests for laying hens 42 Illustration 28: Nests for broody hens should be placed in a quiet place 42 Illustration 29: Simple nests for broody hens are easily made and can easily be moved 43 43 Illustration 30: Preparing a nest in three steps Illustration 31: Shelter for chicks after hatching 44 Illustration 32: Chicken runs may be used for feeding, watering, and observation of the flock 45 Illustration 33: Correct feed and water is essential to increase production 49 Illustration 34: Feed types split into sources of a) energy, b) proteins, c) minerals, d) vitamins 50 Illustration 35: Scorching bones or eggshells to produce calcium-rich bone meal 51 Illustration 36: Bone meal and salt are mixed in matchboxes in a 13:1 ratio 54 Illustration 37: The cafeteria system. 54 Illustration 38: Growing maggots 58 Illustration 39: Growing termites 58 Illustration 40: Simple drinker made of an old tin can and a plate 60 Illustrations 41, 42: Feeders and drinkers may also be made locally from wood, clay, or metal 60 Illustration 43: Commercial drinker/feeder in plastic or metal 60 Illustration 44: Characteristics of healthy and unhealthy birds 65 Illustration 45: The most common methods for vaccination 66 Illustration 46: A poorly managed flock 67 Illustration 47: A) Newcastle disease in advanced stage; B) Fowl pox; C) Gumboro disease 69 Illustration 47: A) Mareks Disease; B) Chronic respiratory disease; C) Diarrhoea 71 Illustration 48: Internal parasites as found in the faeces 72 Illustration 49: Behaviour of poultry infested with external parasites plus flea, mite and tick 72 Illustration 50: Scaly legs at three stages caused by scaly leg mites 73 73 Illustration 51: Symptoms of nutritional diseases: a) Feather loss; b) Leg deformation Illustration 52: Good management equals healthy birds 74 Illustration 53: Never vaccinate a sick bird 75 5
Illustration 54: Important vaccination tools Illustration 55: Boiling water to disinfect needles and syringes before vaccination Illustration 56: It is important to handle the syringe and needle correctly Illustration 57: One full 1 ml syringe is usually enough for ten adult birds Illustration 58: The most common methods for vaccinating adult poultry Illustration 59: Two persons vaccinating adult poultry by injection in the breast muscle Illustration 60: Example of vaccination and disease prevention calendar Illustration 61: Transportation of chickens should be in cages as illustrated on the right. Illustration 62: Birds for sale Illustration 63: Eggs for sale Illustration 64: Keep records of the production and sales Illustration 65: Record keeping for small-scale chicken production (for illiterate farmers). Illustration 66: Record keeping for small-scale chicken production (for the illiterate farmer) Illustration 67: Revenue from poultry is expressed in money as well as meat, eggs, manure Illustration 68: Income is often spent on a variety of items including food, schooling, housing Table 1: Characteristics of small-scale poultry production systems Table 2 : Supplement requirement and total feed requirement at different ages Table 3: Simple calculation for supplement requirement per day Table 4: Simple rations for supplementing local chicks of 0-6 weeks (total 930 g) Table 5: Examples of protein and energy sources Table 6: Examples of composition of 1 kg feed mixture for local chickens at different ages Table 7: Examples of diets for chickens (contents of 1 kg feed). Table 8: Problems related to some feeds Table 9: Examples of poultry feed prices and quantity measures in Benin (January 2002) Table 10: Simple feed price calculation (based on Table 11: Types of diseases and possible treatments Table 12: Record keeping for small-scale chicken production Table 13: Record keeping for small-scale chicken production (investment and running costs) Table 14: Example of small-scale free-range system, 52 weeks plan (Tanzania 2008) Table 15: Cost-benefit analysis based on example in Table 14 Table 16: Supplementary feed needed for a flock of 30 free-range birds in one year Figure 1: Sources of introduction of diseases into a flock
74 76 77 77 77 77 79 82 83 84 85 87 88 89 93 11 52 53 54 55 56 56 57 57 57 65 86 86 90 91 92 64
Acknowledgements
This Manual is based on the manual which was first developed by the Danish Poultry Network. It has been adapted to the East African local conditions, based on an analysis on biosecurity in Kenya made by Prof. Philip Nyaga in September, 2007 and a similar analysis in Tanzania made by Dr. Halifa Msami also in September, 2007. I am most grateful to both for their reports. Adapted versions of the first manual have been used in several countries supported by Danida through the Agricultural Sector Programme Support or NGO supported agricultural development activities. In Vietnam, Dr. Jens Peter Tang Dalsgaard, ASPS livestock advisor, his colleagues, and local technical advisors have given fruitful feedback on techniques and training issues. In Benin, Dr. Christophe Chrysostome, FSA-UAB and his colleagues have tested several techniques and approaches and given valuable feedback. In Bangladesh, Burkina Faso, and Senegal rural development efforts supported by Danida under different development programmes and projects have provided useful information on technical as well as training issues. Likewise, Dr. Baba Funso Sonaiya from Nigeria has offered valuable contributions. In Denmark, the Danish Poultry Network has received important critique from poultry development experts Mr. Hans Askov Jensen, Mr. Peder Lund, Mr. Peter Wollesen, and Dr. Hans Ranvig. I wish to thank Dr. Emmanuelle GuerneBleich, Prof. Uswege Minga and Dr Philippe Ankers from FAO/AGAP for their valuable contribution in critically editing the Manual. I am grateful to Dr. Manuel Sanchez, and Dr. Simon Mack from FAO/AGAP who gave important feedback and advice on the first draft and for their support in terms of access to previous training material and drawings published through the UN system. I am grateful to FAO for offering me the International consultancy position which made the preparation of this Manual possible.
Anders Permin FAO Consultant
Introduction
Nearly all rural and peri-urban/urban families in the developing world keep a flock of poultry, either in a free-range system or in a small scale confined system. The birds are mainly chickens. In free-range systems, birds are traditionally owned and managed mostly by women and children. The poultry and their products are used for home consumption, as gifts, or for religious purposes. Additionally they are sold to earn some income to buy household food items, such as sugar and salt as well as school provisions for their children. In small scale confined systems the chickens are kept for commercial purposes in order to support family income. Small-scale poultry production is an obvious and well-documented opportunity for poor farmers to start an income generating activity. Poultry are cheap, easy to rear, and easy to manage. Consequently, there has been and there is a growing attention and interest in poultry production in villages as well as in peri-urban and urban areas throughout the developing world. However, existing manuals and books either give advice on industrial production systems using improved (imported) breeds under highly controlled conditions, or very simple field guides giving little useful advice on how to rear poultry with profit in mind at village level. This manual is based on existing knowledge on how to improve village poultry production systems with relatively few inputs. This manual will exclusively deal with free-range systems consisting of small flocks of indigenous chickens or their crosses and smallholder flocks of improved or hybrid commercial chickens. In the light of the spread of Avian Influenza (AI) and the increased attention paid to this disease worldwide, protection against diseases is an important focus in this manual. Although not mentioned in words all the time, AI is the main reason for the suggested improvements in biosecurity and husbandry in general. For instance a common practice for smallholder farmers, in the village as well as in urban or periurban areas has been to eat or sell sick birds. This practice is not recommended with the presence of Avian Influenza and should in the future be avoided, due to the high risk of infection from the sick bird. Also the common practice of keeping poultry in the family house is to be discouraged. The manual is based on the authors own experience and research, international literature and on recent country specific country reports on poultry production and biosecurity in Kenya and Tanzania. Also the manual is based on the outcome of workshops held in the two countries to discuss biosecurity in poultry production. It will be found useful in most developing countries. The primary target groups of this manual are veterinarians, para-veterinarians and animal production experts in the government and private sector, involved with
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smallholder poultry development at village, peri-urban and urban level. A secondary target group is literate small-scale poultry farmers and local poultry workers. Safe poultry production includes several possible interventions - overall termed as biosecure production. The most important interventions are reflected in the titles of the six following chapters of the manual: 1. General Management 2. Animal selection and breeds 3. Housing 4. Feeds and feeding 5. Health and Disease management 6. Profitability and Marketing of products Each chapter gives background information and possible solutions to practical problems in everyday management of a small-scale indigenous and hybrid poultry production under village, peri-urban and urban conditions in developing countries. The improvement of indigenous poultry at village, peri-urban and urban level has been attempted for many years in terms of e.g. cockerel exchange schemes or vaccination programmes. Unfortunately, very few of these projects have had success over the years. Our analysis and research has pointed towards a number of problems, i.e. lack of training of the farmers, lack of organisation and lack of follow-up and support being some of the main problems. Similarly smallholder farmers of the hybrid commercial poultry do experience production constraints mainly due to lack of suitable extension packages and training in poultry production. When instructing farmers in improving poultry management and production, it is important that the training takes place in a participatory manner. Involvement and learning are enhanced when the participants are part of the training. It is therefore essential that the participants are encouraged to come forward with their own experiences, and that the discussions are based on their local practices and problems. Likewise, practical instruction, where the participants prepare equipment out of local materials, mix local feeds or discuss the advantages of buying equipment and feed, highly increases their ability to remember what they have learned. The participatory approach and learningby-doing will create a direct connection between the training and the challenges the farmers encounter when implementing new methods. Furthermore, it is important to acknowledge the need for support and long term commitment. Unfortunately, poultry production is not done overnight by donating a flock or offering a vaccine free of charge without the appropriate support. Both the free range and the smallholder commercial poultry production systems are covered in this manual. The emphasis is mainly on chickens because, according to the country reports, it is the most predominant poultry raised in developing countries and East Africa in particular. Although the preparation of the manual was prompted
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by the HPAI outbreaks, it has covered most of the important poultry production issues and will be useful even after HPAI has been controlled, since the biosecurity measures recommended for HPAI are the same as for other infectious poultry diseases.
1.The different production systems Poultry production systems can be categorized into four types (Sectors 1-4). Sector 1 refers to large scale integrated commercial producers, often including production of great grand parent or grand parent flocks, i.e., the breeding flocks. Sector 2 refers to large scale production farms (over 10 000 birds). The management practices described in this manual focus on sectors 3 and 4 which are the small scale commercial and backyard production systems. For the purpose of this manual, these have been divided into: The scavenging backyard production system with indigenous poultry (Traditional free-range) An improved version of this backyard system, sometimes involving improved birds (Improved free-range) The more intensive small scale commercial poultry production system with hybrid poultry (Small scale confined). These types of production are currently practiced by smallholder farmers in rural, peri-urban and urban areas (Table 1). It is easier to have a higher level of biosecurity if the flocks are kept in confined areas. It is however a major challenge to introduce biosecurity practices in flocks with access to outdoor areas. These aspects will be discussed further later in this manual. Improved smallholder poultry management implies addressing a number of practices in the traditional free-range systems and to some extent in small scale confined systems. First of all, it is essential to improve the biosecurity and protect the animals against diseases by vaccination (when appropriate) and to treat sick animals with the right medications or quarantine to avoid further spread. Other management issues are also largely neglected, i.e. housing against bad weather, predators and theft; hygiene, feeding and marketing of the products. Moreover, it is important that the poultry keeper makes sure that the flock has the right flock size in relation to feed and space available, and that the best animals are selected for breeding. All these aspects of poultry production need to be considered in order to increase productivity, income and improve poultry health and biosecurity in general. Since the main purpose of poultry production is to generate income, the costs must be kept to a minimum so as to ensure that the selling price covers all costs plus a profit.
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Table 1: Characteristics of small-scale poultry production systems

Traditional free-range Low input/low output Owned mostly by women Home consumption, sale at gate (traders) and at local market Small cash income Social & cultural importance(gifts, religious) Low input Indigenous breeds Limited health care No vaccination No medication, High mortality No feeding (scavenging) Simple housing or no housing Egg production: 30-50 eggs/y/hen Long broody periods Growth rate = 5-10 g/day Improved free-range Low input/medium output Owned by women & family Home consumption and sale at gate (traders) and at local markets Family income Social importance Micro-credit Indigenous/ improved breeds Improved husbandry and health care, Newcastle Disease vaccination Limited medication/local remedies Moderate mortality Local feeds (semi-scavenging) Simple housing Egg production: 50-150 eggs/y/ hen Short broody periods Growth rate = 10-20 g/day Small-scale confined High input/high output Businessmen, women Sold at gate (traders), live bird markets, restaurants, supermarkets Business income Little social importance Credit based on assets Hybrids (broilers or layers) With good health management Several vaccination schemes Full medication Low mortality Balanced feeds Houses with cages or deep litter Egg production: 250-300 eggs/y/ hen No broodiness Growth rate = 50-55 g/day
1.1 The traditional free-range system The present situation in most of the developing world is that village poultry is left with minimal care. The birds find their feed by scavenging in compounds around households. In addition they may get leftovers from the harvest and from the kitchen. This type of production is very cheap, but nutritional needs of the birds are difficult to meet. It is often observed that: Owners do not provide water and birds do not get enough water, or they get dirty water that can transmit diseases. Birds do not have access to an enclosure or a shelter to protect them from wind and rain, or to keep them safe from predators and theft except at night in some communities or during early crop growing season. Nests for hens are rarely provided, causing the birds to lay their eggs on the ground. Many eggs go bad before they are not hatched because of
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disturbances, lack of proper feed and water, and annoying external parasites which make the hen leave the eggs and results in low hatchability. Young chicks follow the mother hen immediately after hatching. When young chicks are left scavenging together with adult birds, they have to compete for feeds. As a result there is very high chick mortality during the first weeks of life, mainly due to insufficient nutrition, chilling, diseases, predation by eagles and snakes, drowning in pools of water and road accidents. Consequently many birds die very young, often five out of ten or 50% of the chicks die within the first 8 - 12 weeks. With simple interventions being advocated in this manual however, this mortality can be brought down to a loss of only 1- 2 birds out of 10. These practices are summarized in Illustration 1. The free range scavenging system is based on hens with an ability to go broody and rear their own chicks. This has many advantages, but the long broody periods reduce egg production. Often chickens are the main product to be sold, and a few eggs are consumed in the household, not sold. In this system, birds are seldom vaccinated or given medicine against diseases or parasites, as veterinary treatment is not available or not seen as being important and profitable. Different poultry species, like for instance, chickens, ducks, pigeons, turkeys and guinea fowls are often kept together and birds bought in the market or other villages are mixed with the household flocks, increasing the risk of disease transmission among birds and between birds and humans. If there is a general lack of essential nutrients, resistance against diseases is low, and many birds may get ill. They grow slowly and unevenly, producing fewer eggs and less meat. Birds that roam everywhere may easily get infected and spread diseases. When one bird has a contagious disease, there is a serious risk that many birds in the flock or village will be infected. It might spread to humans if it is a zoonotic disease. Village poultry production often encounters problems related to lack of organisation, which implies that inputs, such as feed, medication, veterinary services, and training, are rarely available. Without organisation and knowledge about the potentials of village poultry, the poultry keepers receive very little support and advice from each other or from livestock extension workers. As a consequence, the traditional poultry production remains rudimentary, with low monetary profit. An enabling environment includes training, the availability of daily support, services, feeds, proper care of chicks, veterinary services and may be availability of credits.
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Illustration 1: A poorly managed unit Note the dead birds lying around, offals, predators, poorly maintained chicken house and lack of water. 1.2 The improved free-range system Chickens in this system are sometimes selected as high yielding indigenous birds. Crosses between indigenous chickens and pure breeds such as the Rhode Island Red (RIR) are sometimes encountered. The productivity of such birds is high. By improving some management procedures with regard to housing, feeding and health, smallholder free-range poultry production can generate a considerable income, not negligible for poor rural households. Often improvement of the care of chicks and vaccination (mainly against Newcastle Disease and Fowl pox) can minimize the losses. In this production system, a farmer may decide whether to produce eggs or meat for sale. Thus, if a farmer wants to sell eggs, it is essential to prevent the hens from going broody, whereas this is desirable when farmer wants to rear chickens for the market. 1.3 The small scale confined system (Broilers) This sector comprises small scale production systems with smallholder farms keeping up to 2,000 broilers per farm for commercial purposes. This number is sometimes higher.
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The farmers source day old chicks from a hatchery. They buy commercial feeds from feed shops and drugs from the nearest supplier. There are normally many small-scale feed millers and the supply meets the demand. But the quality may vary from one source to another. Sometimes, farmers add ingredients into commercial feeds with the intention to improve quality. This is not recommended unless the farmer is sure of the ingredients which are missing or inadequate in the feeds purchased. Chicken houses may have earth or cement floors but the upper half of the walls have wire netting while the bottom half is made of mud walls, wooden planks, iron sheets or brick walling depending on the financial ability of the farmer. Corrugated iron sheets are normally used for the roofing. Wood shavings are used for the deep litter and water is supplied in commercial drinkers or home made drinkers both manually filled with water. Feeders are usually wooden troughs, plastic or metal commercial feeders placed conveniently in the poultry house. 1.4 The small scale confined system (Layer) This sector comprises small scale production systems with smallholder farms keeping hybrid layer flocks. In East Africa, farmers obtain day old layer chicks and feeds from the same sources as farmers producing broilers. Some farmers keep both commercial layers and broilers. The flock size may vary from 200 to 4000 birds, however, most farmers keeping layers have medium sized flock of 400-600 birds. The general structure of the layer houses are the same as for the broilers except that laying boxes are provided and that there is more space per square foot per bird for the layer houses compared to the broilers houses. Feeders and drinkers are similar to those described above for broilers. Pullets mature and start laying when they reach the age of five to six months (20-24 weeks). Vaccination is normally done as recommended by the veterinary department or by the manufacturer depending upon the disease challenge in the area. When the egg production drops to below 45 percent the birds are culled, which may be at 18-24 months of age. In East Africa, disposal of culled birds and spent layers entails a risk. There are no organized markets for such birds. Birds are sometimes transported live on top of buses, in open pickups or on bicycles, with the risk of sick birds shedding disease agents along the transport route to the cities or the municipal chicken markets.
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2. The management of free-range and small scale confined poultry units 2.1 What you will find in this chapter The chapter gives an overall picture of aspects related to management. Some of these aspects are further developed in subsequent chapters. Management practices which are used in East Africa and other developing countries are described and areas of improvement are described. The chapter should assist trainers to help the farmer adopt better management practices in or at their farms. Furthermore, this chapter gives an overview of interventions that will improve production and make the farm a safer and more profitable place. Some of these interventions imply a move from the traditional free-range system into what is often called a semiscavenging system or the improved free-range system, which is more efficient but requires capital investment and a secured market for the product. From there, a farmer with the additional skills found in this manual may choose to change to go from a freerange system into a small-scale confined system with the use of commercial layers or broilers and compounded home made or commercial feeds. 2.2 Biosecurity issues
Traditional and improved free-range systems
Birds bought to replace breeding stock may introduce diseases. In the traditional sector, breeding birds are normally acquired from live bird markets, bought from neighbors or received as gifts from friends and relatives. In exceptional cases breeding birds may be bought from a national indigenous poultry breeding/research station. Disease management (vaccination and treatment) rarely exist in free-range production systems. By not vaccinating or treating against diseases, birds are at high risk of being infected by diseases. Confinement and housing or the absence of them also bring risks with them. In many cases, traditional free-range poultry do not have a separate shelter and share the living quarters or kitchen of the farmer. The shelters are used by poultry during the night only. On the other hand, farmers who have shelters, build very simple structures whose floors may be made of earth or in rare cases, cement. The structures are mostly grass thatched and in a few cases roofed with corrugated iron sheets. The shelters are rarely cleaned and hence un-hygienic. The shelters, husbandry and slaughter practices as well as marketing facilities in the traditional system lack the biosecurity dimension. Likewise, the access to outdoor areas where the birds are scavenging is a risk.
Small scale confined system-Broilers
Entry of day old chicks on the farm entails risk. Chicks might introduce diseases to a farm. Shelters where wild birds, domestic animals and vermin can enter pose a risk.
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Unrestricted human movement, absence of footbaths and disinfectants pose a risk. Poor hygiene of the shelters increase risk. Improper use of poultry manure entails risks.
Small scale confined-Layers
Improper cleaning and disinfection of houses and the common practice of farmers of not restricting entry of visitors to the flock house expose the birds to potential infection. Other examples of risk factors are: poor personal hygiene particularly lack of regular washing of hands, reuse of egg trays without proper disinfection lack of footbaths, home slaughter of spent chickens and disposal of chicken manure without composting.
2.3 How to improve management (free-range systems) 2.3.1 Flock management To produce fertile, hatchable eggs, one cock is needed for approximately 10-15 hens. When surplus cocks reach a marketable size, they should be sold, slaughtered, or given away as presents, to prevent the cocks from eating the scarce feed resources, as well as from fighting and stressing the hens. This may be avoided by selling young cocks. Young cocks can easily be recognized by their tail feathers, their comb, and their general (aggressive) behavior and appearance in comparison to the hens. Always take into consideration that the size of the flock should match the size of the house, the amount of feed one can produce or afford to buy, and the feed resources in the environment (scavenging feed resource base). 2.3.2 Housing and hygiene A simple night-basket or chicken house (Illustration 2 and Illustration 3) will diminish the risk of loss because of bad weather, predators, and theft. Inside a chicken house the birds need perches to sit on when they sleep. If one puts the nests inside the chicken house as well, it is easy to find the eggs, and the hens will not be disturbed when laying eggs.
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Illustration 2: Example of simple housing for up to five hens (night basket)
Illustration 3: Example of a single house for 10-20 birds (From Senegal) In order to prevent diseases, including internal and external parasites, good hygiene is a must (Illustration 4). Thus, feeders and drinkers should always be kept clean, and the house and the nests must be cleaned for droppings, insects etc. Fresh straw or hay should be put in the nests weekly. Adding a little ash on top can prevent parasites (see chapter four on housing for more details).
Illustration 4: The house, feeders and drinkers should be cleaned regularly.

