Appl. Math. Mech. -Engl. Ed., 33(6), 781796 (2012) DOI 10.

1007/s10483-012-1586-6 c Shanghai University and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2012

Applied Mathematics and Mechanics

(English Edition)

Engineering measures for preventing upheaval buckling of buried submarine pipelines

Run LIU ( )1 , Wu-gang WANG ( Xin-li WU ( )1 , )2 Shu-wang YAN ( )1 ,

(1. State Key Laboratory of Hydraulic Engineering Simulation and Safety, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, P. R. China; 2. School of Engineering Design, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, Pennsylvania, USA)

Abstract In-service hydrocarbons must be transported at high temperature and high pressure to ease the ow and to prevent the solidication of the wax fraction. The high temperature and high pressure will induce the additional stress in the pipeline, which results in the upheaval buckling of the pipeline. If such expansion is resisted, e.g., by the frictional eects of the foundation soil over a kilometer or of a pipeline, the compressive axial stress will be set up in the pipe-wall. When the stress exceeds the constraint of the foundation soil on the pipeline, suddenly-deforming will occur to release the internal stress, similar to the sudden deformation of the strut due to stability problems. The upheaval buckling may jeopardize the structural integrity of the pipeline. Therefore, eective engineering measures against this phenomenon play an important role in the submarine pipeline design. In terms of the pipeline installation and protection measures commonly used in Bohai Gulf, three engineering measures are investigated in great details. An analytical method is introduced and developed to consider the protection eect of the anti-upheaval buckling of the pipeline. The analysis results show that the amplitude of the initial imperfection has a great eect on the pipeline thermal upheaval buckling. Both trenching and burial and discrete dumping are eective techniques in preventing the pipeline from buckling. The initial imperfection and operation conditions of the pipelines determine the covered depth and the number of layers of the protection measures. Key words measure submarine buried pipeline, thermal stress, upheaval buckling, protection

Chinese Library Classication TE54 2010 Mathematics Subject Classication

32G05

Introduction

In-service hydrocarbons must be transported at high temperature and high pressure to ease the ow. The thermal stress together with the Poisson eect will cause the pipeline to expand longitudinally. However, due to the soil restraint, e.g., by the frictional eects over a
Received Jan. 18, 2011 / Revised Mar. 5, 2012 Project supported by the Foundation for Innovative Research Groups of the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 51021004), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 40776055), and the Foundation of the State Key Laborary of Ocean Engineering (No. 1002) Corresponding author Run LIU, Professor, Ph. D., E-mail: liurun@tju.edu.cn

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Run LIU, Wu-gang WANG, Shu-wang YAN, and Xin-li WU

