Drilling Machines: Types of machines, Types of drillings, operations such as drilling, boring, reaming, spot facing, counter boring,

counter sinking and tapping. Drill speeds and feeds. Plaining machines, shaping machines and slotting machine: Various types, construction and working, operations and tools, field of application, quick return mechanism and feed mechanisms of these machines. Grinding: Grinding machines such as pedestal, cylindrical surface, centre less and tool and cutter grinder. Operations on the above mentioned machines. Grinding wheel, selection and specifications. Dressing and truing of grinding wheels. Finishing operations such as lapping and honing.
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Definition of Shaping, Planing & Slotting Machine

Planing, shaping, and slotting are processes for machining horizontal, vertical, and inclined flat surfaces, slots, or grooves by means of a lathe-type cutting tool. In all these processes, the cutting action takes place along a straight line. In planing, the workpiece (and the machine bed) is reciprocated, and the tool is fed across the workpiece to reproduce another straight line, thus generating a flat surface. In shaping and slotting, the cutting tool is reciprocated, and the workpiece is fed normal to the direction of tool motion. The difference between the latter two processes is that the tool path is horizontal in shaping and it is vertical in slotting. Shapers and Slotters can be employed in cutting external and internal keyways, gear racks, dovetails, and T-slots.
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Planing and Shaping Tools

Planing and shaping processes employ single-point tools of the lathe type, but heavier in construction. They are made of either high-speed steel or carbon tool steel with carbide tips. In the latter case, the machine tool should be equipped with an automatic lifting device to keep the tool from rubbing the workpiece during the return stroke, thus eliminating the possibility of breaking or chipping the carbide tips. The cutting angles for these tools depend upon the purpose for which the tool is to be used and the material being cut. The end relief angle does not usually exceed 4, whereas the side relief varies between 6 and 14. The side rake angle also varies between 5 (for cast iron) and 15 (for medium-carbon steel).
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Job surfaces generated by shaper

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Shaping process & MRR

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Machine arrangement for shaping

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Workpiece-tool geometry during planing and shaping

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Principal parts of shaper

1. Base 2. Column 3. Cross-rail 4. Saddle 5. Table 6. Ram 7. Tool head 8. Clapper box 9. Apron clamping bolt 10. Down feed hand wheel 11. Swivel base degree graduations 12. Position of stroke adjustment hand wheel 13. Ram block locking handle 14. Driving pulley 15. Feed disc 16. Pawl mechanism 17. Elevating screw
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Horizontal Push-Cut Shaper

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Details and working principles of the quick return mechanism

Quick return mechanism

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Cutting action and functioning of clapper box

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Vertical Shaper
The vertical shaper is similar in construction and operation to the push-cut shaper, the difference being that the ram and the tool head travel vertically instead of horizontally. Also, in this type of shaper, the workpiece is mounted on a round table that can have a rotary feed whenever desired to allow the machining of curved surfaces (e.g., spiral grooves). Vertical shapers, which are sometimes referred to as slotters, are used in internal cutting. Another type of vertical shaper is known as a keyseater because it is specially designed for cutting keyways in gears, cams, pulleys, and the like.
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Surfaces produced on shaper

1. Horizontal plain surface 2. Vertical plain surface 3. Inclined surface 4. Grooved surface 5. Slotted surface 6. Stepped surface

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Machining horizontal & vertical surface on shaper

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Machining angular surface on shaper

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Slotting & Keyway machining on shaper

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Planer
A planer is a machine tool that does the same work as the horizontal shaper but on workpieces that are much larger than those machined on a shaper. Double-housing and Open-side constructions. In a double-housing planer, two vertical housings are mounted at the sides of the long, heavy bed. A cross rail that is supported at the top of these housings carries the cutting tools. The machine table (while in operation) reciprocates along the guideways of the bed and has T-slots in its upper surface for clamping the workpiece. In this type of planer, the table is powered by a variable-speed dc motor through a gear drive. The cross rail can be raised or lowered as required, and the inclination of the tools can be adjusted as well. In an open-side planer, there is only one upright housing at one side of the bed. This construction provides more flexibility when wider workpieces are to be machined.
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Machine arrangement for planing