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The house, the perches, and the nests should be thoroughly cleaned and subsequently painted with lime at least twice a year, and always after serious outbreaks of diseases, (Illustration 5). If problems persist in small wooden cages or houses, the best thing is to burn them and build a new one, as parasites may hide in even the smallest cracks. Additional advice on housing will be found in chapter four.
Illustration 5: Lime-washing the inside of the house for disinfection 2.3.3 Feed and water To produce well and have good resistance against diseases, birds need adequate quantities of good quality feed and clean water. Depending on the time of the year they will be able to find part of their feed by scavenging in the surroundings of the household. But often they need an extra supply of nutrients in order to gain weight and to lay a good quantity of eggs. Supplementary feed and clean water should be given at least early in the morning and again in the evening when the birds are returning to the house for the night. It is important that the feeders and drinkers are kept clean, so that infections do not spread through dirty feed and water (Illustration 6). Day-old and small chicks need protein-rich feeds or mixtures from simple supplementary sources such as maggots, snails and termites. Young chickens should be fed separately
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away from the adult birds. It is best for them to have a special diet, and not to have to compete with the adults for feed. It is very important for small chicks always to have access to clean water, as they may easily die from dehydration or infection. There is more information on management of young chickens later in this chapter. See chapter five for more advice on feeds and feeding.
Illustration 6: Drinkers and feeders should be kept clean to avoid spread of diseases
2.3.4 Health It is recommended that a farmer should not buy animals at the live bird market or from uncontrolled or unknown sources, especially not during periods when outbreaks of diseases are occurring, since contagious diseases may be introduced into the flock. All birds must be vaccinated against Newcastle Disease and other diseases prevailing in a specific area such as Fowl Pox, to prevent mortality. Chicks should be vaccinated against the common contagious diseases at the age of 2-3 weeks. Re-vaccination should always be performed according to the instructions of the veterinarians or health workers. If a serious disease is suspected, the farmer should isolate or kill the bird, call the veterinarian, or use drugs to treat the bird when adequate and if one is absolutely sure of his/her diagnosis. If the bird is not killed at once, it must be separated from the others. Dead birds (or parts from dead birds) should be burned or buried deep enough (about 1 m) to avoid and prevent dogs and other animals from digging them up and spread the disease. If there are many sick animals, the cause of the disease must be established before introducing new birds or vaccinating. If cases of Newcastle disease or Avian Influenza are suspected, the farmer must always call the veterinarian in order to have this suspicion confirmed or rejected.
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Illustration 7: A separate shed or cage may be necessary to isolate ill or newly purchased birds Before introducing new birds into a flock, they must be kept isolated for two weeks in a shed or cage (Illustration 7). The same structure can be used for the isolation of sick birds. For further advice see chapter six on disease and health management. 2.3.5 Understanding poultry behaviour In the wild, chickens will form small flocks of 1-5 hens with one cock. Normally smallholder farmers will keep small flocks of 4-10 hens and one cock, but flocks may vary from one up to around 30 adults and young growers, depending on the feed resource base and disease level in the area. Up to this number they will still be able to recognize each other, which will help minimize conflicts among the birds. Each cock or hen in the flock enjoys his or her special status in relation to the others, implying that some have priority over others when choosing places for nesting, for resting, for scavenging, etc. High-ranking animals will have nice feathers and combs, and their posture will show their dominant position. If a low-ranking hen comes too close to a hen of higher rank, the latter may indicate this by stretching her neck and turning her bill towards the intruder. Normally this will suffice for the other to retire. The ranking may change according to age, brooding, and other factors. The system of more or less stable dominance is very practical, since the animals can be free to concentrate on finding food and watch out for enemies once the pecking order is established. At point of lay an indigenous hen often weighs 1.2 1.5 kg. A mature cock normally weighs 1.4 2.0 kg. Often a free-range hen will lay the first egg at the age of 22-32 weeks (6 to 8 months) and lay in 3-4 clutches of 10-15 eggs each clutch a year and that is 30 to 60 eggs per year, depending on availability of feeds. A hen will often find a dark, quiet place for laying eggs and for brooding. After 21 days of incubation, fertile eggs will hatch. In most cases, out of 10 eggs around 8 will contain live chicks.
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Poultry have a very constant rhythm day in and day out. In the early morning and late afternoon they scavenge for food. Later in the morning the hens will often lay eggs, and at noon they will rest. When they sleep at night, they prefer to sit high in order not to be easy preys for predators.
Illustration 8: Dust bathing is important for poultry to keep clean To protect against very high or low temperatures and to be fit to escape predators, it is important for birds to have good feathers. They therefore spend much time cleaning and preening their feathers with their beaks. Further, at least once a day, they will dust bathe, which also protects them against external parasites (Illustration 8). The birds should always have access to a dry place for dust bathing. If they prefer a certain place, the farmer should add a little dry lime or ash to protect them against parasites. 2.3.6 Daily rhythm and careful observation It is very important the farmer spends some time each day observing the flock carefully (Illustration 9). In this way early signs of disease, malnutrition, or other problems may be discovered, and the necessary precautions taken. Knowing each hen will also help you choose eggs from the best hen for hatching, so that the chicks may inherit her good qualities. Eggs for sale should be collected in the morning and again in the evening. In this way they will not be dirty or cracked when the hens sit on them, and the hens will not be tempted to brood as when there are many eggs in the nests. Eggs should be stored in a cool (below 20C) and humid place until sale or brooding. A farmer may encounter problems with hens pecking each other (Illustration 10), but mostly this happens in flocks with high density, or if the birds are kept inside during the day. Wounds from pecking should be treated immediately with wound remedies to avoid cannibalism in the flock. Access to green fodder, roots or tubers will limit cannibalism. Farmers must keep records of their poultry production. This will make it easy for farmer to know successes and problems at an early stage. See chapter seven for advice on record keeping.
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Illustration 9: Careful observation of the flock on a daily basis is important
Illustration 10: Pecking often occurs if birds are kept inside for days 2.3.7 Controlled brooding As stated above, hens start laying eggs at the age of 22-32 weeks, depending on the breed, their health, and development. Often indigenous hens will start much later than imported (exotic) breeds. Hens around 40-50 weeks (10 to 12 months) of age lay most eggs, and then their egg production gradually decreases. If a mature hen lays very few eggs, it should be sold or eaten. In small flocks, it is relatively easy to check whether the hens are laying eggs or not (Illustration 19). Laying hens should have easy access to calcium rich feed that may be supplemented by calcium rich sources such as crushed snails, sea-shells or burned egg-shells. Farmer should provide nests in the hen house for laying. In this way it is easy to find
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the eggs, and they can be kept clean. In order to teach the hens to lay their eggs in the nests, farmer may place a couple of eggs or stones looking like eggs in the nests. The eggs should be marked properly to know which eggs are new and should be collected. When hens go broody and sit on the eggs, they always stop laying. By collecting eggs several times a day, the farmer may avoid that the hens become broody. If a hen goes broody, and the farmer doesnt want her to, the hen should be separated immediately from the rest. The hen may for example be isolated in a small cage in a cool place, without access to nest material for a few days. Other methods are sometimes used, but with no evidence of success. The methods include for example, dipping the broody hen in cold water twice daily until the hen stops brooding, dipping vents of broody hens in cold water once a day for three days and plucking the tail feathers. The farmer should not hatch new chicks if one does not have enough feed for them. If too many chicks are hatched, they may die from starvation or malnutrition, or their resistance to diseases will be reduced. 2.3.8 Natural incubation and hatching An indigenous hen lays 15-20 eggs before she starts incubating and hatching the eggs. For chickens it takes 21 days of incubation for eggs to hatch, for ducks it takes 28 days. Eggs should be fresh before incubation. The age of eggs should be no more than 10 days, when stored at temperatures below 20 C or in a cool humid place under a shelter or inside a house in a box placed on the floor of the coolest part of the house. If the temperature is higher, the eggs should be no more than 5 days old. Eggs from different hens can be colleted for incubation by one hen. To obtain the best incubation result, the eggs selected for incubation should be of average size and normal shape. Further, the eggs should have a smooth shell without cracks. If there are cracks in the shell, the loss of moisture from the egg can be too high and the chick may die. There is also a risk of bacteria entering the egg, which may lead to unhealthy or dead chicks. Eggs for sale may also be stored in the same place. During incubation one should always check which eggs are fertile and which are not fertile. Fertile eggs very quickly develop blood vessels, which may be seen against a sharp light from a torch.
Illustration 11: Home-made egg candlers using either your hand or a wooden box and a torch
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Illustration 12: a) infertile egg; b) egg with a dead embryo c) egg after 7 days of incubation After 7-10 days of incubation the eggs can be candled, and the infertile eggs and eggs with dead embryos can be removed from the nest. Illustration 11 shows two simple egg candles and figure Illustration 12 shows how fertile eggs, infertile eggs, and eggs with dead embryos are identified at the age of 7 days. When candling, a fertile egg has visible blood vessels and a dark spot, if the embryo is dead. The blood vessels can be more or less developed depending on how strong the embryo is. If the chick is dead, a ring of blood can be seen around the embryo. An infertile egg has an enlarged air space and the yolk causes a visible dark area in the egg. It is important that infertile eggs and eggs with dead embryos are removed from the nest as they will decompose and may break and spoil the fresh eggs under incubation. A brooding hen should be separated from the flock to prevent other hens from disturbing her. The hen should be kept in a separate nest with free access to fresh water and feed within a short distance. The hen should be provided with a brooding nest or basket big enough to contain all her eggs. Fresh hay or straw should be put in the nest and some ashes added to avoid parasites. More eggs from other nests should be added until the hen has enough according to its size. As a rule of thump a hen can sit on a number of eggs equal to 10 times her body weight, e.g. a hen of 1.5 kg can sit on maximum 15 eggs.
Illustration 13: Inadequate management for brooding hens In the illustration above, the hen is disturbed by others. She does not have easy access to feed and water. The temperature is too high. The hen is infested with parasites, which disturbs her. The result is that few eggs will be hatched, and that too few of the hatched chicks survive as they easily get ill and die.
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Illustration 14: Good management for brooding hens In the illustration above, the hen is now left alone with easy access to feed and water. She leaves the nest only shortly to drink and feed. The temperature is agreeable. The nest is well managed with clean hay and anti-parasitic remedies. The result is high hatchability and healthy and lively chicks most of which survive. In the dry and hot season, farmer ought to spray the breast of the hen with water to increase the humidity around the eggs. The hen will do the work of hatching perfectly if she has the right conditions, for example a clean and suitable nest and quiet surroundings. If only a small number of chicks is to be hatched, a free-range hen is a better brooder than an artificial incubator, as she will normally have a higher rate of hatching (80-100 %) than an incubator (60-80 %). After hatching and until the chicks are old enough to be on their own - usually around six weeks of age - the hen will protect the chickens from adverse weather conditions and predators by covering them with her wings. Indirectly, the hen will have protected the newly hatched chicks against diseases for the first two weeks via antibodies in the yolk; and slowly she will transfer her natural behavior to the chicks. Natural behavior means knowing how to search for food and water, which feed to take and which to avoid, how to avoid predators by hiding or seeking shelter in bushes and trees, how to keep healthy by dust bathing, etc. The hen normally starts laying again 6-8 weeks after hatch, but a strong bond between hen and chicks still exists. 2.3.9 Management of young chickens using a basket system In hot climates, the best and cheapest method to guard the young newly hatched chicks is the so-called basket system. Young chickens should be kept with their mother overnight in a night basket which is a round conical cage with a floor, see Illustration 15. An alternative to the basket may be made provided it serves the same purpose adequately. A night basket may be made from bamboo or thin pieces of wood. Dry cut straw, rice husks, saw dust or wood shavings of 8-10 cm depth can be used as litter. In the morning, the chicks should be removed from the night basket and kept in a day basket, which is a bottomless conical cage, see figures 1.17 and 1.18. A dry jute or straw mat should be placed in the cage if the soil is damp or wet. The day basket should be moved to a new clean spot every day to avoid diseases. The night basket is closed in order to prevent predators from entering and in order to keep the hen and chicks warm at night.
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The basket can easily be moved around. The day basket needs to be bigger and more open in order for the chicks to move around without the hen stepping on them and in order to secure good ventilation. There has to be room for a small feeder and drinker. When the weather is hot, the chicks often do not need extra heat, but they should be protected against wind and rain.
Illustration 15: Day basket with a jute mat, a feeder and a drinker inside The basket system may be used according to the schedule pictured in Illustration 16: A: 0-1 week of age: Should keep the hen with the chicks from 4 to 7 days to protect them and to adjust the temperature. She will know exactly how to adjust the temperature according to the sound of the chicks. Farmer must make sure that there is easy access to clean water and high-protein feed for the chicks. Ensure that the basket is always kept clean, by removing droppings and spilled feed on a piece of paper or a woven mat placed beneath the basket. B: 1-3 weeks of age: Should keep the chicks in the cage all the time, but let the hen out for scavenging during the day. She should be able to hear the chicks from where she moves. If she wants to enter the cage and if the weather is cold, she should be allowed to do so by letting her in. Farmer must make sure the chicks have easy access to clean water and high-protein feed, and ensure that the basket is kept clean at all times. Keep hen and chicks together during the night. C: 3-6 weeks of age: Hen and chicks must be kept together during the night, but gradually as the chicks grow, should be let out to scavenge with their mother during daytime, at first only for a few hours in the morning and then gradually a little longer. However the chicks should still have easy access to clean water and high-protein feed under the basket, but the entrance should be too small for older birds to enter (creep feeding). The basket and the ground must be kept clean at all times. D: After 6 weeks: At 6 weeks of age, the basket system should be removed, and the chicks let out to scavenge freely together with the mother hen and other adult chickens. Supplementary feeding must be given in the evening for the whole flock, according to their needs (see chapter on feed).
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Illustration 16: Management of young chickens using the day basket system 2.4 Simple rules for better management in free-range systems The farmer must: Receive training in poultry rearing; Provide a house or shelter with perches inside the house; Clean and disinfect the house on a weekly basis; Give unlimited access to clean water and make sure that feeding meets the nutritional needs of the birds; Vaccinate birds regularly according to the advice of local vaccinators or veterinarians; Monitor the birds health daily by observation and watching their behavior; Isolate a bird when it becomes ill and call the veterinary assistant or kill the bird; Report disease to veterinarian promptly; Manage the flock size by making sure that it corresponds to the feed and space available; Check the reproduction status of each hen once a month, give right care to hens that are brooding and kill or sell non-productive birds, i.e. cockerels and old hens that have stopped laying; Provide nests, and check nests for eggs two times a day (layers); Protect the chicks by using a day basket during day and a night basket during night and separate young chicks from adults when they are fed; Make calculations of production costs and income and make sure that production is profitable.
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2.5 How to improve management (small-scale confined systems) 2.5.1 Flock Management It is important that farmers source their day old chicks from certified hatcheries. Contacts between the broiler chickens and indigenous birds including ducks and turkeys must be restricted as these species might transmit disease, i.e. Avian influenza, but also Pasteurella multocida, Salmonella spp and E. coli for example. It is recommended to keep not more than 25 birds/m2, however, with warm and humid settings less birds/ m2 (down to 10) is highly recommended to avoid death from heat stress. 2.5.2 Housing and hygiene Broiler production should be an all in all out operation. This practice diminishes the risk of diseases and furthermore it enables the farmer to disinfect and maintain the housing facilities in hygienic condition between flocks. A period of 3 weeks between flocks is recommended. During this period the house should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected with e.g. lime wash. All equipment inside the house should also be washed and disinfected. There are many designs for broiler houses. In this context it should be mentioned, that the construction should be made of materials that are easy to maintain, wash and disinfect. In particular: there should be sufficient ventilation in the house; the floor should be made of concrete; windows should be covered with chicken wire-netting which does not allow wild birds to enter the broiler house; a foot bath (40x40x10 cm) with disinfectant should be placed outside the house at the entrance and visitors should not be allowed entry into the house. 2.5.3 Feed and water To ensure a good quality broiler and an even size within the flock, commercial feeding is recommended. Depending on the commercial breed, restricted feeding might be necessary. Such details should be enquired and obtained from the hatchery. Clean water should be given ad libitum. It is important that the feeders and drinkers are kept clean, so that infections do not spread through dirty feed and water. According to many farmers in East Africa, commercial feeds do not always meet the nutritional requirements of the birds and it might be possible to encounter deficiency diseases related to lack of vitamins or minerals in the feed. An analysis of the feed will reveal any such problems. These diseases can be avoided by adding additional vitamins and minerals. In addition, growth rate might be low because of poor quality feeds. Broilers should normally be ready for sale beginning from the age of 35-40 days old when they ought to reach a live weight of 1.5 to 1.8 kg.
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2.5.4 Health The recommendations given for free-range poultry apply here as well. However, it should be noted that commercial breeds grow faster. Especially broilers which are ready for sale at the age of 35-40 days. The short production period reduces the risk of infection with diseases, except for viral diseases with an epidemic nature such as Newcastle Disease or Avian Influenza. For such diseases, the situation might be the opposite, as epidemic diseases spread faster in flocks with a high density. 2.5.5 Behaviour Unlike free-range flocks, a broiler flock may be of 500 to 50,000 birds and hence normal behavior of the birds is no longer possible and hence management of such flocks must take that factor in account. Diseases spread at a higher rate in large flocks compared to small flocks of 30 birds. Therefore entry into the flock should be restricted and if possible done by the same personnel to avoid outbreak of fear in the flock. Fear in the flock can cause massive death. The majority of recommendations for broiler farms also apply for the layer farms. However, a flock density of only 5 layers/m2 is recommended in deep-litter systems. 2.6 Simple rules for better management in small scale confined systems The farmer must: Receive training in poultry rearing; On a weekly basis, clean and disinfect the house including the nests, all equipment and egg trays. Egg trays should be the washable plastic type or else must be for single use only. Make sure wild birds or other animals cannot enter the house; Should give unlimited access to clean water and make sure that feeding meets the nutritional needs of the birds; If the feed is a commercial diet ask for a quality assurance certificate; Should inspect the birds health daily by observation and watching their behaviour; Should vaccinate the layers regularly according to the advice of vaccinators or veterinarians; Must isolate a bird when it becomes ill and call the veterinary assistant or kill the bird; Should check the reproduction status of each hen once a month, and slaughter or sell non-productive birds; Must restrict visitors access to the poultry house(s); Should calculate the costs and income to see if the production is profitable. Use the all-in-all-out concept.
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3. Selection and breeds 3.1 What you will find in this chapter The trainer will become familiar with basic concepts and meaning of breeds and their production characteristics and how to select birds for optimal productivity. 3.2 Background information In free-range systems, indigenous chickens are the main type kept. The indigenous or local chickens are strictly speaking not a breed. In such systems, breeding is usually not controlled. Local indigenous birds have different sizes and plumage color, and varied genetic potential. For example, they can be classified as follows: frizzle feathered, naked neck, barred feathered, mauve feathered, black feathered, dwarf size birds. But there are many other types. The biodiversity of the indigenous chicken is immense and there is thus great need for their conservation. In the 1960s and 1970s pure breeds of exotic chickens were introduced in many developing countries in small numbers. These were Rhode Island Red, Light Sussex, New Hampshire Red, Black Australorps and white leghorns. Later the Plymouth Rock, the Barred Rock and the Buff Rock were introduced. In the 1970s, hybrid layers and broiler flocks hatched from imported eggs were introduced and later from imported breeding stocks raised in the country. The cross breeding programmes have to some extent influenced the local genetic pool in some villages. Farmers keeping indigenous chickens or crosses hatch their own day old chicks from eggs that have been incubated by brooding hens. The original breeding stock may have been sourced from a relative, neighbor or friend given as a gift or the farmer might purchase from the local market. Today, commercial layer and broiler farmers obtain their day old chicks from either hatcheries or import directly from sources abroad that are approved by the veterinary authorities. This is regulated to prevent importation of chicks infected with e.g. Avian Influenza. In the advent of HPAI, governments in the region have banned importation of any poultry and poultry products from countries that have reported H5N1 HPAI. However even the locally produced commercial day old chicks are at risk of being infected when being transported from the hatchery in the dirty vehicles which might have been used to take eggs, live birds and feeds to the market. Furthermore, the large number of birds in commercial enterprises is another risk for multiplying diseases and propagation of a disease in a flock in the small scale confined poultry production system.
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3.3. How to improve selection This chapter addresses the situation in both free-range and small scale confined systems. Selection for small scale confined systems is especially important for the farmers when they buy their birds from hatcheries. Selection of healthy birds in the villages, markets or hatcheries is important to secure a healthy flock and high productivity. One should therefore know how to judge the quality of both sexes of different types at various ages, based primarily on their appearance, size, sound, and behaviour (Illustration 17). Judging a day-old chick, a full-grown cock, or a laying hen, naturally demands different skills. The features to look for become even more complicated when dealing with different breeds with distinct looks, behaviour, and purposes, i.e. egg laying or meat producing. Here are simple guidelines on how to select a healthy animal at different ages. Criteria for breed selection are also given. Careful interpretation must be made when dealing with the different ecotypes of local chickens in East Africa.
Illustration 17: Physiognomy of healthy and strong cock and egg-layer 3.3.1 Animal Selection It is important to look for different features in chicks, growers, hens, and cocks. Select or buy new animals early in the day, as stress from lack of water, feed, and rest, will make most animals look rather sick and drowsy. Stress caused by lack of water and feed can also lower the birds resistance to diseases and it may even die.
Illustration 18: A healthy chick