kilometer or of a pipeline, the pipeline cannot expand freely, and consequently, a compressive axial stress will be set up in the pipe wall. When the compressive force reaches or even exceeds the constraint of the foundation soil, suddenly-deforming will occur to release the accumulated internal stress in the pipe wall. This phenomenon is similar to the theoretical stability analysis of a strut with two ends pinned and compressed by the anti-symmetry concentrated force. The accumulated compressive forces is frequently large enough to induce either the lateral buckling or the vertical buckling of the buried pipelines[1] . Liu et al.[1] , Taylor and Tran[2] , Hobbs[3] , and Maltby and Calladine[4] showed that vertical buckling was the main failure mode for the buried heated pipelines. Once the integrity of the pipeline is destroyed, the oil and gas will leak out, which will not only cause a great waste of resources, but also bring dangers to the living environment of human beings. Therefore, upheaval buckling studies of the submarine pipeline play an import role in the pipeline design. Many researches have been carried out in this area since the early eighties of the last century. In 1985, Palmer and Davies[5] pointed out that the principal techniques for the trenching of submarine pipelines comprised jetting, uidization, milling, and ploughing. Each method had its own particular features and constraints. By comparing with each other, it was concluded that ploughing was a less risky trenching technique. In 1985 and 1989, Schaap[67] studied the natural backll of the trench, which was considered to be an economical and acceptable solution for covering the pipeline after trenching. He presented a practical calculation method to determine the natural backll as a function of time for the specied trench prole and local natural environment, and proposed a reliable empirical natural burial prediction model in conjunction with the deformation capacity of pipelines. In 1988, Pedersen and Jensen[8] expounded that, for a given pipeline, a given temperature, and a given burial depth, the mathematical model could be used to impose the restrictions on the allowable imperfections of the unloaded pipe center line (plastic deformations) combined with the restrictions on the allowable imperfections of the trench. They also obtained the partial analytical solutions. In 1991, Gokce[9] concluded that a deeper burial depth of a pipeline could greatly improve the capacity of the pipeline to bear thermal stresses. In 2004, Sahel and Hamdan[10] analyzed the stability of the anchored and trenched pipeline with initial imperfections, and discussed the optimal position of the anchor. In China, Hu et al.[11] carried out a model test to study the hydrodynamic force incurred by the wave current of the unprotected smooth pipeline and the pipeline protected by mattresses in 1991. They discussed the shape and interval of mattresses. In 1997, Ma[12] explained the key points of the mattress protection measure, including the calculation method of the mattress weight and the mattress installation method. In 2001, Jin[13] carried out a model test to study the hydrodynamic force of the submarine pipeline protected by mattresses. The drag force and the lift force of the pipeline with a mattress and the mattress itself were measured. In 2002, Cao[14] described the characteristics of the mattress and the imperfection of the mattress structure. The suitable conditions of mattresses with the shapes of diamond, trapezoid, and s-type were discussed. In 2005, Liu et al.[1] made a research on the upheaval buckling of a submarine pipeline with initial imperfections in accordance with the case study, and pointed out that increasing the covered depth was an eective way to prevent the pipeline from upheaval buckling. Literatures have shown that there are fewer studies on the upheaval buckling of submarine pipelines with the initial imperfection under protection. As a result, analyzing the characteristics of the pipeline thermal buckling and comparing the eectiveness of dierent protection measures are very important in oshore pipeline engineering. According to dierent protection measures, the thermal buckling analysis of a submarine pipeline is carried out with the consideration of the initial imperfection. An analytical method is introduced and developed to consider the protection eect of the anti-upheaval buckling of the pipeline. This paper is organized as follows. Section 2 presents some pipeline protection measures. Section 3 analyzes the upheaval buckling. Some cases are studied in Section 4. Finally, some conclusions are summarized in Section 5.

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Pipeline protection measures

In terms of the oshore engineering practice in China, pipeline protection measures can be summarized in three categories. 2.1 Natural backll of trench Since the natural backll is an economical and convenient measure for covering the pipeline after trenching, it is widely used in oshore engineering (see Fig. 1). The natural backll is usually a slow procedure, and the backll degree of the trench is dicult to be determined. If the backlled soil is clay, the strength recovery will take a long time because of the low permeability of this type of soil. Therefore, for the conservative purpose, the soil submarine weight and the resistance above the pipeline under this protection state are not taken into account in the pipeline thermal buckling analysis.

Fig. 1

Natural backll after trench

Nevertheless, the resistance force of the trench is considered in the analysis, and it can be determined by Fv1 = q sin + L q cos , (1)

where Fv1 is the restraint force of the trench to the pipeline. q is the submerged self-weight of the pipeline per unit length, kNm1 . L is the lateral friction coecient between the pipeline and the soil. is the angle of the trench slope. 2.2 Trenching and burial In general, burying pipelines by machine after trench ploughing is widely adopted to prevent the pipeline from ocean current scouring and to ensure the on-position stability. This protection measure also can help the pipeline to avoid damages of ship anchoring and shing activities. The design sketch of this protection measure is illustrated in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2

Typical burial topology

The soil resistance (Fv2 ) above the pipeline is taken into account with this kind of protection measures and the soil resistance can be calculated as follows[15] . (i) Cohesive soil foundation D 2 cu H 1 Fv2 = 1 + 0.1 + + , HD H H D 2 (2)

where is the submerged unit weight, kNm3 . D is the external diameter, mm. H is the depth of embedment, m. cu is the average undrained shear strength on the vertical slip planes, kPa.