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 Drilling is an operation of making a circular hole by removing a volume of metal from the job by cutting tool called drill. A drill is a rotary end-cutting tool with one or more cutting lips and usually one or more flutes for the passage of chips and the admission of cutting fluid. A drilling machine is a machine tool designed for drilling holes in metals. It is one of the most important and versatile machine tools in a workshop. Besides drilling round holes, many other operations can also be performed on the drilling machine such as counter- boring,countersinking, honing, reaming, lapping, sanding etc.
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Construction of Drilling machine

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Types of Drilling machine

(1) Portable drilling machine (2) Sensitive drilling machine (a) Bench mounting (b) Floor mounting (3) Upright drilling machine (a) Round column section (b) Box column section machine (4) Radial drilling machine (a) Plain (b) Semi universal (c) Universal (5) Gang drilling machine (6) Multiple spindle drilling machine (7) Automatic drilling machine (8) Deep hole drilling machine
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Portable Drilling Machine

A portable drilling machine is a small compact unit and used for drilling holes in workpieces in any position, which cannot be drilled in a standard drilling machine. It may be used for drilling small diameter holes in large castings or weldments at that place itself where they are lying. Portable drilling machines are fitted with small electric motors, which may be driven by both A.C. and D.C. power supply. These drilling machines operate at fairly high speeds and accommodate drills up to 12 mm in diameter.
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Sensitive Drilling Machine

It is a small machine used for drilling small holes in light jobs. In this drilling machine, the workpiece is mounted on the table and drill is fed into the work by purely hand control. High rotating speed of the drill and hand feed are the major features of sensitive drilling machine. As the operator senses the drilling action in the workpiece, at any instant, it is called sensitive drilling machine. A sensitive drilling machine consists of a horizontal table, a vertical column, a head supporting the motor and driving mechanism, and a vertical spindle. Drills of diameter from 1.5 to 15.5 mm can be rotated in the spindle of sensitive drilling
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Upright Drilling Machine

The upright drilling machine is larger and heavier than a sensitive drilling machine. It is designed for handling medium sized workpieces and is supplied with power feed arrangement. In this machine a large number of spindle speeds and feeds may be available for drilling different types of work. Upright drilling machines are available in various sizes and with various drilling capacities (ranging up to 75 mm diameter drills). The table of the machine also has different types of adjustments.
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Radial Drilling Machine

The radial drilling machine consists of a heavy, round vertical column supporting a horizontal arm that carries the drill head. Arm can be raised or lowered on the column and can also be swung around to any position over the work and can be locked in any position. The drill head containing mechanism for rotating and feeding the drill is mounted on a radial arm and can be moved horizontally on the guideways and clamped at any desired position. These adjustments of arm and drilling head permit the operator to locate the drill quickly over any point on the work. The table of radial drilling machine may also be rotated through 360 deg. The maximum size of hole that the machine can drill is not more than 50 mm. Powerful drive motors are geared directly into the head of the machine and a wide range of power feeds are available as well as sensitive and geared manual feeds. The radial drilling machine is used primarily for drilling medium to large and heavy workpieces.
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Construction of Radial Drilling Machine

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Gang Drilling Machine

In gang drilling machine, a number of single spindle drilling machine columns are placed side by side on a common base and have a common worktable. A series of operation may be performed on the job by shifting the work from one position to the other on the worktable. This type of machine is mainly used for production work.
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Multiple-Spindle Drilling Machine

The multiple-spindle drilling machine is used to drill a number of holes in a job simultaneously and to reproduce the same pattern of holes in a number of identical pieces in a mass production work. This machine has several spindles and all the spindles holding drills are fed into the work simultaneously. Feeding motion is usually obtained by raising the worktable.
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Types of drills
A drill is a multi point cutting tool used to produce or enlarge a hole in the workpiece. It usually consists of two cutting edges set an angle with the axis. Broadly there are three types of drills: 1. Flat drill, 2. Straight-fluted drill, and 3. Twist drill
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Twist drill
Two cutting edges and two helical flutes The two cutting edges are referred to as the lips and are connected together by a wedge, which is a chisellike edge. Two margins that allow the drill to be properly located and guided while it is in operation. The tool point angle (TPA) The usual TPA for commercial drills is 118, which is appropriate for drilling low-carbon steels and cast irons. For harder and tougher metals, such as hardened steel, brass, and bronze, larger TPAs (130 or 140) give better performance.