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Note: A soft belly and a clean, dry navel are important features of a healthy, newly hatched chick A healthy, newly hatched chick should have the following features: Well developed body length and depth; Shiny, dry, thick, and coloured down feathers; Soft belly; Clean, dry navel; Thick shanks with spaced and straight toes; Big, clear eyes; Lively behaviour. A healthy good broiler should have the following features: Appear healthy and lively; Feathering shiny and normal (may depend on the breed); Large size for the age; Eyes clear and shiny; Clean and dry beak and nostrils; Clean feathers around the vent; Straight legs and toes. A healthy and good egg-layer should have the following features: Should appear healthy and lively; Feathering normal for the breed; A red comb (more colored when in lay); Eyes clear and shiny; Clean and dry beak and nostrils; Clean feathers around the vent; Straight legs and toes, with no signs of scaly legs; Legs less colored in lay; The breast bone should not be sharp; A big broad bottom (laying status can be checked, see Illustration 19).
Illustration 19: a) Hen in lay; b) hen outside lay

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In small flocks, it is relatively easy to check whether the hens are laying or not. Check with your hand. The distance between the pubic bones (top) will be equivalent to two fingers when the hen is in lay. Only one finger may pass between the pubic bones when the hen is outside lay. The distance between the pubic bones (top) and the breast bone (bottom) will be equivalent to three to four fingers when the hen is in lay. Only two fingers may pass when the hen is outside lay. The criteria must be interpreted carefully when selecting indigenous chickens. A healthy and good cock should have the following features: Alert and protective nature; Shiny and normal feathering for the breed; Clear and shiny eyes; Clean and dry beak and nostrils; Clean feathers around the vent; Straight legs and toes with no signs of scaly legs; Large size relative to the hens. It may be an advantage to keep records on the growth and productivity of each bird in order to select birds according to features such as egg production, growth (meat production), and broody behavior. Keeping records may help you select the best layers or the best mother to protect the chicks. See chapter 7 for examples on record keeping. If new birds are bought on the market and brought back to the farm, it is important to isolate them in separate houses or baskets for the first two weeks. This will enable the farmer to find out about possible diseases or disorders in the new birds. If they show signs of any kind of illness, the birds should be slaughtered. When a bird is bought either at the market or at a hatchery the farmers should ask whether they have been vaccinated, and if so, against which diseases. Vaccination as criterion for selection of indigenous chickens may not apply. 3.3.2 Breed selection When the farmer has taken on improving the productivity and survival of local freerange poultry through improved management, housing, feeding, chick protection etc., she/he may embark on better selection and breeding the best indigenous chickens from her/his own flock. These will be chickens which produce a large number of eggs, hens having good mothering ability, have big bodies and large eggs. The farmer may wish to add other criteria such as plumage etc. The advantage of the indigenous chickens is that they are well adapted to the local and usually harsh environment. The farmer may want to further increase productivity by introducing better breeds. A breed is a group of poultry with a characteristic body form and feather contours. Chickens belonging to one breed are genetically very closely related. Production traits are determined by the breed these unique characteristics are inherited from one generation to the next. Also features such as the comb, color of ear lobes, and shank
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colors and length are usually determined by breed. In every breed, different varieties can occur, usually determined by plumage color. Thus a white and a black hen may just be different varieties of the same breed. Illustration 20 show three different breeds commonly found in tropical regions. Strictly speaking these are not breeds, but rather ecotypes, they have diverse genetic make up, examples are Frizzled Feathers, NakedNeck, and the Dwarf. Naked-Neck genes are found in almost every village and are believed to be a natural adaptation to avoid heat stress. Frizzled Feathers may look ill at a first glance, but is also a common ecotype in most village-based systems. In some countries, Frizzled Feathers are higher priced in the markets than normally feathered poultry. Dwarf poultry show standard colors and plumage, but tend to be 2/3 of the normal size for poultry, mostly because of the short shanks.
Illustration 20: Different ecotypes: Frizzled feathers, naked neck and dwarf In small scale confined systems, chickens kept are usually hybrids. Chickens of one type of hybrid are genetically and phenotypically almost identical. Hybrid chickens are usually kept for two distinct purposes, that is, either egg or meat production. High productivity in either egg or meat production is a result of specialized breeding programmes. The so-called dual-purpose breeds are also results of breeding programmes and may produce more eggs as well as more meat than traditional indigenous birds. It is important to select birds that are suited for the kind of production the farmer has in mind, and that the birds are fit for the conditions under which they are kept, e.g. free-range or confinement. Also check out whether they are able to adapt to hot climates. The features of birds specialized in egg production, meat production, or both (dualpurpose) are shown in Illustration 21. Laying hens are boat-shaped with a long straight back and a big bottom. Meat producers (broilers) are long-legged, have a more upright position and wings placed in high position on the body. Dual-purpose breeds have body forms in-between layers and broilers. Local breeds often have the form of a dual-purpose breed, though much less heavy in body form and size.
Illustration 21: Classical shape of breeds producing a) eggs, b) meat and c) both
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For small scale confined and also large scale confined systems, highly specialized hybrids have been developed (crosses of several breeds), of which layers can produce 300 eggs per year and broilers can reach 2 kg in 6-7 weeks. To obtain this high production, the hybrids have very specific requirements to management, feeding, and disease management, and production costs are high. They are therefore not normally suited for free-range systems but should be kept in confined intensive production systems. 3.3.3 Cross-breeding To increase production from local chickens, crossbreeding with established breeds can be introduced. It is, however, important to consult professional breeders or breeding companies, who may recommend suitable and available breeds to increase egg production, growth, or both. It is important to be aware that the offspring will obtain different qualities depending on whether the cock or the hen of the new breed is used. This is because some qualities are sex-linked, and thus it is important to consult a breeder. In Bangladesh, the female of an Egyptian breed, Fayoumi, and the male of an American breed, Rhode Island Red (RIR), were crossed to produce a crossbred layer suitable for a semi-scavenging life under village conditions. The result was a laying capacity of up to 160 eggs/hen/year and a growth rate under semi-scavenging conditions of 10 g/ day. Furthermore, the brown-golden feathers were highly praised by the farmers, who named the breed Sonali (meaning Golden in Bangla). The cross of male Fayoumi and the female RIR did not give the same satisfactory results. It is also important to stress that if a cross-breed is introduced at village level, it is crucial that management, feeding, and health protection schemes are improved and secured at all times. 3.3.4 Challenges of cockerel exchange programs In many countries, a common attempt to increase production from local chickens has been to establish so-called cockerel exchange schemes. The idea was to improve the productivity of local birds by mating them with improved cocks. For several reasons, these schemes usually failed to work. First of all the introduced breeds that could not adapt to the hot climate, low feeding, and extensive management, and thus many of them died. Furthermore, the improved cocks were not as lively and active under village conditions as the local cocks and therefore lost in the mating competition for the hens. When reproduction succeeded, the first generation of these cocks often showed a slight increase in production, but as no strict breeding schemes were maintained, the effect was gone after a few generations. Other important potential disadvantages were loss of broodiness, reduced scavenging capability, and reduced survival. Diseases such as Newcastle Disease and Leucosis were introduced to new areas, and the result was high mortality among local birds. For all these reasons, it is very important that selection of breeding birds take place in the existing environment. Simple cockerel exchange programs as such are not recommended.
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3.4. Simple rules to choose the right breed and improve selection Practice judging the external features of cocks, hens, growers, and chicks, to know which features indicate a good healthy and productive animal. Always choose birds with a lively behavior. Always check whether the hens are in lay. A potentially good layer has a long straight back and a broad bottom. Always check the belly and navel spot of newly hatched chicks. Keep new birds isolated for 2 weeks before introducing them into the flock. Make sure that new birds are vaccinated against important diseases in an area and are free of parasites before being introduced into the flock. The results of crossbreeding should always be monitored carefully. Uncontrolled use of exotic cocks in free-range village production should be avoided. If the farmer uses crossbred or exotic breeds, she/he must make sure that housing, feeding, and health management are improved and available at all times. 3.5. Recommendations for improvement of biosecurity Breeding stock and their products For commercial flocks in small scale confined systems, it is recommended that the protocols and procedures in the hatcheries are monitored regularly to ensure that healthy day-old chicks are supplied. As a minimum a described biosecurity plan should be in place for hatcheries and all personnel should be trained accordingly. Furthermore, use of appropriate disinfectants in the hatchery and in the brooding house is mandatory. Day-old chicks should be carried and transported from the hatchery to the farm in clean chick containers and vehicles. For the indigenous chickens and their crosses in free-range systems, the farmer must provide clean beddings for the brooding hen and provide clean separate area away from the other birds where it can brood the chicks for at least the first two weeks. Further separation of the chicks for another 4-6 weeks is recommended. The selection of breeds appropriate for the respective production systems is important as hybrid chickens rarely can manage in a scavenging production system. Inadequate feed and feeding may lower the immunity of chickens, and the chickens become susceptible to diseases. When introducing new animals into a free-range flock, the animals should always be kept in quarantine for minimum 2 weeks. In all systems, the keeping of only one poultry species at the farm is strongly recommended.
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4. Housing 4.1. What you will find in this chapter The chapter includes a detailed description of different types of shelters, mainly for free-range systems. The purpose and the requirements of proper housing are described. Emphasis is on housing and biosecurity. Use of locally available housing materials is encouraged. One of the most important criteria of a good shelter is that it should facilitate easy cleaning and application of hygienic measures. This chapter should equip the trainer with adequate knowledge to advise the farmer on proper housing for chickens. 4.2. Common practices in free-range systems Commonly indigenous chickens are kept in a separate shelter which is located very near the main house for security purposes. Sometimes the chickens are kept in the family house. In both cases, chickens are housed during the night only. Where housing is provided, the floor and walls are made of wood planks and roofs are grass thatched. Some more advanced ones may have iron sheets for the roofs. In other places the houses are either elevated one meter above ground. Some of the elevated houses are made of intertwined thin sticks for the flooring and walls. Other chicken houses are made by simply surrounding the lower part of a granary with chicken wire-mesh, leaving a door for the chicken to enter. Most of the chicken houses have small doors and at times only young children may be able to enter through the doors. It will be difficult for adults to clean the shelter inside. 4.2.1 Biosecurity issues related to housing in free-range systems Indigenous chickens often scavenge for their feed. During this activity they might move up to 2 km a day. The scavenging activity increases the risk of spread of diseases. Also the construction of most houses in this sector makes them difficult to clean and disinfect. Movement between farms is not restricted and neighbors usually visit one another even during disease outbreaks. There are no footbaths for disinfectants. The poultry manure and slaughter waste are disposed within the farm area. 4.3. How to improve sheltering in free-range systems Housing is essential to protect the bird against incremental weather (rain, sun, very cold winds, dropping night temperatures), predators, and theft, and also to provide shelter for hens laying eggs and broody hens. And most important: housing is necessary in order to maintain a high level of biosecurity in the flock. Furthermore, a suitable or comfortable poultry house is extremely important to maintain an efficient production and for the convenience of the poultry farmer. In the following section, guidelines for type and size of chicken house, site selection, choice of building material and lastly the equipment needed for raising the poultry are discussed.
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Illustration 22: Housing should first of all protect against predators and bad weather at night The decision to build a chicken house should build upon a rationale involving an estimate of the costs, the durability, and immediate gain of using a house for the poultry. The simplest and often most cost-effective housing system for free-range poultry is the basket system (Illustration 15). Such night baskets may be placed in a quiet and dry place inside a building on the farm during night, either on the floor or hanging from the roof (to avoid snakes). A night basket may hold 5-10 chickens depending on the size. When a more elaborate structure is envisaged, it is important to build a chicken house of appropriate size (according to the flock size). One must consider carefully the site, the materials, and not least the costs involved. When choosing the right site, you should take the following points into account: A shady and dry place on flat but raised ground is preferable to keep the floor dry during the rainy season. It may be necessary to dig a drain around the house or to raise the ground first. Alternatively, the house can be elevated from the ground as in Illustration 3. A well-drained soil is desired. The area must not get flooded during heavy rains because the chickens can drown. Furthermore, it is very detrimental to have wet floors in a chicken house; it may lead to diseases. A sloping hillside provides good drainage and affords some protection also. For security reasons it is also important to have the chicken house near the living house so that the farmer is able to hear if chickens are disturbed by predators at night, or by a thief. However, the chicken house should not be located very close to the living quarters because it will create unsanitary conditions. Hence it should be located not less than 15 metres away from the dwelling houses.
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The orientation of a chicken house has to take into consideration the movement of the sun and the dominating winds, making the house naturally shaded and ventilated at certain times of the day. In most localities it is best to select a site in which the poultry house faces South or East. Windows placed on the south side of the house will be a good source of light and warmth during the cold weather and a good source of ventilation in hot weather. In a rectangular house the end walls must face East and West. This will ensure that only the end walls face the hot morning sun or the even hotter sun during the afternoon. Building the house Always use the cheapest materials like bamboo, wood, reeds, thatch grass, or clay bricks combined with cement. Remove the bark from the wood you use, as parasites often hide behind the bark. Clay houses should have windows with chicken wire mesh. A vent at the top of the house will ensure good ventilation. These measures will also give light, making it easier to work in the house. However, make sure winds will ventilate the house without making chickens or hens cold. The floor should ideally be made of concrete, but clay may also be used. It should be remembered that during the rainy season, rain and wind may cause severe chilling and hence farmer must protect chickens against that. Heat, humidity, and harmful gasses may be considerably reduced through good ventilation of the house or shelter. High temperatures can cause deaths or drop in egg production, low shell quality, and reduced weight gain. A combination of high temperatures and high humidity can kill young chicks. Placing perches and nests inside the house will safeguard against most predators. It will also help to keep the legs of the chickens and the eggs clean. The nests must be placed in a quiet place in the house, to make the hens feel comfortable and at ease. The best protection against diseases and parasites is good hygiene. It is therefore important that it is easy to clean the house/shelter. It should be tall enough for a grown-up person to work in there. In houses raised above the ground, cleaning will be easier if the floor is made of slats. Must make the nests and perches easy to remove when cleaning. Houses/shelters may be sprayed or lime washed after cleaning to disinfect and reduce the quantity of parasite eggs from the walls and cracks. One may put some ashes or dry lime on the floor and in the nests to keep off parasites. Grass, bushes and trees must be cleared for a distance of about 3 meters or more on all sides of the house to keep vermin (snakes and rats) away from the chickens. Trees are beneficial in the scavenging area and serve as a windbreak during the cold season and as shade during the hot weather, and protect from flying predators. In wooden houses, farmer should use slatted, raised floors to remove droppings and avoid predators. In clay houses, must use wire-meshed windows to avoid predators.
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Houses may be built on poles, well above the ground to protect the chickens from predators like dogs, rats, and snakes. Must build poultry house to prevent possible injury to the birds. Remove any sharp-edged objects from the house. The house has to be large enough so that there is sufficient room for the birds, and so that the air inside does not become too heavy with humidity and gasses. A round or square house of 1.5-2.0 m will hold 10-12 adult birds.
Illustration 23: A badly constructed chicken house The house is placed in the sun with a low flat roof and no windows, making it very hot and badly ventilated. It has a small door, which makes it difficult to get inside and clean it.
Illustration 24: A well constructed chicken house