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Run LIU, Wu-gang WANG, Shu-wang YAN, and Xin-li WU

(ii) Sand soil foundation Fv2 D H = 1 + 0.1 + K tan HD H D 1+ D 2H

2

(3)

where is the angle of the internal friction, and K is the lateral soil pressure coecient. The total uplift resistance per unit length of the pipeline Fv2t is Fv2t = Fv2 + q. (4)

In terms of the soil disturbance due to installation activities, such as trenching, paving, and burying, the soil strength decreases, especially for cohesive soil. In the analysis, the remolding strength of the subsoil should be adopted. 2.3 Discrete dumping The discrete dumping protection measure, which installs concrete blocks on the pipeline intermittently or continuously, can be adopted when the trenching and burial protection is dicult or uneconomical to be used. The principle of this protection measure is to add the weight to the pipeline until it is heavy enough to avoid buckling. There are two main forms of discrete dumping. One is the single concrete block, which is put on the pipeline according to the design after the pipeline installation. The other is the prefabricated concrete mattress, which is laid on the pipe after the pipeline installation. The sketches of the discrete dumping measure are illustrated in Fig. 3, in which Lm denotes the space between the two adjacent concrete blocks, and Lmat is the design width of the concrete mattress.

Fig. 3

Discrete dumping protection

Available results show that the vertical resistance provided by the single concrete block is equal to the negative buoyancy itself[12] . When the space between dierent concrete blocks is equal to zero, the resistance is about 20% to 30% of the weight of the pipeline. The concrete mattress is widely used in oshore engineering in recent years, and the vertical resistance can be calculated as follows[16] : 30 2 Fv3 = Wmat = 2Dgh , (5) 35 where Wmat is the eective weight of the concrete mattress per unit length, kNm1 . is the concrete density. h is the thickness of the concrete mattress. With this protection measure, the total ultimate resistance (Fv3t ) can be obtained by Fv3t = Fv3 + q. (6)

Upheaval buckling analysis

3.1 Initial imperfection of submarine pipeline The pipelines usually have an initial deformation during the manufacture and installation procedure, e.g., the departure of the center during the manufacture, a crest in the sea bed prole, a soil platform caused by the rooter, or a prop appeared when the isolated rock is

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located immediately below the line or another pipeline is to be crossed as required in the design. Other less obvious possibilities that can cause initial deformations include the free span gap, the trench step, and the angularly mismatched eld joint. Such initial deformations of the pipeline are dened as initial imperfections. The continuous prop mode is the most common case among all kinds of pipeline initial imperfections[2] . This type of modes occurs where the seabed is uneven, e.g., there are some heaves or bulges and the voids between the seabed and the pipeline are inlled with soil under the current action. With the inlled prop, the pipeline is approximately laid on the undulation foundation, as shown in Fig. 4. Since the further deformation always develops at an initial imperfection, the initial out-of-straightness will weaken the pipeline resistance against the upheaval buckling under thermal stresses. Therefore, the continuous prop initial imperfections are taken into account in analyzing the validity of the pipeline protection measures. Based on the research ndings of Talor and Tran[2] , the relationship between the amplitude and the buckle length can be depicted as follows: L0 = 5.825 9 Vom EI q
1 4

(7)

where Vom is the maximum vertical amplitude of the continuous prop imperfection topology, mm. L0 is the buckle length of the initial imperfection topology, m. q is the submerged selfweight of the pipeline per unit length, kNm1 . E is the Young modulus. I is the second moment of the area of the cross section.

Fig. 4

Continuous prop initial imperfection

The upheaval buckling of the submarine pipeline with the continuous prop initial imperfection always develops at the initial imperfection under the actions of the thermal stress and internal pressure. The upheaval buckling is composed of the following two main stages. (i) The buckling length is no more than the initial imperfect wave length, and the amplitude of the upheaval segment increases. (ii) The buckling length is larger than the initial imperfect wave length, and the amplitude of the upheaval segment increases. The sketches and force analysis of these two stages are shown in Fig. 5. In Fig. 5, Rv is the vertical resistance force of the buckled pipeline at the peel point. Rv = L F 2 v , in which Fv is the vertical restraint force of the peel point. Rh is the horizontal axial resistance force of the buckled pipeline at the peel point, Rh = L 2 A Fv . Rs is the slide friction resistance between the pipeline and the subsoil, Rs = A qLs . 3.2 Natural backlled pipeline In this case, the linear dierential equation and the solution procedure condition for the deected shape of the buckled part of the pipeline are as follows. In the rst stage of upheaval buckling, Lu < L < Li , the following bending moment equilibrium equation can be established (see Fig. 5(a)): Mx = EI (V xx Vi xx ) = P (Vm V ) Fv1 x2 + M, 2 (8)