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Twist drill
The helix angle of the flutes of a twist drill ranges between 24 and 30. When drilling copper or soft plastics, higher values for the helix angle are recommended (between 35 and 45). Twist drills are usually made of high-speed steel, although carbide-tipped drills are also available. The sizes of twist drills used in industrial practice range from 0.01 inch to 31/2 inches (0.25 up to 80 mm).
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Operations performed on drilling machine

A drill machine is versatile machine tool. A number of operations can be performed on it. Some of the operations that can be performed on drilling machines are: 1. Drilling 2. Reaming 3. Boring 4. Counter boring 5. Countersinking 6. Spot facing 7. Tapping 8. Lapping 9. Grinding 10. Trepanning.
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Reaming
This is the operation of sizing and finishing a hole already made by a drill. Reaming is performed by means of a cutting tool called reamer as shown in Fig. Reaming operation serves to make the hole smooth, straight and accurate in diameter. Reaming operation is performed by means of a multitooth tool called reamer.
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Boring
Fig. shows the boring operation where enlarging a hole by means of adjustable cutting tools with only one cutting edge is accomplished. A boring tool is employed for this purpose.
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Counter-Boring
Counter boring operation is shown in Fig. It is the operation of enlarging the end of a hole cylindrically, as for the recess for a counter-sunk rivet. The tool used is known as counter-bore.
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Counter-Sinking
This is the operation of making a cone shaped enlargement of the end of a hole, as for the recess for a flat head screw. This is done for providing a seat for counter sunk heads of the screws so that the latter may flush with the main surface of the work.

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Spot-Facing
This is the operation of removing enough material to provide a flat surface around a hole to accommodate the head of a bolt or a nut. A spot-facing tool is very nearly similar to the counter-bore
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Tapping
It is the operation of cutting internal threads by using a tool called a tap. A tap is similar to a bolt with accurate threads cut on it. To perform the tapping operation, a tap is screwed into the hole by hand or by machine. The tap removes metal and cuts internal threads, which will fit into external threads of the same size.

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Cutting speed
The cutting speed in a drilling operation refers to the peripheral speed of a point on the surface of the drill in contact with the work. It is usually expressed in meters/min. The cutting speed (Cs) may be calculated as:

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Feed
The feed of a drill is the distance the drill moves into the job at each revolution of the spindle. It is expressed in millimeter. The feed may also be expressed as feed per minute. The feed per minute may be defined as the axial distance moved by the drill into the work per minute. The feed per minute may be calculated as:

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Grinding operations
Grinding is a manufacturing process that involves the removal of metal by employing a rotating abrasive wheel. The wheel simulates a milling cutter with an extremely large number of miniature cutting edges. Generally, grinding is considered to be a finishing process and is used for obtaining high-dimensional accuracy and superior surface finish. Grinding can be performed on flat, cylindrical, or even internal surfaces by employing specialized machine tools, referred to as grinding machines.
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Types of Grinding Operations

Surface grinding.

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Types of Grinding Operations

Cylindrical grinding

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Machining Time and MRR for Surface Grinding

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Machining Time and MRR for Cylindrical Grinding

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Internal grinding
Internal grinding is employed for grinding relatively short holes, as shown in Figure. The workpiece is held in a chuck or a special fixture. Both the grinding wheel and the workpiece rotate during the operation, and feed is applied in the longitudinal direction. Any desired depth of cut can be obtained by the cross feed of the grinding wheel.
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Centerless grinding
Centerless grinding involves passing a cylindrical workpiece, which is supported by a rest blade, between two wheels (i.e., the grinding wheel and the regulating or feed wheel). The grinding wheel does the actual grinding, while the regulating wheel is responsible for rotating the workpiece as well as generating the longitudinal feed. This is possible because of the frictional characteristics of this wheel, which is usually made of rubber-bonded abrasive. The velocity of the regulating wheel is controllable and is used to achieve any desired rotational speed of the workpiece. The angle a is usually taken from 1 to 5; the larger the angle, the larger the longitudinal feed will be.