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This well constructed chicken house is placed in the shade, has a high roof, and windows with wire mesh, providing good ventilation. The door is facing north to avoid direct sun. The door is big enough for a person to enter and clean the house frequently. Access Often the entrance to the chicken house is very small and it is not easy to enter the house. It is important that the opening to the chicken house is made big enough such that an adult person can easily enter and work in the house. Consequently, other precautions against theft should be taken. In order to guard against theft a lock may be fitted on the door. The shelter/house should be partitioned to provide for brooding hens. Perches Perches are important for chickens to rest on during night. Parasites may infect poultry resting on the floor, and perches often reduce the risk of external parasites crawling onto the chickens at night. It is also natural behavior of chickens to sleep above the ground in trees. Each one-meter perch may roost five adult birds. Perches are best made of bamboo or round sticks to accommodate for the size and structure of the birds feet. If the sticks are too big or too small, the birds may fall. Perches can also be square and flat: 5-10 cm broad. To prevent attack of external parasites, the perches may be treated with waste oil or kerosene, where they meet the wall.
Illustration 25: Perches should have an appropriate diameter
Illustration 26: Sticks should match the size of the birds feet
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Nests Often, nests are not provided for the hens, and eventually the hens will lay their eggs on the ground, in high grass or in natural shelters, where they may be difficult to find. Some poultry farmers build nests on the ground outside the chicken house. This should be avoided, as eggs outside houses are exposed to predators and theft. Nests should be placed inside the chicken house and preferably above the ground. For laying one may have a battery of nests where more hens can lay at a time (Illustration 27). There must be 1 nest for every 5 hens. The nests may be made of local materials or, for small scale confined systems, there are commercially available nests made of wood and rubber floor. These commercially available nests are preferred due to the easiness of cleaning.
Illustration 27: Battery of nests for laying hens The nests for brooding, on the other hand, must be individual, placed in a quiet and dark place, and they must be easy to move (Illustration 27). Once the hen is broody, it may be necessary to move her to a different place, preferably a quiet place, e.g. a storage house, to prevent people and other hens from disturbing her. Other hens can go broody as well, if they are close to a broody hen. If broodiness is not wanted, the hen should be removed from the nest and placed in a cool and lighted environment.
Illustration 28: Nests for broody hens should be placed in a quiet place
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Simple nests may be clay pots, calabashes, or baskets made of local fibers, cardboard, or wooden boxes (Illustration 28). Nests should be of the right size for the hen to feel comfortable. A nest box will typically measure 30 x 30 x 30 cm. Do not make them too big, as the hen will not feel comfortable. A calabash or nest basket may measure 40 x 20 x 25 cm (upper diameter x height x lower diameter). A clay pot should be of more or less the same size.
Illustration 29: Simple nests for broody hens are easily made and can easily be moved A healthy and attractive nest for the broody hen may be prepared by following these three steps: Take a clean pot or basket and fill sand mixed with ashes up to 1/3 of the depth; Put clean, soft nesting material (hay or straw) on top up to 2/3 of the depth; Then place the eggs in the nest.
Illustration 30: Preparing a nest in three steps Nesting material should be changed at least once a week except when a hen is brooding on her eggs. The farmer should make sure that the rim is 1/3 of the depth to make the hen feel secure, and if necessary put dummy eggs (e.g. boiled or stone eggs) in the nest to attract a hen. Mixing ashes, tobacco leaves, dry lime, or other antiparasitic substances with the nesting material will keep out most external parasites. External parasites in nests may reduce the hatchability of eggs, as the hen will use too much time and energy leaving the nest, cleaning and scratching her body, thus leaving the eggs cold. Providing nests also makes it easier to collect eggs. The farmer will avoid dirty and cracked eggs, if the eggs are collected twice a day. Collect Eggs must be collected at the same time every day, in the morning and the evening. Removing eggs continuously is important if one wants to avoid that the hens becoming broody and get more eggs, as broody hens stop laying eggs.
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Shelters for the mother hen and chicks
After hatching, it is important to keep the hen and the chicks close together in a separate cage: the basket (see also Chapter one, Management of small chickens basket system). Such a shelter should primarily protect against adult poultry competing for feed and against predators; and it should provide a stable environment, sheltering against sun, rain, and wind.
Illustration 31: Shelter for chicks after hatching A shelter of basketwork with a top hole (diameter 20 cm) is useful, as feed and water may be changed without disturbing the birds unnecessarily. It also gives the necessary ventilation. A woven mat on the floor may provide additional protection during cold periods. The mat should be cleaned daily to remove droppings and leftovers from feeding (Illustration 31). Droppings may be recycled as manure in a vegetable garden. Hygiene of chicken houses or shelters Chicken houses should at all times be kept clean. Depending on the number of birds in the house, it should be cleaned on a daily basis. 2-3 times a year the entire house should be disinfected by painting the floor, walls and perches with lime-wash. A rule of thumb is to apply new lime wash when the old has been worn off the walls. Chicken runs Chicken runs are a good option; where proper feeding is assured. A fenced open air space of 25 m or more is recommended, where poultry may be kept protected against predators and thieves. Fenced areas are also used for feeding, watering, observation of the flock, and collection of eggs. Fences, 1.5 2 meter high, can be made of woven mat or other local material (Illustration 32). A chicken run is relatively costly, but may provide a sort of security against theft and predation. To make the run secure against predators, it may be necessary to also cover the top with wire-mesh. It is, however, crucial that adult birds are left free to scavenge outside during daytime in order to keep feed costs low.
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Illustration 32: Chicken runs may be used for feeding, watering, and observation of the flock 4.4. Simple rules to make a better shelter in free range systems Build houses out of suitable local materials which can be cleaned and disinfected or be burned at regular intervals; In wooden houses, use slatted, raised floors to remove droppings and avoid predators; In clay houses, use wire netting for the windows to keep out predators and birds; Place the perches and nests inside the house, and make them removable to facilitate cleaning; Make sure winds will ventilate the house without making chickens or hens cold; Place the house so that heavy rains will not damage or enter the house, and so that the sun will not overheat it. Provide nests with clean straw, and make sure that you can easily control, clean and disinfect, and move them; Make sure that houses are easy to enter into and clean; Must clean on a regularly basis, i.e. remove droppings on a daily basis; Always house young chicks with their mother away from other adults (Free-range). To reduce chick mortality and reduce costs, use baskets for the chicks during night and day; A chicken house/shelter should be disinfected on a regularly basis by applying lime wash on the floor, walls and perches. A rule of thumb is to apply new lime wash when the old has been worn off the walls.
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4.5. Common practices in small scale confined systems 4.5.1. Broilers Commercial chickens are usually provided with simple shelters. The houses usually have earth floors or cement but the upper half of the walls have chicken wire netting while the bottom half is made of mud, wooden planks, iron sheets or brick/stone walling depending on the financial ability of the farmer. Corrugated iron sheets are normally used for the roofing. Wood shavings are used for the deep litter and water is supplied in commercial drinkers or home made drinkers both manually filled with water. Feeders are wooden troughs, plastic or metal commercial feeders placed conveniently in the poultry house. 4.5.2. Biosecurity issues in broiler houses Houses are sometimes open and infections may be transmitted to the flocks from other birds flying into the house. Feed and water can also be contaminated. Movement of personnel close to the flock houses is often not restricted and poultry workers/owners use home clothes and shoes while in the poultry houses. Movement between farms is usually not restricted and neighbors visit one another even during disease. There are no footbaths in most farms. Feeding and water equipment and empty feed bags all pose disease risk if they are not decontaminated properly. The poultry manure and slaughter waste are most often disposed within the farm area and at times the manure is sold out to be used by neighbors as fertilizer without composting. 4.5.3. Layers The structure of the layer houses is the same as for the broilers except that laying boxes are now provided and that there is more space per square foot per bird for the layer houses compared to the broilers houses. Drinkers and feeders may be home made for those farmers with small size flocks while for those with larger layer flocks may have commercial plastic drinkers and feeders. Layer flock houses have wood shavings or rice husks as deep litter beddings. The wood shavings usually decay to powdery manure by the time the layers stop laying and are to be depopulated at the age of 18-24 months. 4.5.4. Biosecurity issues in layer houses In general the same risks exist for layer houses as for broiler houses. However, one important factor differentiates layer houses from broiler houses namely the time factor - as layers are kept in the same environment for up to 2 years without proper cleaning and disinfection during this period. Poor personal hygiene particularly lack of regular washing of hands, the wearing of home clothes in the poultry house, not wearing gum boots and not wearing head covers leads to potential entry of disease in the flocks. There are no footbaths in most of these farms. Disposal of litter in the farm and selling litter to neighbors or to far off farmers creates biosecurity risks where disease can be readily spread since the litter is not composted before disposal.
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4.6. How to improve housing in small-scale confined systems Like for free-range system shelters, broiler houses should protect the birds from strong winds and drafts and protect the birds from thieves at night or day; predators, rodents, mongoose, wild cats and birds; should provide good ventilation. The chicken house should provide enough sunlight and sunshine and adequate drainage so that the poultry house remains dry. If possible the orientation of the house should allow proper lighting, sunshine and prevent wind chills. The housing should also provide adequate space for birds in general, that is 5-7 layers per square meter and 15-25 broilers per square meter. Adequate feeding troughs and watering equipment have to be provided for both broilers and layers and laying nests for the laying houses. The size of the house will depend on the number of birds to be kept. The houses are to be permanent or temporary structures and the building materials will vary. The materials should provide the conditions given above, for example: when iron sheets are used to build walls, the house can be easily cleaned but it is may be very cold during cold weather and hot during the hot season. Grass thatch will provide very good insulation from both heat and rain, but they are a good resting place for rodents, insects and in case of fire they ignite easily. A combination of both corrugated iron sheet and grass thatch may also be considered and would be an ideal roof in the tropics. The chicken house should be of such material to make it possible to thoroughly and easily clean and disinfect and hence should be constructed using impervious materials. Thus the lower half of walls should be made of bricks (mud, burned or stone) and the upper half covered with chicken wire mesh. The walls must be plastered with cement and the house should have a cement floor. There should be provision for a foot bath with a disinfectant. 4.7. Simple rules for better housing in small-scale confined systems The most important point is that the house should be easy to clean; The house should reduce wind chill or heat and provide adequate ventilation, sunshine and sunlight for the birds; The floor should be made of concrete; Perches should be placed in the house; In layer houses, laying boxes should be provided and easy to clean and disinfect; The construction of the houses should facilitate parasite and disease control i.e., easy access and clean; A disinfectant dip should be placed at the door of each house to prevent entry of diseases agents into the flock house; The houses should be properly cleaned and disinfected carefully after the litter has been removed and the houses have been cleaned mechanically first; The farmers must restrict entry to the houses by visitors. The best option is to construct a fence around the house; Dedicated clothes and boots should be worn in the poultry house;
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The houses must have enough space for the number of birds to avoid over-crowding; The windows should be covered by wire netting to avoid wild birds and vermin entering the house as they may transmit diseases; A separate room should be constructed to keep feed and other equipment in a safe place protected from weather and contamination by humans, rodents and wild birds. 5. Feeds and Feeding 5.1. What you will find in this chapter This chapter is a description of feeds and feeding with special emphasis on feeds and feeding for free-range chickens. It provides information on feed formulation for supplementary feeding in improved free-range systems. There is emphasis on proper feeding for young chicks including creep feeding and the use of locally available feed ingredients. The need to relate flock size and scavenging feed resource base is emphasized. The importance of the quality of commercial feeds for small scale confined chickens is emphasized. Information in this chapter will greatly assist the trainer to properly guide the farmer on proper feeds and feeding. 5.2. Scavenging Indigenous birds in free-range systems get their feed by scavenging for insects and waste grains scattered in the farm and around the homestead, food leftovers and green vegetation and finally water from rain water pools in the compound or supply of water by the farmer. Biosecurity risks arise from the places where the birds scavenge feed resources which might be contaminated with disease agents transferred from wild birds, dead birds, other animals or manure disposed from a neighbor. However, the likelihood is small compared to small scale confined systems. Free-range birds are many times in very poor nutritional status towards the end of the dry season. This makes the birds more susceptible to diseases. However, they recover soon after the onset of the rainy season. In a traditional free-range or improved free-range poultry rearing system, adult hens and cocks should always be given enough time and space for finding feed in the surroundings (scavenging). Small chicks should be kept in confinement for the first 4-6 weeks. The best time for scavenging is early morning and late afternoon, as there are more insects and less heat. The best time for giving supplementary feed will be in the morning and in the evening when the birds come back to the house. The days ration should be divided such that half is given in the morning and half in the evening. Ad libitum water should be provided in shady areas during the day to avoid heat stress.
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5.3. Supplementary feeding Feeding is essential to increase and have the maximum production of meat and eggs from poultry. Even small scavenging flocks in free-range systems will eventually starve during certain periods of the year, if they are only fed leftovers and feed that they find by scavenging. Lack of feed or water will also reduce the birds resistance to diseases and parasites, and subsequently increase flock mortality and lower the biosecurity level. Egg production and growth of local birds is easily improved by giving supplementary feeds, but improved breeds can also perform well under village conditions if they are given a steady supply of feeds. However, one should always start by making calculations of the cost-benefit and judge the risks involved (Chapter seven), before choosing the quantity and type of feeding. Advice on feeds and feeding will be different for traditional free-range, improved free-range or small-scale confined systems of poultry production, basically due to different economic situations. In the following the importance of feed requirements, feed types, feed mixing, and lastly need for proper storage of feeds and the equipment are discussed.
Illustration 33: Correct feed and water is essential to increase production 5.3.1 What feed? The composition and availability of feeds will vary, depending on the season, locality and farming system. In general, poultry, like other animals, need feed containing energy and protein, as well as vitamins and minerals. The need for feed will change, depending on the age and status of the bird (chicks, growers, egg layers, brooding hens) and of the purpose of the production (meat or eggs). The cheapest and also often the best way to supplement the diet of poultry, is to use local feed resources. However, this might be difficult if big quantities of feed are needed. Many vitamins and nutrients are destroyed if stored for too long or under sub-optimal conditions, e.g. high humidity and heat. Knowledge of the quality and source of different feedstuffs is thus important to reduce the risk of inappropriate feeding. Avoid giving commercial feeds to local breeds, as it is rarely economically feasible. However, in order to reduce chick mortality, giving the chicks premixed supplementary feed from the market during the first four or six weeks of age increases the survival of chicks.
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Types of feeds If the birds are fed fully on pre-mixed feed, feed should be available all day together with free access to clean water. The feed will, depending on type, contain more or less energy and protein, as well as vitamins and minerals (Illustration 34).
Illustration 34: Feed types split into sources of a) energy, b) proteins, c) minerals, d) vitamins Note: Remember always to give free access to water. Energy-rich feeds Normally, at least of a poultry diet consists of energy feeds. Energy feeds are the most important nutrient to maintain body temperature and exercise levels of the birds. Cereals, grain, roots, and tubers are the most important energy feeds. Examples of energy feeds are cereals like maize (corn) and its by-products (bran), sorghum, wheat and its by-products (bran, shorts, screenings), rice and its by-products (bran, polishing), cassava root meal (farina, tapioca), yam meal, yucca meal, sweet potato meal, plantain and banana meal. Roots and tubers should be soaked in water for 60 minutes or cooked before drying to remove harmful substances, and the proportion in the diet in general must be kept below 1/10. Fat is also a good source of energy, in particular in hot climates, as the heat produced during metabolism is less than from traditional energy feeds, e.g. cereals. Sources of fat are e.g.: tallow, lard, oil cake meals, poultry fat, fish oil and restaurant fats. However, fat should only be given in small amounts, i.e. less than 1/10 of the total diet.
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Protein-rich feeds
Protein is needed for growth, egg production, and for keeping up a good health status. Normally no more than 1/5 of a diet is protein-rich feeds, as they are normally very expensive. Protein may come from either animal sources or plants. Examples of protein-rich local feeds are: maggots, termites, termite eggs, insects, worms, meat scraps, fish scraps, fish meal, meat meal, bone meal, blood meal, leucaena, cassava leaves, feather meal, peas, beans, and oil cakes from e.g. ground nuts, cotton seed cake, sunflower cakes, palm kernels, and coconuts. Harmful substances are present in some protein-rich plants, e.g. beans and cotton seed cakes (if not heat processed), and the proportion in the diet should thus be kept low. The level depends on the type of plant, and whether the feed is being treated before feeding. Oil cakes may contain much fibre and oil and should therefore be given in limited amounts to young chickens (less than 1/5-1/10 of the diet).
Mineral-rich feeds
Minerals are important for bone formation, eggshell formation, and for a good health status. The most important minerals are calcium and phosphorous. To produce strong shells for their eggs, laying hens need free access to calcium (limestone or crushed shells). Adult birds are usually able to balance their intake according to needs. If a phosphorous rich feed is added, it should be balanced with calcium, since too high levels of one may cause deficiency of the other. Examples of sources for minerals are: bone meal, crushed oyster shells, snail shells, and burned eggshells. Using bone meal or eggshells is a good way to supply calcium and phosphorus. Eggshells should always be scorched or cooked before re-use in diets to remove any disease germs, see Illustration 35.
Illustration 35: Scorching bones or eggshells to produce calcium-rich bone meal