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Fig. 5

Force analysis for continuous prop model

and the quintessential buckling model employs a potential energy W approach with
L0 2

W =
0

EI (V xx V0 xx )2 dx + 2
L 2 L0 2

L 2 L0 2

EI (V xx V0 xx )2 dx + 2
L 2 L0 2

L0 2

q (V V0 )dx
0

L0 2

q (V V0 )dx
0

P 2 (V V02 x )dx 2 x

P 2 (V V02 x )dx, 2 x

(9)

where Mx is the bending moment of the buckle segment pipeline at x. P is the axial force of the buckle segment. Vm is the maximum vertical amplitude of the buckled pipe, mm. V is the vertical displacement of the buckle segment at the section x. Fv1 is the restraining force of the trench to the pipeline. M is the bending moment at the crown in the continuous prop model. Lu is the buckle length at the upheaval. Li is the buckle length of the imperfection topology. Other notations remains the same as forgoing. In accordance with the corresponding boundary conditions V |0 = Vm , V | L = Vi | L ,
2 2

V x |0 = 0,

V x | L = Vi x | L ,
2 2

V xx | L = Vi xx | L
2 2

together with the assumption n2 = P/(EI ). The expression of the buckle amplitude and the maximum bending moment of the pipeline can be written as V = C1 + q nL nL C2 cos nx + C3 sin nx C2 4 EIn 2 2 (nL)2 Li q + Fv1 n2 L i q + Fv1 2 3 + x n2 x2 , 12 L 2q 3 2q q nL nL (nLi )2 C2 cos C3 sin + 2 . 2 n 2 2 24

(10) (11)

M=

Substituting x = 0 into Eq. (10) yields the maximum in the rst stage of upheaval buckling as follows: Vm = C1 + C4 qL4 , EI (12)

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where 3 qL4 Li 1 C1 = 1 152EI L Fv1 (nL)2 + C2 = 1 q 24 Li +3 , L Li 1 L Li 3 , L

The axial force P consists of the internal axial force P0 , the lateral resistance of the peel point Rh , and the friction resistance between the pipeline and the subsoil Rs , which can be determined by[19] P = P0 Rh Rs , Rh = L A Fv1 , 2 (13) (14) (15)

2 nL Li q + Fv1 (nL)3 Li C3 = 3 + 1 , 3 L 2q 48 L 1 nL nL (nL)2 Li q + Fv1 C4 = C cos + C sin C 2 3 2 3 2 4 nL 2 2 12 L 2q

Rs = A qLs ,

where P0 is the so-called pre-buckling force caused by the constrained expansions set up by thermal and internal pressure actions. A is the cross-sectional area. is the coecient of the linear thermal expansion. A is the axial friction coecient. Ls is the axial slip length. For computational convenience, the internal pressure actions can be changed into the pressureequivalent temperature. The free axial strain , due to a positive pressure dierence p between the oil and the sea, is given in terms of the thin wall axial and hoop stresses in the pipe by = 1 pr pr . E 2t t

If is completely restrained, the axial compressive force generated and available to the participate in buckling is Apr EA = (0.5 ), t in which p the internal pressure, t is the wall thickness of the pipe, and is the Poisson ratio. It can be obtained by P0 = AET = AE(T + T ), (16) where AET is the pre-buckling force caused by the temperature dierence, AET is the pre-buckling force caused by the internal pressure, and AET = Apr (0.5 ). t

dW With d Vm = 0 and Eqs. (11)(12), the relationship between the upheaval amplitude and the axial force can be established. By using the axial force and the bending moment in the upheaval pipeline segment, the maximum compressive stress can be obtained as follows:

m =

P MD + . A 2I

(17)

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Run LIU, Wu-gang WANG, Shu-wang YAN, and Xin-li WU

Comparing m with the material yield stress yld , whether the pipe enters the state of yield damage can be judged. In the second stage of the upheaval buckling, L > Li , and the bending moment equilibrium condition can be expressed as the following two equations (see Fig. 5(b)): (i) 0 < x < Li /2 Mx = EI (V xx Vi xx ) = P (Vm V ) (ii) Li /2 < x < L/2 Mx = EI (V xx ) = P (Vm V ) Fv1 x2 + M. 2 (19) Fv1 x2 + M, 2 (18)