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Centerless grinding

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Grinding Wheels
Grinding wheels are composed of abrasive grains having similar size and a binder. The actual grinding process is performed by the abrasive grains. Pores between the grains within the binder enable the grains to act like separate single-point cutting tools. These pores also provide space for the generated chips, thus preventing the wheel from clogging. In addition, pores assist the easy flow of coolants so that heat generated during the grinding process is efficiently and promptly removed. Grinding wheels are identified by their shape and size, kind of abrasive, grain size, binder, grade (hardness), and structure.
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Grinding process parameters

The process of grinding is dependent upon the following:. a. Type of abrasive used in the wheel b. Size and distribution of grit in the wheel c. Amount and type of bonding material d. Volume of porosity: relative to abrasive and bonding material.

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Shape and size of grinding wheels.

Straight wheels for surface, cylindrical, internal, and centerless grinding Beveled-face or tapered wheels for grinding threads, gear teeth, and the like. Straight recessed wheels for cylindrical grinding and facing Abrasive disks for cutoff and slotting operations when thickness is 0.02 to 0.2 inch (0.5 to 5 mm) Cylindrical, straight, and flaring cups for surface grinding with the end of the wheel
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Various shapes of grinding wheels

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Abrasive Material
Natural abrasives: Natural abrasives include sand stone, diamond, corundum and emery. Diamond abrasive wheels are used sharpening carbide and ceramic cutting tools. They are also used for turning and dressing other types of abrasive wheels. Artificial abrasives: They include silicon carbide and aluminum oxide. Silicon carbide is made by heating silica sand, coke, salt and sawdust in an electric furnace at 23000oC for hours resulting in a solid mass of silicon carbide. Upon cooling, this mass is removed from the furnace, crushed and graded as per the various sizes obtained.
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Abrasive Grain Size

Abrasive materials are crushed in ball mills and segregated as per size. The selection of size of the abrasive grain required depends upon the following factors: 1. Amount of material to be removed 2. Finish desired 3. Hardness of material being ground The coarse grit is used for more material removal where as the fine grit is used for small material removal rate. Sizes from 240 to 600 are used for lapping and honing applications.
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Bonding materials
Bonding materials are used to hold the abrasive particles in place. There are six types of bonding material used. They are: Bonds Symbol Vitrified Bonds V Resinoid Bonds B Shellac Bonds E Rubber Bonds R Silicate Bonds S Oxy-chloride Bonds O
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Grade
This indicates the strength with which the bonding material holds the abrasive grains in the grinding wheel. Different grades in grinding wheels are shown below: Material Grade Soft A to H Medium I to P Hard Q to Z The selection of a grinding wheel depends upon the nature of work, its composition, size and hardness. Hard wheels are used for softer material and vice versa.
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Structure
It is the spacing between the abrasive gains or the density of the wheel. The structure of the grinding wheel is designated by a number. The higher the number, the wider is the spacing. Structure Symbol Dense 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Open 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 or more

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Specifications of A Grinding Wheel

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Cutting fluids
The various cutting fluids generally used are as follows: One per cent solution of soda ash with 0.15 per cent sodium nitrite. A two percent water solution of powdered soap. Cast iron and copper are ground without any coolant. Aluminum is ground by using kerosene with or without a mixture of mineral oil as a coolant.
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Operation Performed on Grinding Machine

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Polishing
This process is used for removing scratch marks and tool marks on the work piece to give a good look. For this process, polishing wheels made of canvas, leather or paper are used. The work piece is brought in contact with the revolving wheel to remove the marks on the work piece.

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Buffing
This is also a surface finishing process and is used to produce lustrous surface of attractive appearance. In this process, a very small amount of material is removed. The buffing wheel is made of felt, cotton and powered abrasives are applied on the surface of the wheel.

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Lapping
This process is used for producing extremely accurate highly finished surfaces. Lapping is carried out by means of shoes called Laps. The Laps are made up of soft cast iron, copper, lead and brass. Fine abrasive particles are charged into the lap. Silicon carbide, aluminum oxide and diamond dust are the commonly used lapping powders. Oil and greases are used to spread the abrasive powders. The charged lap is rubbed against the work piece surface and the abrasive particles in the surface of the lap remove small amounts of material from the work piece surface. The material removed by lapping is usually less than 0.025 mm.

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Honing
Honing is an abrasing process used for finishing internal cylindrical surfaces like drilled or bored holes. Honing stones are manufactured by bonding abrasives like aluminum oxide or silicon carbide. Materials like sulphur, resin or wax are added to improve the cutting action. Honing is both a sizing and finishing operation and is generally used for removing the scratch marks produced by grinding. The material removal is less than 0.125 mm.
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