Vitamin-rich feeds
Scavenging birds get vitamins by eating green grass, vegetables, fresh cow dung, and through sunlight. Vitamins A, B2, and D3 are considered very important because many problems arise when birds lack these vitamins. Sunlight and green grass or green fodder normally provide Vitamin A and D, whereas Vitamin B may come from fresh cow dung. Vitamin B may also be added by giving e.g. Riboflavin tablets. Additional vitamins should only be given in very small quantities and purchased through drug stores or feed sellers, but this is normally not needed for scavenging poultry. Confined birds always need additional vitamins mixed into their feeds or as a minimum given some green grass, vegetables and some fresh cow dung.
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5.3.2 How much? In the free-range systems, the economic advantage is based on the fact that the poultry find most of their feeds when scavenging in the surroundings. This so-called scavenging feed resource base (SFRB) will change over the seasons and depend on the climate, geography and farming systems in the areas, where the poultry scavenge for feed. The poultry/chicken stocking rate in free-range systems varies according to climate, vegetation cover, season and abundance of feed for scavenging and amount of supplementary feeds provided, as a guide, on the average one adult chicken requires not less than 100 square metres. Depending on the season, chickens may find nearly all they need in the surroundings (e.g. during harvest or rainy season) or close to nothing (during dry and lean season). It can be a good idea to identify the type of SFRB and relative amounts of SFRB available in each season. This will give an idea of what the chickens should be supplemented with during a particular season.
Table 2 : Supplement requirement and total feed requirement at different ages Age, weeks Approximate amount reApproximate amount of supplementary quired per day per confined feed given to a scavenging bird per day bird (g. dry weight) (g. dry weight) week 1 12-15 grams 10-15 grams dry weight week 2 week 3 weeks 4 to 7 week 8 weeks 16-27/ grower from week 28/ adult 15 21 21 35 35-50 55-60 65-80 100-150 grams depending on the size of the bird 15 20 grams 21 30 grams 30-40 grams 30-40 grams 30-50 grams 30-50 grams
It is possible to limit the quantity given to local adult birds to 30-50 per cent of their full intake (see Table 1 for feed levels and needs). From hatch to the age of 4 to 6 weeks, the small chicks should receive full feed according to their needs. In general, from week 4-6 and onwards the farmer should give maximum 30-40 g/bird/day, gradually reducing the amount of supplementary feed, until they only get between 1/3 and half of their needs as adults. In practice this means estimating the economic benefit from sale of eggs and live birds, and the costs for medicine, housing, labour and feed, calculating the break-even point, and learning how to reduce costs without reducing benefits (see Chapter 6 for risk assessment and simple estimation procedures). To assure a stable egg and meat production, it is better to give a little feed on a continuous basis, than to give large quantities during harvest seasons or festivals and no feed during lean seasons. It is important to reserve and preserve some feeds for poultry to feed them during seasons when there are limited scavenging feeds. If feeds are too costly, the farmer should consider reducing the flock size, rather than reducing the amount of feed given to each bird.
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5.3.3 How? The easiest method to administer the feeds is to use simple measures. Table 2 allows calculation of the quantity of feed required. Table 3 shows a calculation of how much supplementary feed is needed per day based on a flock of 1 cock, 4 hens, and 15 three-week-old chicks.
Table 3: Simple calculation for supplement requirement per day Chicken category 1 cock: 35 g 4 hens: 4 x 35 g 15 chicks: 15 x 25 g Total 1 x 35 g 4 x 35 g 15 x 25 g = = = = Amount of supplementary feed needed per day 35 g 140 g 375 g at least 550 g per day
If a container is used (e.g. a table spoon, a tea cup or one litre container as may be locally available) and it is measured how much the container holds when full, it is easy to calculate how many containers of feed one should feed every day. To keep the birds hungry for scavenging, one should give no more than half of the supplementation in the morning. To avoid competition between the birds, a little more than half of the feed is given to the small chicks in a separate shelter. Then the hens are fed and before the feeder is empty, the cock is given feed. If all the poultry are fed at the same time, the cock will eat too much and leave little to the others. If the cock is hungry, he will be better at finding feeds in the surroundings. The chicks need relatively more protein in their diet than adult birds, so the best solution is to mix two different kinds of rations for young and adult birds, respectively. If the farmer does not want to mix two different rations, he/she can choose to give a little extra supplement of a good protein source to the young chickens, e.g. maggots or termites (see Table 5) Simple supplementation It is advisable to make a semi-balanced diet for the small chicks from 0-6 weeks of age. Locally available ingredients should be dried in the shade (the sun may destroy important vitamins) and grounded in a mortar before mixing. For easy quantification of the different ingredients, use locally available containers such as tomato tins or matchboxes (see Table 4 and Table 5 below). Grams or percentages should be transferred into local quantities for field practice. Large quantities of ready-mixed feed should only be stored if adequate storage capacities are available. In general one should not store mixed feed more than a few weeks to avoid contamination from mould, bacteria, or rodents. Above 6 weeks of age, poultry may be fed in a cafeteria system saving time and energy on mixing feeds.
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The cafeteria system is described below.

Table 4: Simple rations for supplementing local chicks of 0-6 weeks (total 930 g) Ingredient Quantity Crushed sorghum/millet grain or 1 litre container maize 1 litre container Wheat bran, sorghum bran, or 2 match boxes millet bran 1 match box (1 portion salt with 13 portions Groundnut or sesame oil cake bone meal) Sea shell or bone meal/salt mix 2 match boxes Fish or blood meal 2 match boxes Sesbania leaves
Illustration 36: Bone meal and salt are mixed in matchboxes in a 13:1 ratio Termites or maggots may also be added during the first 6 weeks. Depending on the types of crops grown in particular areas, substitutes for cereals, oil cakes etc. will have to be found. Alternatively, a chick starter ration can be used during the first 4-6 weeks of age. In this way the farmer will ensure that the chicks are provided with everything they need during these most vulnerable weeks.
The cafeteria system
Adult birds are able to mix or select their own feed according to their needs. The best way to feed improved free-range birds above 6 weeks of age is the cafeteria system, whereby the most common types of feeds are given in separate compartments. Usually, in the dry season (harvest time), chickens will find a lot of energy-rich feeds and will eat most of the protein-rich feed in the compartments. In the rainy season, chickens will easily find protein-rich feeds (many insects) and will eat most of the cereals offered in the cafeteria system.
Illustration 37: The cafeteria system. For the cafeteria system, a bamboo pole is split and different feed ingredients (source of energy, protein and minerals + vitamins) divided into three compartments, enabling the poultry to choose from feed ingredients according to their needs.
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In the cafeteria system, there should be at least one feeding compartment for: Energy rich feeds, e.g. maize, millet, sorghum. Protein rich feeds, e.g. beans, peas, oil cakes, fish, meat, bone meal, maggots, termites. Mineral rich feeds, e.g. bone meal, crushed oyster shells, snail shells, burned eggshells. An additional compartment for oil rich feeds may be added, e.g. tallow, oil cake meals, and fish oil. By giving adult birds feeds in compartments, one can observe feeding behaviour of the birds and avoid feeding unnecessary amounts and types of feed. For example, during harvest seasons the farmers may find that they feed less on energy feeds in the evenings because there is plenty of cereal in the environment. 5.4. Mixing and formulating feeds Mixing and formulating poultry feeds may be based on simple assumptions about the nutritional requirements of the birds and the content of the feedstuffs. If possible, it often pays to have samples of feed ingredients analysed at a national nutrition laboratory once or twice a year, depending on season and geographical area. National tables on nutritional content of feed ingredients could also be used. Table 5 shows the relative content of energy and protein for some locally used feedstuffs.
Table 5: Examples of protein and energy sources Feed ingredient Protein Cassava tuber + Sweet potato tuber + Millet bran + Rice hulls + Rice bran ++ Sorghum bran + Maize bran + Sorghum grain ++ Sesbania leaves ++ Cowpeas ++ Chick pea ++ Cotton seed oil cake ++ Sesame oil cake +++ Groundnut oil cake +++ Soya bean meal +++ Maggots +++ Fish meal +++ Meat and bone meal +++ Blood meal +++ + = low, + + = medium, + + + = high content Energy +++ +++ ++ + ++ ++ + +++ + +++ +++ ++ +++ +++ ++ ++ ++ ++ +++
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It is important to realise that the nutritional requirements of the birds may be met in many ways by offering a large variety of feed ingredients. Final decisions on which feed ingredient to use in which season will depend on the availability, quality, and not least the price. See Table 9 and Table 10 for examples of feed price calculations.
Table 6: Examples of composition of 1 kg feed mixture for local chickens at different ages Cereals Oil cake Meat, blood, or Cassava, Total (millet bran, sorghum (cotton seed, sunflower, fish meal tubers Age bran, rice bran) ground nut or sesame) in g. in g. in g. in g. in g. 08 700 200 100 1000 weeks 920 650 150 50 150 1000 weeks > 20 600 100 100 200 1000 weeks
Table 7: Examples of diets for chickens (contents of 1 kg feed). Age Rice Rice SorSor- Millet Millet Soya bean Fish hulls bran ghum ghum bran grain meal/ meal bran grain sunflower cake in g. Asia Layers 200 Growers 300 Chicks East Africa Layers Growers Chicks West Africa Layers Growers Chicks in g. 600 500 300 400 500 100 in g. in g. in g. in g. in g. 150 100 150
Cotton Cassava Bone seed, or tuber meal/ Ground sea nut oil shells cake in g. in g. in g. 50 100 150 200 200 300 Ad lib. Ad lib Ad lib. Ad lib 400 100 300 200 Ad lib. Ad lib
400 400 300 600 300 400 600
300 300 100
The diets in Table 7 are based on a simple feed formulation using the Pearson Square (the Envelope method). As it can be seen from the table, young chicks need a cereal grain. For older birds some of the cereal grain can be substituted with cereal residues like bran or hulls. Which cereal and cereal residue to use will depend on the area, availability and price. All age groups will need to be fed some kind of protein source. Again area, availability, and price will determine which one is best to use. There can also be problems in using too high concentrations of some feedstuffs. Harmful substances in some feeds can cause problems if fed in excessive amounts, or they may contain anti-nutritional components and should not be fed in raw form, see Table 8.
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Table 8: Problems related to some feeds Feedstuff Problems Fish meal Can give a fishy taste to meat and eggs is fed in large amounts. Can contain excessive amounts of salt. Cassava tubers Some types of cassava contain cyanide, which is toxic, and the tubers must be sliced and dried in the sun before fed to chickens. Oil seed cakes Can contain excessive amounts of oil and fibre, which lower digestibility of the feed. Beans and peas Contain a number of anti-nutritional components and should be dried in the sun or cooked for a short period (chick pea and pigeon pea are exceptions and can be fed raw after crushing).
Table 9: Examples of poultry feed prices and quantity measures in Benin (January 2002) Ingredient Price USD/kg G in a tomato-tin Maize 0.323 505 Wheat bran 0.129 320 Soya bean cake 0.517 467 Fish meal 0.536 500 Sea shell/salt mix 0.106 587 Dry Sesbania/leucaena Found locally 125 leaves
Table 10: Simple feed price calculation (based on Table 5 and Table 9) Ingredient Maize Soya cake Fish meal Sea shell/salt mix Sesbania leaves/leucaena leaves Total Price/kg Local containers 35 tomato tins 2 tomato tins 2 tomato tins 1 tomato tin 2 tomato tins 1 bag Quantity in g. 35 x 320 g 2 x 467 g 2 x 500 g 587 g 2 x 125 g 13.8 kg Price in USD 11 kg x 0.323 = 3.55 0.934 kg x 0.517 = 0.48 1 kg x 0.536 = 0.54 0.587 kg x 0.106 = 0.06 0 4.63 0.34
!! The feed prices will differ from country to country depending on the price of feed ingredients which differs between countries. 5.5. Simple techniques for growing maggots and termites Maggots and termites are excellent and cheap sources of protein in the improved free-range systems. However, they will only be a supplement to other feeds. Give the maggots or termites to the small chicks, as they have the biggest need for a good protein source.
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Illustration 38: Growing maggots Maggots may be grown by a simple technique and used to supplement the diet of the young chicks (Illustration 38). Blood, offal, carcasses and cow manure are mixed in a large open pot (do not use chicken manure as it may transmit diseases). The pot is filled with 1/3 water. Flies will lay their eggs in the mixture, and the maggots will feed on it. Leave the pot open during daytime and closed during the night. After 5-10 days (depending on temperature), when the maggots are ready to pupae, you collect the maggots by gently pouring water into the pot. The maggots will float and you can then wash them and feed them directly to the birds. Remember to place the pot away from public places, as the smell may be offensive.
Illustration 39: Growing termites

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Illustration 39 shows a simple method for growing termites to be applied in dry areas. Take a pot with a short neck and a capacity of at least 10 litres. Fill it up with cow dung and straw, and sprinkle it all with a little water. Set the pot upside down with the opening on sandy soil. After one day and one night, the pot will be full of termites and the farmer may empty the living contents in front of the hen house in the morning. 5.6. Feeds and feeding for small scale confined chickens In small scale confined, different types of commercial diets are available. Usually they are divided into three distinct categories, chiefly differing in protein content, e.g.: Starters diet: high in protein (19-20 %); from hatch up to 4 - 6 weeks of age (all chicks); Growers diet: medium in protein (16-18 %); up to 20 weeks (all growers); Layers diet: lower in protein (16 %); hens from 20 weeks (only egg production). If a farmer is considering buying commercial feeds, it is necessary to calculate whether it is profitable to do so or not. If the price of eggs or meat is lower than the price of feed needed for the production, it obviously does not pay. In some areas there are many feed millers and the chicken feed is generally of good quality. But the opposite situation is also seen. There might be a good supply of both layer and broiler feeds for the different age groups to be reared in Small scale confined (See Table 7 to Table 9 above for additional details). Many feed shops also keep supplementary mineral and vitamin preparations which can be given to the birds in the case of stress. However, the feed is not always of high quality and general knowledge on how to judge signs of malnutrition is needed. See Chapter six for details on how to recognise clinical signs of malnutrition. 5.7 Feeders and drinkers Feeders and drinkers are the same, whether being used in free-range or small-scale confined systems. Feeders and drinkers should always be kept clean to prevent spread of diseases (see also chapter one on Management). They should be big enough for all birds of the same age to feed at the same time. One meter trough or a 35 cm (diameter) tube feeder is big enough for 20 adult birds to eat and for 40 to drink. Feeders and drinkers may easily be produced out of local materials. An empty tin or plastic container placed upside down on a plate forms an excellent drinker. By placing the tin can bottom up, the producer will avoid contaminants in the water. Start by making two small holes near the rim diagonal to each other. Pour clean water in the can. Put a flat plate with a small rim on top and turn the can and plate upside down, while pressing them against each other. Gently place the drinker on the ground. The rim of the plate should be low enough for small birds to drink, but also high enough for adult birds to dip their wattles to keep them cool during hot weather.
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Usually several drinkers in different sizes should be applied. It is important that feeders are placed in such a way that feed waste is minimized. This is done by placing the feeder on some bricks or hanging it from the ceiling at a height where the edge of the feeder and the back of the bird are at the same level. Likewise, feed waste can be decreased if feeders are not filled to the brim. It is better to fill feeders just half full and then check them regularly for refills (Illustration 40).
Illustration 40: Simple drinker made of an old tin can and a plate
Illustrations 41, 42: Feeders and drinkers may also be made locally from wood, clay, or metal
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Illustration 43: Commercial drinker/feeder in plastic or metal Commercial feeders and drinkers may also be bought on the market, either in metal or plastic. They are often expensive and normally not any better than locally produced feeders or drinkers. 5.8. Feeds and risk of disease transmission Risks arise from the possible contamination of the feed with disease agents either by the feed being exposed to faecal material from sick birds; rodents invading the feed store whereby the feed gets contaminated with rodent urine and faecal matter containing disease agents; or if the feeding equipments are left outside for some time the may be contaminated with faecal matter or dust laden with disease agents. This applies for feed mixed directly at the farm as well as at the feed mill. Water contaminated with disease agents will also make the birds at risk of obtaining diseases. Whether the feed is produced at a feed mill or at home the ingredients should be free of any contaminant in particular faecal material. Furthermore, the feed should be fresh and well smelling. Taste and smell the feed to ensure it is not mouldy or otherwise not suitable for animal feed. For the feed mill a biosecurity plan should be available upon request from the farmer so that the farmer is assured of feed safety. 5.9. Simple rules for better feeding Before buying, mixing, and storing feeds, it is important to understand some underlying principles of good feed management, the most essential of which are mentioned here: Use local feed ingredients for local birds. Commercial premixed feeds are more expensive but are more uniform in their quality and thus more suitable for improved breeds (Small scale confined); Know the quality or feed value, and changing prices of each feed ingredient;
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Buy missing feed ingredients, such as vitamins or protein sources; Change the feed formulation depending on availability, quality, feed value, and varying prices; Reduce the flock size in free-range systems during lean seasons and if the feed becomes too costly; If one changes feed and feeding level, always do it slowly and gradually; Mix feed ingredients uniformly in relatively small quantities to avoid too long storage time; Use locally available materials such as containers such as buckets, spoons or matchboxes for quantifying the different ingredients to be mixed. Grams or percentages do not work in practice; Store mixed feed or feed ingredients separately upon a platform approximately 30 cm above the floor, avoid entry of rats, pigeons, or other types of birds into the feed store room, and make sufficient ventilation of air so that the feed ingredients are not tainted due to humidity; Quality control: Be careful that feed ingredients that are mouldy, discoloured, or from which pests/rodents have eaten, are not used. 5.10. Requirements for improved biosecurity - Feeds and water All birds need to be provided with clean feed and water; The feed should be free from faecal material from any animal; The feed should be kept in a clean, dry store free from rodents and insect pests. The feeders and waterers should be cleaned and disinfected properly and regularly with an approved disinfectant. The feed gunny bags used to pack the feeds should not be recycled, and if this is done then they should be thoroughly cleaned and decontaminated. Supplementary feed for birds in Free-range should be given in the shade and if possible in the shed which would prevent wild birds getting attracted to it and getting closer to the domestic birds. Any pools of water in the chicken run should be removed. The feed miller must be requested to provide a list of ingredients in their feeds and for a certificate of guarantee. For feed mills a biosecurity plan should be in place.
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6. Health and Disease Management 6.1. What you will find in this chapter The chapter is a brief description of diseases which commonly affect chickens in small scale production systems in East Africa. The methods for prevention and control are also described. It is expected that at the end of the chapter, users will have an overview on the most important chicken diseases in the region and the appropriate health management measures to be taken to prevent and control the diseases. 6.2 Background information The most important diseases which affect chickens in the region are viral diseases. Newcastle Disease (NCD) is the most devastating, especially in village chickens which are normally not vaccinated against NCD. The other one is fowl pox. Of the recent, Infectious bursal disease has become a very important disease in small scale confined systems and to some extent free-range systems as well. The frequently encountered bacterial diseases are fowl typhoid, fowl cholera, infectious coryza and pullorum disease. Ecto and endo-parasitic diseases are frequently seen among both village and commercial chickens. Helminths account for most of the parasitic diseases. The ecto-parasites are most prevalent among village chickens and include fleas, lice, mites. Ticks are less common. Details of each disease are to be found in this chapter. Farmers must be made aware of the disease threat which will cause death, unthriftiness and lowered production among chickens. Farmers must know about the more recent emerging disease, Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI H5N1); its cause, clinical signs, preventive measures and control methods. Non-infectious diseases do occur, especially those due to nutritional deficiencies which may result from poor feeds. In free-range systems, and with exceptions, farmers do not usually vaccinate their birds routinely unless there has been an effort to introduce vaccination in the area. For the commercial layer and broiler flocks in small scale confined units, vaccines are normally available for all the common viral and bacterial diseases of chickens: eg. NCD, Infectious bursal disease, Marekss disease, fowl pox, infectious laryngotracheitis, infectious bronchitis, egg drop syndrome-76, fowl typhoid, and mycoplasmosis. The breeder chickens are usually vaccinated during the rearing period while Mareks disease vaccine is given to the day old chicks in the hatchery. All the other birds are vaccinated at the farmers premises. Treatment is carried out in layer and broiler flocks for bacterial and protozoan diseases. Most of the indigenous chicken farmers use traditional medicines to treat their birds and only a few can afford modern medicines such as anthelmintics or antibiotics.
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6.3. Biosecurity issues Lack of confinement is a serious flaw in biosecurity in small scale production systems. But it is inherent to the free range production systems. Layer and broiler farmers usually have their flock houses close to the family house and there is no restriction of entry to the poultry houses. Disposal of the manure and the slaughter wastes is done in the farm and the dead birds may be buried in the farm. Wild birds, wild mammals and the domestic pets have access to the home compound and the flock houses. All these activities make segregation of birds from disease agents very difficult. Purchase of new animals to the flock poses a serious health risk, unless the birds are kept in quarantine for 14 days and this is not normally done in the region. 6.4. How to improve disease control Better biosecurity measures Biosecurity covers many activities related to disease management. It includes aspects of housing, feeding, marketing, breed selection, etc. Biosecurity is in practical terms a management practice which must be developed by the farmer in order to decrease the risk of any disease entering or leaving the flock. It is an approach to animal husbandry that has a focus on maintaining or improving the health status of their animals and preventing the introduction of new disease pathogens by assessing all possible risks to animal health. The fact that chickens in many small scale systems have access to outdoor facilities poses an risk of attracting diseases. However, the only way of minimizing this risk would be to confine the birds. This is not feasible due to the nature of the scavenging system. Vaccination is therefore an option which can contribute to ensure a certain level of biosecurity.
Wild birds Rodents, Insects Dogs, cats Litter (e.g. sawdust) Feed Water Medication Air (ventilation) Day-old chicks from hatchery Chicks from other sources (e.g. hen) Other chickens
Poultry Flock/House
Humans Vehicles Equipment
Figure 1: Sources of introduction of diseases into a flock

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The fact that chickens in many small scale systems have access to outdoor facilities poses an risk of attracting diseases. However, the only way of minimizing this risk would be to confine the birds. This is not feasible due to the nature of the scavenging system. Vaccination is therefore an option which can contribute to ensure a certain level of biosecurity.
Recognising unhealthy birds
It is extremely important for the farmer to learn how to detect an unhealthy or sick bird, so that she/he immediately can initiate the right action. In Illustration 44 the main characteristics of healthy and unhealthy birds are given (See also Chapter 3). Healthy birds may be able to fight against some of the diseases themselves, whereas unhealthy birds will easily succumb to diseases. It is important to isolate unhealthy or sick birds from the healthy flock.
Illustration 44: Characteristics of healthy and unhealthy birds

Healthy birds Alert and on guard Bright eyes and comb walk, run, stand, and scratch continuously eat and drink normally lay eggs normally smooth and neat feathers (according to race) soft compact droppings breathe quietly Disease management and prevention Unhealthy/Sick birds Tired and lifeless dull eyes and comb sit or lie down eat and drink less lay less or stop laying eggs ruffled and loose feathers wet/loose droppings with blood or worms, diarrhoea cough, sneeze and breathe noisily, and may have nasal discharges
Disease causing agents are everywhere and will infect birds of all ages, but careful management can prevent many diseases. Illustration 52 shows a poultry house, which is clean and nicely kept outside and inside: A woman is vaccinating a bird with the eye-drop method (Illustration 58). One sick hen is isolated in a small shelter away from the others. Birds are well fed and characteristically healthy. Illustration 45 shows a bad example of flock management, there is food and droppings lying around, there are sick and dead birds, there is dirty water in the pot and dirty feed in the feeder. Birds are characteristically sick and the farm is per definition therefore badly managed.
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Illustration 45: The most common methods of vaccinating adult poultry are:(A) eye drops (B) injections in the breast or thigh muscles (C) by piercing the skin of the wing If unhealthy or sick birds are found, the animal should be isolated immediately and the veterinarian or health assistant should be called for disease diagnosis and further advice. If a bird dies, it should be burned or buried and never eaten. This is especially important due to the possible presence of Avian Influenza. Dead birds should be handled with great caution; i.e wrapped in a plastic bag using plastic gloves or another plastic bag to keep the hands in.
Good feeding
In free-range systems, supplementary feeding, in particular for small chicks, is one of the most important means of preventing diseases. Feeds should always be stored in a dry and clean place, as they may easily get contaminated and spread disease in the flock. In small scale confined systems, high quality feeds should be given to the birds. Mouldy or wet feeds should be avoided. Mouldy feeds can transmit fungal diseases such as aspergillosis to the animals.
Clean Water
A farmer should use clean water from a well and not a pond. Water should be clean and not contaminated. It is important to avoid the spread of waterborne diseases, such as Fowl Cholera, Newcastle Disease (NCD), and Avian Influenza (AI). If a highly contagious strain of AI is present in the area, strict care should be taken to avoid contact to other birds domestic cat or wild.
Good hygiene
Dry and clean housing is essential for to prevent the transmission and spread of diseases. Every three to six months, houses and shelters should be disinfected with lime wash after cleaning (see Chapter two for detailed advice on proper management). A rule of thump is to apply new lime wash when the old one has worn off the walls.
Regular culling
A well managed flock includes regular culling of the birds. It is good practice to slaughter chickens that are very thin, as they are likely to be susceptible to diseases and can transmit diseases to poultry in good health. Birds which are not laying eggs due to age should be culled. Sick animals should be culled if a diagnosis cannot be made.
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Illustration 46: A poorly managed flock

Adapted housing and chicken runs
Chickens are likely to fight and even kill each other if there are too many birds together in limited space (Illustration 10). Local breeds in confinement should never be kept without free access to outdoor areas. If outdoor runs are used, at least 5 square meters per adult animal should be provided. When space is limited, diseases are transmitted more easily from one bird to another. Other species of birds may carry diseases without showing any signs of being ill. For example, ducks, guinea fowls, and turkeys can transmit diseases to hens, or vice versa. The best way to avoid spreading diseases from one species to another is to keep them separate in different cages, baskets, or houses. It is important to always keep domesticated birds as far away from wild birds as possible.
Adequate treatment of diseases
Depending on the cause of the disease, it might be possible to cure it. Table 11 gives an overview of how to treat different types of diseases.
Table 11: Types of diseases and possible treatments Disease type Possibilities for control or cure
Virus Viral diseases cannot be cured, but may be prevented or controlled if the animals are vaccinated before the disease occurs in the flock. If the disease is present in the flock, vaccinations might increase the severity of the disease or even kill the birds. Many bacterial diseases can be treated by use of antibiotics. It is important to diagnose the disease in order to choose the right antibiotic. Most parasites can be treated. One can use conventional veterinary medicine (anthelmintics), and some traditional methods have also proved efficient. Fungal diseases might be treated with antibiotics and other anti-fungal agents, but the most important is prevention by offering feed of good quality. Nutritional diseases or disorders are caused by wrong feed compositions. Depending on the disease, it can be prevented or cured at an early stage by mixing the right feed with minerals and vitamins, or giving access to a diversity of feedstuffs from the surroundings, e.g. green grass and fresh cow dung.
Bacterial Parasites Fungus Nutritional diseases/disorders
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6.5. Brief description of the main diseases affecting poultry Diseases are often characterised according to their aetiology, such as Virus, Bacteria, Parasites, Fungi, and their causes, e.g. nutritional disorders (Table 11). However, in the following the most important diseases in poultry are categorized at three levels according to their severity and importance in village based small-scale production systems. Distinct features, such as the signs observed during outbreaks (symptoms) and possible treatments (prevention or control), as well as the time of occurrence, are presented. The importance of a disease is judged by mortality rates and effect on production, and will vary greatly from area to area and from season to season. High importance () signifies a common disease with high mortality (more than 30 per cent of the flock), highly contagious and difficult to treat. Medium importance () signifies a common disease with medium mortality (10-30) per cent of the flock) with easy to difficult treatments. Less importance () signifies not common, lower mortality and/or easy treatment. Note that some less important diseases may interact with other diseases to create a more severe effect on the birds. This is the case for the combination of E.coli infections, nutritional deficiencies, and internal parasites. Such diseases rarely kill the individual bird, but have a remarkable effect on the immune system of the birds, thus creating the basis for easy infection by other diseases. Often treatment against parasites is sufficient. 6.5.1 Viral diseases Newcastle Disease (NCD) The disease is very common and is often seen in young chicks, but also in adults. High flock mortality, often between 30 and 100 per cent of the birds die, when the disease occurs. Clinical signs vary from peracute to acute. In acute cases, the chickens lose appetite and have poor digestion. They may show heavy breathing, greenish droppings, and sometimes bloody diarrhoea. Nervous symptoms and paralysis. In some cases several symptoms may occur at the same time. Peracute cases are characterised by sudden deaths. The disease is a virus, so there is no treatment, but it may be prevented through vaccination of all birds including chicks from two weeks of age. The symptoms of NCD resemble those of avian influenza. Avian Influenza (AI) The disease is found naturally in ducks and other waterfowl without showing severe signs but may spread in a highly contagious and potentially dangerous form to chickens. In chickens, it causes high flock mortality and gross pathological lesions include blue and swollen comb and wattles. AI is transmitted through contact with other
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birds, contaminated feed and drinking water from ponds frequented by wild birds. The disease is caused by a virus, so there is no treatment. The best way to prevent AI is strict hygiene. AI may be prevented through vaccination of birds. However, different strategies for vaccination exist in each country. The vaccinator should consult with the authorities to ensure correct procedure. After disease outbreak, all birds in the flock must be culled and burned, and chicken houses thoroughly cleaned and disinfected. A veterinarian must be informed if an AI outbreak is suspected. The infected birds should never be eaten. It is important to make sure that no persons or animals get near infected and dead birds or their droppings (clean the surroundings carefully). Fowl pox Fowl pox is often seen in young chicks, but also in adults, and shows as pocks (small lumps) lesions on wattles, comb, and face. The mortality rate is moderate. The disease is common during dry seasons, although is some countries in East Africa it is more common during the rainy season and that it may also be found all year around. Fowl pox is a viral disease and hence there is no treatment. A vaccine is available and is highly effective. Gumboro disease (Infectious Bursal Disease, IBD) IBD is only seen in chicks younger than 6 weeks of age, and normally only in large flocks kept in confinement but may also been seen in Free-range chickens. The disease is not common in small-scale village based systems. Common clinical signs include diarrhoea. It is a viral disease and therefore there is no treatment. But a vaccine is available and mostly effective. It is important to vaccinate using the correct vaccine strain. Mareks disease Mareks disease is only seen in birds older than 16 weeks. Initially the birds may show paralysis of one or both wings. Or one or both legs might be paralysed. The disease is caused by a virus, so there is no treatment, but commercial vaccines are available.
Illustration 47: A) Newcastle disease in advanced stage; B) Fowl pox; C) Gumboro disease
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6.5.2 Bacterial diseases Fowl cholera (pasteurellosis) Fowl cholera may attack at any time in all age groups. Symptoms are severe. Diarrhoea, respiratory symptoms, loss of appetite, blue combs and wattles are common clinical signs. The disease may occur as a chronic disease or as an acute or peracute disease with sudden death. Infection occurs through contaminated feed and drinking water or from faecal material from healthy carriers. Treatment with antiobiotics is difficult. The best way to prevent the disease is to observe strict hygiene and to vaccinate. Sick birds should be killed and burnt. The vaccine is usually available and effective. Pullorum disease (Bacillary white diarrhoea) The disease is mostly seen in young chicks. Chicks walk with difficulty, show big bellies, and drag their wings. Faeces is liquid and turns white. Treatment with antibiotics is not effective. In order to prevent the disease, hygiene must be strictly observed. In case of an outbreak, sick birds must be isolated killed and burnt. Disease is transmitted to chicks from the eggs of infected hens, which may not show signs of being ill. Fowl typhoid Fowl typhoid is usually seen in rather older birds, usually layers at point of lay. Clinical signs include high body temperature, tiredness and blue comb. The disease occurs as acute condition or peracute in which case there is sudden death. Treatment with antiobiotics is possible but difficult and not recommended. Prevention is done through strict hygiene and culling of sick birds. Infectious coryza Coryza affects all ages. The clinical signs are: Runny nose, swelling under the eyes, closed eyes, drop in egg production. Treatment may be given by adding antibiotics to drinking water. Chronic respiratory disease (Mycoplasmosis) The disease is characterised by runny or blocked nose, swollen face, closed eyes, drop in egg production but rarely causes death. Treatment may be given by adding antibiotics to the drinking water. Colibacillosis E. coli infections are common among newly hatched chicks, causing enteritis. In older birds the symptoms may include respiratory distress, infection in the oviduct which cause lowered egg production. The best way to prevent the disease is to improve hygiene of eggs for hatching and of the nests. Treatment of sick chicks may be possible with antibiotics but is difficult. 6.5.3 Parasites Coccidiosis (internal parasites) The disease may occur at any time at all ages, but can be prevented by regular and
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careful cleaning of troughs and poultry houses. Resistance develops after infection if the birds are treated. The disease is characterized by unthriftiness, head down, ruffled feathers and bloody diarrhea and death, especially in young chicks. If the chicks survive, they will remain thin and be late in laying if they have not been treated. Coccidiostats in drinking water or feed are effective for treating the disease. The disease is prevented by applying the right stocking rate and avoid overcrowding. Different age groups of birds should not be mixed, as the disease may spread from adults to young chicks. The disease is most common in small scale confined chickens but may also occur in Free-range system of husbandry.
Illustration 47: A) Mareks Disease; B) Chronic respiratory disease; C) Diarrhoea Diarrhoea may be caused by several diseases, but the appearance of faeces and color will differ depending on the disease. Roundworms and tapeworms (internal parasites) Internal parasites are very common in all ages in the village based production systems. These parasites will cause poor health, weight loss, drop in egg production, and bloody diarrhea. The best treatment is adding anthelmintics in drinking water once or twice a year, at best two weeks before vaccination against NCD (See above). Proper hygienic practices will prevent heavy infections.
Illustration 48: Internal parasites as found in the faeces External parasites External parasites may attack birds at all ages at any time, but occurs most frequently in humid chicken houses with bad hygiene. Adult birds are clearly disturbed and spend a lot of time pecking and polishing feathers. Young chicks may die from anemia. If not treated, mites, lice, fleas, ticks will cause weight loss and possibly loss of feathers due to the parasites sucking blood and to skin irritation. Lice can be seen around eyes and nose. Fleas can be seen on the belly. Treatment is possible by spraying or dusting birds with pesticides, dry lime, ashes, and oil.
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Ashes, dry lime, and sulphur powder may be used where the hens do dust bathing. Nests may be protected by putting a few tobacco leaves mixed with ashes in the nests.
Illustration 49: Behaviour of poultry infested with external parasites plus flea, mite and tick Scaly legs Scaly legs are caused by an external parasite irritating the skin on the birds legs. The disease is common in older birds of more than 2 years of age. Legs clearly have scales and wounds and may become crippled in their appearance. The disease is treated by dipping the legs daily in kerosene, oil, or in an insecticide until the scales disappear. Old birds with crippled legs should be culled.
Illustration 50: Scaly legs at three stages caused by scaly leg mites
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6.5.4 Fungal diseases Mycotoxicosis (fungal poisoning) Fungal diseases are common if the chickens are fed mouldy feed. The disease is characterised by general weakness and pale combs. Sick birds are treated by supplementing feeds with vitamins. The disease is prevented by proper storage of feed to prevent growth of the fungi that produce mycotoxins, the cause of the disease. 6.5.5 Nutritional diseases
Illustration 51: Symptoms of nutritional diseases: a) Feather loss; b) Leg deformation Nutritional disorders/diseases Nutritional diseases are commonly seen in poorly managed flocks. Clinical signs will depend on the type of nutritional deficiency, for instance bone deformation is due to calcium deficiency. The birds walk with difficulty; they limp. Legs are deformed. Some deficiencies may cause feather loss. If the condition is detected in time, it may be possible to treat the disease by supplementing with e.g. vitamins and calcium and providing birds with fresh grass and cow dung. Nutritional diseases may be avoided when the birds have access to normal vegetation and hence are rare in scavenging chickens.
Illustration 52: Good management equals healthy birds Note: the cafeteria type of feeder, proper drinker, eye drop vaccination and isolation room for sick birds.
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6.6. About vaccination All poultry should be vaccinated against the most common viral disease(s) in the area. Vaccination schemes at village level should at the minimum cover Newcastle Disease and Fowl Pox. Vaccination against Avian Influenza should depend on the advice by veterinary authorities. Other viral diseases such as Gumboro and Mareks disease may be covered by vaccination, but they are often less important at village level. A bacterial disease such as Fowl cholera may also be prevented by vaccination. Poultry should be vaccinated when they are very young, and before they have begun to lay eggs. Most young birds that have not been vaccinated do not resist diseases, and often die. Vaccines should only be given to healthy birds. If a sick bird is vaccinated it will usually kill the bird (Illustration 53). Anthelmintics against internal parasites can be given two weeks before vaccination, to improve the effect of the vaccine.
Illustration 53: Never vaccinate a sick bird 6.6.1 Vaccination methods In several countries village vaccinators have been trained to assist the veterinarian with carrying out vaccination programmes. Aimple instructions in relation to vaccination are given hereunder (Illustration 58).
Illustration 58: Sites foe Vaccination

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In principle there are six fundamental ways of vaccinating birds: Eye and nasal drops (easy administration) Injections (Intra-muscular or subcutaneous are difficult because it involves individual bird handling) Skin piercing (easy administration) Orally in feed (difficult because of shelf life and dosage problems) Water (may difficult because of calculation of dosage and the quality of water) In large commercial farms, vaccination can be by spraying the vaccine For scavenging poultry, the farmer should avoid mixing vaccines with drinking water or feed, as it is difficult to give the right dose to each bird. Research has shown that protection against e.g. Newcastle disease is highly uncertain if the vaccine is given through water or feed. Administering the right dose is essential for the vaccine to work properly. Under dosing will not provide adequate protection. If the mother hen has been vaccinated, an early vaccination of her chicks may also cause an overdose and kill the chicks or may be rendered ineffective because of maternal antibodies. Thus, it is important to consult a veterinarian or para-veterinarians for further advice before carrying out a vaccination. A farmer should never purchase a reconstituted vaccine. Vaccination should be done either early in the morning or late in the day to avoid hot temperatures which may compromise viability of a live reconstituted vaccine.
Illustration 54: Important vaccination tools

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Tools for vaccine application normally include a clean apron (green or other dark colour if possible in order not to scare the birds) (A), vaccine vial (B) stored in a cool box (C), soap to clean hands (D), clean and sterile needles (E), clean and sterile syringe (G), and a clean box for needles and syringe (F) (Illustration 54). Needles and syringe should be boiled in water for 5 minutes and cooled before re-use (Illustration 55), this will not be necessary when using single use disposable sterile syringes and needles.
Illustration 55: Boiling water to disinfect needles and syringes before vaccination It is important to treat the clean syringes and needles carefully. A vaccinator should be careful not to touch the end of the needle after cleaning. Illustration 56 shows how to handle a syringe for vaccination: The needle should be put gently on the syringe, holding the needle with the sharp end upwards. The vaccine vial should be held upside-down and needle should be pressed gently through the rubber seal of the vial cap. Pull the syringe handle gently down, while sucking the vaccine out of the vial until the syringe is full. Should press the syringe handle back until the right volume is reached. Make sure that there is no air bubbles trapped in the syringe or the needle. Air bubbles will give the wrong dose to the chickens. Normally a full 1 ml syringe will match 10 doses, one for each of ten adult birds (Illustration 57). This however depends on the weight of the bird, the type of vaccine, and the application method. After vaccination of 10 birds in the same flock, the needles should be changed or cleaned in boiling water and the same should apply between flocks.
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Illustration 56: It is important to handle the syringe and needle correctly
Illustration 57: One full 5 ml syringe is usually enough for ten adult birds
Illustration 58: The most common methods for vaccinating adult poultry The most common vaccination methods for young chicks are eye drops and skin piercing (Illustration 58, A and C). When the birds grow older, injections are given in the breast muscles (Illustration 58, B). Depending on the vaccine type, eye drops may also be used for adult birds Vaccines should be given either early in the morning, before letting the birds out of the chicken house or in the evening when the local birds are easy to catch resting on perches. When vaccinating adult poultry for the first time, it is preferably to be two persons, one holding the bird, the other one vaccinating (Illustration 59).
Illustration 59: Two persons vaccinating adult poultry by injection in the breast muscle
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General precautions for vaccination with live vaccines: All vaccines should be stored in a refrigerator before use. Some vaccines are heat stable, which means that the vaccine will tolerate high temperatures for sometime. However, heat stable vaccines should also be stored in a cold place to keep them viable. Vaccines should always be kept out of direct sunlight. When using vaccines in the field, transport them in a cool box with ice. The syringe, needle and other equipment to be used for vaccination should not be cleaned by any chemical disinfectants, as these may destroy the vaccine. They should instead be disinfected in boiling water (Illustration 55) and be used after cooling. The vaccines must be mixed or diluted in cold distilled water, and care must be taken to ensure that the vaccines are not exposed to direct sunlight. It is best to vaccinate birds during the cool hours of the day, either in the morning or evening. Live vaccines should be used within 30 minutes once reconstituted. Otherwise they will be useless and should be adequately disposed of. It is important to follow the manufacturers instructions. Always consult a veterinarian or para-veterinarian before conducting a vaccination campaign. 6.6.2 Vaccination and disease prevention calendar It is important to prevent and treat diseases according to the occurrence of diseases. Vaccination campaigns against Newcastle Disease (NCD) or Fowl Pox should be implemented before the onset of the disease, especially for diseases which occur seasonally like NCD. To plan vaccination and medication, it is advisable to use a socalled disease prevention calendar, where veterinarians, farmers, and extension workers together identify the periods where diseases should be prevented or treated. (Illustration 60) An example of disease prevention calendar is provided in Illustration 60. Extension workers should be able to assist to develop such a calendar, which shows the farmers activities throughout the year, from festivals, planting, sowing to harvesting of farm crops. Vaccination against NCD (first row), treatment against e.g. helminths (second row), vaccination against FP (third row), treatment or dusting against external parasites (fourth row). Timing and frequency of vaccination and treatment may vary as may be recommended by extension worker.
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Illustration 60: Example of vaccination and disease prevention calendar

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About transmission of HPAI from animals to humans Animal to human transmission of avian influenza is currently believed to occur when there is very close contact between the person and the poultry source. In this regard, the persons at risk would be the farmers, middlemen, individuals at the live bird markets, slaughter houses, poultry houses and any other such circumstances in which an individual spend quite some time in close proximity to infected birds. In particular the following persons are at risk: Poultry-men and women who spend at least two to three continuous hours in the poultry house giving food and water or manoeuvring the litter. Any persons travelling in the same vehicle that might be carrying infected birds inside the vehicle or in any of its carriage compartments. Buyers and sellers of live birds, especially when the premises are enclosed and there is accumulation of aerosols in an enclosed environment. Workers in the chicken abattoirs whether they use dry or wet defeathering methods. Persons who may sleep in the same house with an infected chicken. Persons working full time in a chicken meat processing plant and handling raw chickens for a prolonged period of time. Any person who may be at a dry defeathering slaughtering process and is reached by the aerosols generated from the sick birds being slaughtered. Any persons who may dispose slaughter waste, offals or litter from infected premises Any person who may consume raw infected chicken offals, meats or undercooked chicken meat on infected raw eggs and or products made from raw infected eggs. 6.7. Simple rules for better health of chickens Give access to the right feed and clean water (potable water wherever possible), in particular for small chicks; Build houses or shelters against diseases, wind and rain; Clean houses weekly and apply lime wash on the floor and the walls every three to six months; For Small scale confined production systems: make sure to leave the house empty for 2-3 weeks and disinfect the house properly between flocks. Provide clean and dry litter regularly; Do not put too many birds together (5 hens per m in the house for layers and 10 -15 chicks/m2 for broilers); Different species of poultry, for example hens, turkeys, pigeons, ducks, and guinea fowls should be kept separate; Small scale confined farmers should not keep other species than the commercial chickens: Separate chicks from adult birds with exception of the mother hen; Vaccinate chicks against the most important diseases and revaccinate if necessary;
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Isolate and treat sick birds if medication is not possible then kill the sick birds and never eat such birds; Burn or bury killed birds - They should never be eaten; Simple fences such as hedges should be put in place to separate flock houses/areas; Visitors should not be allowed to enter the farm; Dedicated clothing and shoes should be used exclusively in the flock houses and at abattoirs; A disinfectant dip should be provided at the entrance of the flock houses; 7. Profitability and marketing of products 7.1. What you will find in this chapter This chapter will equip the trainer to assist the farmer to become more efficient in managing his/her flock with an objective to raise his/her income and more broadly, alleviate poverty. Furthermore, the chapter provides a detailed methodology for cost-benefit analysis. Cost-benefit analysis is a very good decision making tool regarding the profitability of the poultry enterprise which a farmer may want to undertake. 7.2 Background Free-range Trade organisations do not exist for free-range farmers, however, middlemen do travel around to villages to buy indigenous birds for sale along the major highways or in the nearby bigger cities. Otherwise, local chickens are often mainly used for home consumption, as gifts or as payment for smaller items. Very often chickens sold at the local markets are purchased to replenish flocks back home in the village. Small scale confined Trade organisations rarely exist for small scale producers in developing countries. Farmers involved in small scale confined production often find the markets for their eggs and broilers by themselves. Eggs are sold at the farm gate and then at the local markets and also to targeted restaurants, institutions and grocery shops where the farmers may have arranged contracts. 7.3 Biosecurity issues The marketing chains for both systems have similarities. Risk of disease transmission is high in many stages of the marketing chain related to both systems. At the local markets, the farmer is likely to come across infected materials and if they bring home birds that were not sold during a particular day the home flock is at risk of being infected. Furthermore, they may bring back home, trays which have been used to ferry the eggs to the market. Also shoes and clothes may pick up infectious agents
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from the market. Infectious agent picked at the market will be transported to the farm on trays, shoes and clothes or vehicles. Very few farmers disinfect the material they use for marketing their products, i.e. baskets, egg trays, vehicles etc. Spent hens are usually sold to traders who take them to the urban markets for slaughter. The layers are transported on top of buses, in open pick ups, motorcycles and bicycles. In all these cases, the birds are in direct contact with the environment and would be discharging any exudates into the environment along the path to the live bird markets. In small scale confined systems, broilers may be sold as live birds or as slaughtered and dressed birds. Home slaughter is practiced and hygiene is, in most cases poor. Birds which are sold as live birds in markets, may be re-sold to customers live or slaughtered on site. Hygiene measures at slaughter facilities at live bird markets is often not appropriate. The disposal of waste water, feathers and offal is not appropriate and there is no treatment of wastes which are disposed of just like any other market waste. Thus, slaughter facilities are a great risk for disease transmission. The trade of products from small scale confined systems (eggs and dressed broilers) is generally within the country, but might be done across borders as well. However, when it comes to purchase of parent stock or day-old chicks, trade is frequently across borders. Trading across borders poses an enormous risk of transfer of HPAI from infected countries/areas to non-infected countries/areas. Free-range farmers keeping indigenous birds do not have many eggs to sell but when they do, they sell them at the farm gate or at the local market as fertile eggs for hatching or for consumption. Diseases may spread vertically from the hen through the eggs to the off-spring although this is not the case for AI. The main risk is the farmer getting his feet or clothes contaminated at the market. 7.4 How to improve marketing of poultry and poultry products Before starting any poultry production activity with a purpose to sell birds or eggs, it is important to know the market situation, that is, whether and where it is possible to sell the products. The farmer must also know the investment costs, running costs, the expected revenue for the different products, and whether it is possible to get the necessary inputs (vaccines and other veterinary products, supplementary feed etc.).
Illustration 61: Transportation of chickens should be in cages as illustrated on the right.

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It is advisable to know the local situation very well through detailed market studies and cost-benefit analyses, before deciding on the type and size of production system. At village level, it will often be advisable to start with a production based on local breeds, local feeds, and local demand before entering into a more sophisticated small scale confined production system with improved breeds and a need for a more stable market outlet. In general the economic outcome as well as the need for investments and the risk involved in the production, will be very different for improved free-range systems (relatively low risk) and small-scale confined systems (higher risk). It is recommended that farmers in a village form a cooperative society in order to get better prices for their products and combine efforts for supply of inputs. At traditional village markets, it is mainly live birds and eggs that are for sale. The eggs are often fertile. Imported non-fertile table eggs are more often found in peri-urban and urban areas or along traffic corridors, where confined systems can be managed. At local markets, the price of cocks and hens will vary significantly depending on factors such as demand (high during festivals), size and weight, plumage, and colour. Cocks are usually higher priced at the market than hens mostly because of their bigger size. In most regions, local birds are also priced higher than imported improved breeds because of consumers preference (taste) even if they are often smaller. The price of local eggs is also often higher than imported eggs, despite their smaller size. Taste and texture of meat and egg colour are major reasons for the higher price of local products. On the basis of the costs of the production, the farmer should calculate the minimum price at which she/he can afford to sell poultry or eggs. The farmer either alone or as a cooperative society ought to study the market and discuss prices with local chicken vendors.
Illustration 62: Birds for sale

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7.4.1 Marketing of free-range birds Cockerels should be sold as soon as they can fetch a good price, as one cock to 1015 hens per farm is sufficient to produce fertile eggs. In some cases, the farmer may also want to sell a cock, if it is not mating as expected. At the age of 6 months and a weight of approximately 1 kg, cocks are usually big enough to be sold at the market. Birds may be sold alive in the markets, but live birds should not be returned from the market if not sold, as this is a major cause of transmission of diseases. If the birds are returned to the farm, they should be kept separate for 2 weeks before being put together with the rest of the flock. Old hens that are no longer laying eggs should also be sold or slaughtered (Illustration 64). When catching the birds, it is best done in the house in the late evening or by attracting them with feed or by using a long stick or a piece of metal wire, bent at the end. At the market the birds must be kept in the shade and given adequate feed and water. 7.4.2 Marketing of eggs Eggs should be collected and marketed while fresh, especially if not cooled. Farmers should collect eggs from the nesting boxes at least once, but rather two times a day, and store them in a dark and cool place. Eggs should normally not be cleaned, but kept clean in the nests. If they are dirty, clean the eggs with a clean, dry sponge or cloth, and sell the eggs immediately. Cleaning eggs with water may disturb the natural protection of the shell and introduce infections into the egg.
Illustration 63: Eggs for sale

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Pack eggs in boxes, egg trays, or any other suitable package. If the eggs are sold in the market two to three times a week, the farmer might get a good name for selling fresh eggs. If profitable, one could also grade the eggs according to size. Farmer must always keep records of the production and sale, as explained below.
Illustration 64: Keep records of the production and sales 7.4.3 Keeping records To manage a poultry production enterprise, the farmer must keep detailed records on a daily or weekly basis. (See Table 12) Table 13, Illustration 65 and Illustration 66 give examples of how to keep records. The two tables may be used for literate farmers, the illustrations for illiterate people. It is very important to spend some time each day observing the flock carefully and record any important observations. In this way early signs of disease, malnutrition, or other problems may be discovered, and the necessary precautions taken (see chapter one for advice on management).
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Table 12: Record keeping for small-scale chicken production Animals Production Record Week/Day: Name of farmer: Family: Record Hens Cocks Growers Chickens Dead birds Eggs laid Fertile eggs incubated Chickens hatched Cocks sold Hens sold Growers sold Chicks sold Eggs sold Eggs/Poultry consumed Poultry given as gifts What vaccine has been bought? Cocks vaccinated Other chickens vaccinated Birds given medicine Number Value/ Price Comments Health status, in lay? Health status, Health status, age, weight Health status, age, weight Cause of death
Where and to whom?
To whom?
What treatment/vaccine and how?
Table 13: Record keeping for small-scale chicken production (investment and running costs) Materials and feeds purchased Name: Record Numbers Price Materials Baskets Shelters Chicken houses Nests Feeders Drinkers Other materials Feed Feed stuffs Formulated feeds Vitamins, minerals Medicine
Day: Comments
Type, quantity Type, quantity
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Illustration 65: Record keeping for small-scale chicken production (for illiterate farmers). Note that the interpretation of drawings in Illustration 65 shall be made by extension worker and explained to the farmer (Row 1: Number chickens of different ages drawing 1 to 4; Row 2:Loss of chickens due to various causes drawing 5; Row 3: number of eggs laid, sold or hatched drawing 6 to 8; Row 4: Cocks, hens, growers, chicks and eggs sold drawings 9 to 13; Row 5: Eggs eaten by household members woman, man and children or given as gifts drawing 14 and 15; Row 6: Vaccines and medicines bought and used drawing 16 to 19).
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Illustration 66: Record keeping for small-scale chicken production (for the illiterate farmer) 7.4.4 Materials and feed Records should be kept on chickens and hens, noting their approximate age or time of hatching. The hens should start laying eggs at 22-32 weeks of age therefore the age of first lay and the production over time should be monitored. If egg production is delayed or drops suddenly, the farmer should check conditions in the house, access to feed, water etc. If egg production drops gradually, it may be time to change the old hens. If the costs for feed exceed the income from selling cocks and/or eggs, the farmer may also consider selling birds, or reducing the amount of feed given (based on an assessment of how much feed is available around the farm). All expenditures for feed or feed ingredients should be registered carefully, noting quantity, price and date of purchase. This will enable the farmer to see whether the
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feed is bought at a good price or if it has been too expensive. If the feed is bought from feed sellers, note the name of the seller and the time of purchase. Feeds of bad quality should as far as possible be tracked to the seller or producer of feeds. The price and date of purchase of vaccines and medicine should also be carefully noted. Supplementary feed consumed on a daily or weekly basis should be noted for each flock or poultry house separately. Sudden changes in feed intake may be the first indicators of bad health. Income from sale of eggs, cockerels or chickens should be carefully noted. Gifts and home consumption of eggs and birds by family and friends should also be noted. 7.5 Economic analysis and simple risk assessment Before starting a poultry production enterprise, the farmer should calculate if it is economically feasible and viable to do so, thereby making the right decisions about the production type and the type of interventions needed.
Illustration 67: Revenue from poultry is expressed in money as well as meat, eggs, manure The revenue or income is all the money the farmer earns in relation to the poultry, that is: Income from sale of live birds, e.g. growers, cockerels, or spent hens; Income from sale of eggs; Income from sale of feed or other products; Income from sale of manure; Value of eggs or poultry eaten or given away. To this the farmer may add the value of the standing stock, i.e. the flock at the farm which is not intended for sale, but which is the foundation of future income. Poultry manure also represents a value when used in the crop farm. It provides many nutrients
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to the plants, and may reduce costs of buying fertilizer. The costs involved are all the expenses related to the poultry, which are for buying: Materials for baskets, shelters/poultry houses; Growers, hens or cocks; Fertile eggs for incubation; Day old chicks; Supplementary feed, vitamins, or minerals; Vaccines and medicine; Labour and technical advice. If the chickens are fed with crops that could otherwise be sold, this also represents a value and should be included in the calculation. If money is borrowed, the repayment and interest on loans are also expenses that have to be included among the inputs. In village poultry, where the outputs are usually low, the inputs should also be kept low. This means that expenses for shelters and equipment should be kept at a minimum. Small baskets or shelters (Illustration 2 and Illustration 3) may be built using local materials and these are normally cheap. 7.5.1 Cost-benefit calculation In order to calculate the profit in an enterprise, one should estimate costs and revenues on an annual basis. Table 14 and Table 15 show examples of the information needed in order to make a simple cost-benefit analysis.
Table 14: Example of small-scale free-range system, 52 weeks plan (Tanzania 2008) Flock size Numbers Local hens laying and brooding 3 Local hens laying eggs, not broody 2 Cocks 1 Surviving chickens/hen/batch* 8 Growers. Weeks 4-24 24 Total Flock size 30 Feed consumption: 1 kg /bird/4 weeks = 35 g/bird/day Kg Adults feed: 1 kg x 6 birds x 52/4 weeks 78 Chicken/growers feed: 1 kg x 24 birds x 46 /4 weeks** 276 Egg Production: Numbers Local broody hens. 72 eggs/bird/year 216 Local hens not going broody. 104 eggs/bird/year 208 Eggs for hatching. 3 hens x 12 eggs x two batches /year -72 Home consumption, 1.5 eggs/week -82 Saleable birds: 3 batches x 8 growers*** Numbers Cockerels. 22 weeks of age 24 Pullets for sale. 24 weeks of age 24
* 12 eggs laid = 10 eggs hatched = 8 chicks surviving after 6 months ** See explanation at the end of this chapter, above table 5.5 *** The other 3 batches x 8 growers are kept in the flock and sold later
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Table 15: Cost-benefit analysis based on example in Table 14 Expenses 5 hens and 1 cock Baskets, 3 night + 3 day baskets Low cost home-made feed Vaccine (ND)+medicine (Coc+anti-worm) Miscellaneous Total cash out-flow Income (revenue) Sale of eggs Sale of cockerels, 22 weeks Sale of pullets, 24 weeks Total cash in flow Net cash flow 5 x 5,000 + 1 x 8,000 6 baskets 354 Kg 60 Doses/year Cost/Unit TShs* 2,000 250 3.00 Cash flow TShs -33,000 -12,000 -88,500 -180 -11,000 -144,680 81,000 168,000 96,000 345,000 200,320
424 154 = 270 24 24
300 7,000 4,000
*1,150 TShs = 1 USD
It is assumed that the farmer uses family labour and hence it is not including in the equation. Manure may also be included where in locations where it is normally sold. The same method can be used to calculate a cost-benefit ratio for sector enterprise. In the example referred to in Table 14 and Table 15, the flock size is initially 5 hens and 1 cock, all local breeds. A production may also start with less, i.e. only 1 hen laying eggs, fertilised by a local cock in the village. Figures will then have to be adjusted accordingly. With 1 cock and 5 hens, of which no more than 3 hens are allowed to go broody at one time, the flock size may grow to a maximum of 24 growers and 6 adults, which is manageable for a small-scale farmer. Very important for this system is that the scavenging feed resource in the village will be less depleted, if the flock size is kept below 6-10 adults and 20-30 growers and chicks. It is assumed that by improved management and feeding, the egg production of the non-broody hens will increase to 104 eggs/hen/year, i.e. 2 eggs per week on average. Broody hens will also lay an average of 2 eggs per week, however excluding 2 x 3 weeks hatching + 2 x 5 weeks brooding, i.e. 2 x 8 weeks = 16 weeks non-laying period per year. Annually each hen will then lay: 52 - 16 weeks = 36 weeks x 2 eggs = 72 eggs/hen/year. For three hens going broody only twice a year, the total egg production will be 3 x 72 = 216 eggs/year. A production of 24 cockerels and 24 pullets per year (Table 14) is based on the following assumptions: A well-managed broody hen will sit on 12 eggs and hatch on average 10 chicks twice a year. Use of the basket system and improved management will reduce the overall mortality of the chicks to a maximum of 1 chick out of ten during the first 4 weeks (equal to 10%) and 1 grower out of nine for the remaining 20 weeks. At the age of 22-24 weeks, when the growers are to be sold, an average of 8 growers per batch
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will be alive. Using three broody hens, a total of 3 x 8 growers = 24 birds may be sold twice a year. Out of these, the half will be cockerels and the other half pullets. A well-managed production plan means selling birds at the time of the highest price, and buying feeds, new hens, or inputs (e.g. baskets, feeders, and drinkers) at the time of the lowest price. For many farmers this means keeping the birds in the flock until the time of festivals (e.g. Eid festival, Christmas, Easter, or national holidays), where they may get a price often two or three times the normal price. However, it is important to stress that keeping birds in the flock means more feed and a higher risk in terms of loosing birds because of predators, diseases, or theft. In general birds should be sold no later than at the age of maturity, i.e. 22-32 weeks of age. In the example from Tanzania in Table 14 and Table 15, the cost of feeding one bird was 250 TShs every 4 weeks, as one kg feed at the price of 250 TSh would be spent during 4 weeks. In this case, if the farmer wants to keep a bird 4 weeks longer in the flock, one should be sure to gain more than 250 TShs on the market price. Otherwise, it would be better to sell 4 weeks earlier at a lower price, and thus be able to restock with new growers. Thus, by knowing the market and environmental conditions and by doing simple economic calculations, the farmer will be able to plan when to sell the birds, when to let hens go broody, and when to keep birds in the flock. Supplementary feeding should always be kept at a reasonable low level to reduce costs. However, chicks at age 0-4 weeks should be given what they need (See chapter 4 on advice for feeding). On average each bird will be given 1 kg feed every 4 weeks. This corresponds to 1000 g/28 days = approximately 35 grams per bird per day. 2 batches of 24 growers need feed two times 22-24 weeks, i.e. 44-48 weeks, on average 46 weeks. The total annual need for feed in a flock of 6 adults and 24 chicks and growers is calculated in Table 16. Table 16: Supplementary feed needed for a flock of 30 free-range birds in one year
1 cock 5 hens Total 1 x 1 kg/ 4 weeks x 52 weeks 5 x 1 kg/ 4 weeks x 52 weeks 13 kg 65 kg
24 chicks/growers
24 x 1 kg/ 4 weeks x 46 weeks
354 kg
276 kg
7.5.2 Risk assessment A risk assessment is a judgment that most farmers do every day. They judge whether they should buy some seeds, sell a chicken, call a veterinarian for a sick animal etc., or whether it is better to wait until conditions are more favourable. In particular when starting a new enterprise, the risk assessment becomes crucial. When improving freerange poultry production, it is important to judge whether the choice of intervention (e.g. feed, vaccination, housing, chick shelter) has an effect and which risks may be involved.
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Illustration 68: Income is often spent on a variety of items including food, schooling, housing 7.6 Simple rules to achieve higher profitability Analyse the market situation, the demand for products, prices, investment costs, running costs, and expected revenue for different types of poultry production systems before starting. If possible make arrangements/a contract with a middleman to buy the products. Make a thorough calculation of expected costs and revenues for different production systems. Always keep records of the production and sale. In free-range systems, the flock size should be kept below 30-50 birds to ensure availability of adequate feed resource in the environment. In small scale confined systems, the farmers should make sure that he/she has the necessary funds for purchasing feeds for the birds and also that a feed mill can deliver the feeds. Estimate the production of eggs and birds over the year. Plan beforehand when and how to sell the birds. Never introduce birds from the market directly into the flock. Sell birds if feed costs are too high or there are high risks of diseases or dwindling market prices. Remember that costs involve investments, running costs, labour, losses, and maybe loan repayment and interest on loans. Judge the risks involved in each type of production system before starting a production.
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7.7 Recommendations for improvement of biosecurity - Marketing of products Farmers need to be made aware of the risks of introduction of diseases when marketing their poultry products. They also need to be shown what to avoid and how they can improve their practices so that chances of bringing diseases into their flocks are reduced and the possibility of spreading disease to their neighbours is reduced. This would include: Observing regular washing of hands; Personal hygiene and use of clean or dedicated clothes and shoes; Identifying clean and dirty processes in the farm, sales and slaughtering processes so as to avoid contaminating clean areas; Use of disinfectants to decontaminate materials and equipment that has gone to the market before it is re used at the farm; Refraining from returning to the flock house any birds that left the home for the show or for sale but were not sold out. The municipal authorities need to work out procedures that ensure that the slaughter premises are kept clean and ideally decontaminated after the slaughtering process. This would also involve creating awareness on biosecurity issues related to the slaughtering process. Another important recommendation is to organise marketing by establishing farmers organisations, which can arrange for the sale of eggs and meat. Thereby the farmers may have a stable market throughout the year. A stable market will ensure a one way flow of animals and products to the market and not back to the villages, as consumer expectations will build up and thus a need for the products will enable the farmers to plan for their production.
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8. GLOSSARY OF TERMS
TERMINOLOGY
Ad libitum All in all - out practice
MEANING
Feeding or drinking without restricting the amount consumed and hence chickens feed as much as they wish. Is a husbandry system meant to control disease, so that it is not transmitted from one batch of chicken to another. This applies to commercial chickens such as broilers or layers which are raised as batches from one day old to selling weight for broilers or for layers, until after the end of the laying period when they are culled. In this practice, mixture of different ages on the same farm is not permitted and that the chicken house is cleaned and disinfected between batches and before restocking Infection caused by influenza virus which occur naturally in domestic and wild birds and also less commonly in pigs and humans. The influenza is classified based on two surface proteins, the Hemagglutinin antigen (HA, there are 16 types) and the Neuraminidase antigen (NA, there are 9 types). There are 144 subtypes majority of which only infects only birds and may be lowly pathogenic The processes aimed at minimising the entry and spread of pathogens into a country, within a nation / region and between villages / farms / households. or Implementation of practices that prevent the introduction and spread of disease. When a hen sits on eggs and incubates until eggs are hatched. During the period it stops laying eggs A hen which wants to lay eggs and sit on them and hence broody hen and broodiness A batch of eggs laid by a hen at one time, before incubating and hatching them. The number of eggs may vary between 10 and 20. A hen may lay in three to four clutches a year Hybrid, especially selected and raised for high productivity, e.g. Broilers for table meat or Layers for table eggs An instrument with source of light used for checking an egg whether or not it is fertile and has a viable or dead embryo The current HPAI outbreaks are caused by H5N1 subtype which causes up to 100% mortality in poultry flocks and is zoonotic and causes severe disease and mortality in humans. Local chicken which has not been subjected to any selection or subjected to very limited selection and may be for reasons other than productivity. Other terms which are commonly used are: Village/Rural chicken, backyard chicken, family poultry, free range local chickens etc Calcium oxide: A white substance obtained by heating limestone used a cheap disinfectant in chicken houses. Normally used as building material Is a system husbandry whereby the farmer does not invest much in raising poultry in terms of time, capital or veterinary care with resulting low production or output A method of rendering chicken manure free of infectious microorganisms by collecting chicken manure (droppings) in one heap and covering the heap with a plastic for at least two weeks to allow fermentation to take place and generate enough heat to kill infectious agents. An act whereby a bird cleans itself and makes feathers smooth using its beak A chicken which looks for its own feed from its surroundings and with no or limited supplementary feeds being provided by the farmer. This is the common husbandry system traditionally practiced for the local poultry.
Avian Influenza
Biosecurity
Brood Broody Clutch
Commercial chicken Egg candler Highly pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI) Indigenous chicken
Lime or Quick lime Low input low output system of husbandry Manure composting
Preen Scavenging chicken
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Poultry Manual For Trainers and Producers

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GOOD PRACTICES IN SMALL SCALE POULTRY PRODUCTION:

A manual for trainers and producers in East Africa

FAO ECTAD REGIONAL UNIT EASTERN AFRICA, NAIROBI, KENYA

Good practices in small scale poultry production

Good practices in small scale poultry production

Good practices in small scale poultry production

Good practices in small scale poultry production

Good practices in small scale poultry production

Anders Permin FAO Consultant

Good practices in small scale poultry production

Good practices in small scale poultry production

Good practices in small scale poultry production

Good practices in small scale poultry production

Table 1: Characteristics of small-scale poultry production systems

Good practices in small scale poultry production

Good practices in small scale poultry production

Good practices in small scale poultry production

Good practices in small scale poultry production

Good practices in small scale poultry production

Good practices in small scale poultry production

Illustration 2: Example of simple housing for up to five hens (night basket)

Illustration 4: The house, feeders and drinkers should be cleaned regularly.

Good practices in small scale poultry production

Good practices in small scale poultry production

Good practices in small scale poultry production

Good practices in small scale poultry production

Good practices in small scale poultry production

Illustration 9: Careful observation of the flock on a daily basis is important

Good practices in small scale poultry production

Good practices in small scale poultry production

Good practices in small scale poultry production

Good practices in small scale poultry production

Good practices in small scale poultry production

Good practices in small scale poultry production

Good practices in small scale poultry production

Good practices in small scale poultry production

Good practices in small scale poultry production

Illustration 18: A healthy chick

Good practices in small scale poultry production

Illustration 19: a) Hen in lay; b) hen outside lay

Good practices in small scale poultry production

Good practices in small scale poultry production

Good practices in small scale poultry production

Good practices in small scale poultry production

Good practices in small scale poultry production

Good practices in small scale poultry production

Good practices in small scale poultry production

Good practices in small scale poultry production

Illustration 24: A well constructed chicken house

Good practices in small scale poultry production

Illustration 25: Perches should have an appropriate diameter

Good practices in small scale poultry production

Good practices in small scale poultry production

Good practices in small scale poultry production

Shelters for the mother hen and chicks

Good practices in small scale poultry production

Good practices in small scale poultry production

Good practices in small scale poultry production

Good practices in small scale poultry production

Good practices in small scale poultry production

Good practices in small scale poultry production

Good practices in small scale poultry production

Illustration 35: Scorching bones or eggshells to produce calcium-rich bone meal