P From n2 = EI and the boundary conditions V |0 = Vm , V x |0 = 0, and V |L/2 = V x |L/2 = 0, the vertical displacement of dierent parts in the upheaval segment can be obtained as follows: (i) 0 < x < Li /2

V =

nLi n2 L i q + Fv1 2 2 q C cos( nx ) sin( nx ) + C + x n x , 5 6 4 EIn 3 3 2q

(20)

(ii) Li /2 < x < L/2 V = Fv1 (nL)2 n2 x2 C cos( nx ) + C sin( nx ) + 1 + . 7 8 EIn4 8 2 q nLi nLi nLi (nLi )2 C + sin + cos + 2 , 7 n2 6 2 2 24 nL nL nL sin cos 2 2 2 1+ (nL)2 (nLi )2 , 8 24 nLi nLi nLi sin cos , 6 2 2 nL nL nL sin cos , 2 2 2 (21)

And the maximum bending moment at x = 0 is M= where Fv1 C5 = q Fv1 C6 = 1 + q C8 = nL cos 2 (22)

C7 =

nL nL sin . 2 2

Substituting x = 0 into Eq. (20) yields the maximum vertical amplitude in the second upheaval buckling stage as follows: Vm = where C9 = Fv1 nL nL nL sin cos q 2 2 2 nLi nLi nLi sin cos . 6 2 2 q Fv1 1 1 1 + C9 + 1 + (nL)2 (nLi )2 , 4 EIn q 8 24 (23)

dW Based on the former point, from d Vm = 0 and Eqs. (13)(16) and (22)(23), the relationship among the axial force, the buckle amplitude of the upheaval segment, and the temperature dierence can be established. The maximum compressive longitudinal stress m in the pipewall can be dened with the axial force obtained by Eq. (13) and the bending moment obtained by Eq. (11). Comparing m with the material yield stress yid , whether the pipe material enters the state of yield damage can be judged.

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3.3 Pipeline with trenching and burial In this case, the linear dierential equation and the solution procedure condition for the deected shape of the buckled part of the pipeline are as follows. In the rst stage of the upheaval buckling, Lu < L < Li , and the following bending moment equilibrium equation can be established (see Fig. 5(a)): Mx = EI (V xx Vi xx ) = P (Vm V ) Fv2t x2 + M, 2 (24)

where Fv2t is the total uplift resistance per unit length of the pipeline, which can be dened by Eq. (4). Similarly, in accordance with the corresponding boundary conditions V |0 = Vm , V | L = Vi | L , 2 2 P V x |0 = 0, V x | L = Vi x | L , and V xx | L = Vi xx | L together with the assumption n2 = EI , the 2 2 2 2 expression of the buckle amplitude and the maximum bending moment of the pipeline can be written as follows: V = C10 + nL nL Fv2t C11 cos nx + C12 sin nx C11 EIn4 2 2 (nL)2 Li n2 L i 2 3 + x n2 x2 , 12 L 3 Fv2t nL nL (nLi )2 C cos C sin + 2 . 2 3 n2 2 2 24

(25) (26)

M=

Similarly to Eqs. (13)(16), the axial compressive force in the buckling segment P in this case can be determined by P = P0 Rh Rs , L Rh = A Fv2t , 2 Rs = A Fv2t Ls ,

Substituting x = 0 into Eq. (25), it yields the maximum amplitude in the rst stage of the upheaval buckling as follows: Fv2t L4 Vm = C10 + C13 , (27) EI where 3 L Fv2t L4 Li i C = 1 +3 , 10 1 152EI L L 2 (nL)2 Li Li nL Li (nL)3 Li C = 2 + 1 3 , C = 3 + 1 , 11 12 24 L L 3 L 48 L 2 C13 = 1 C11 cos nL + C12 sin nL C11 (nL) 2 Li 3 . nL4 2 2 12 L

(28) (29) (30)

dW where P0 can be calculated by Eq. (16). Combining with d Vm = 0 and Eqs. (27)(28), the relationship among the axial force, the buckle amplitude of the upheaval segment, and the temperature dierence can be established. The maximum compressive longitudinal stress m can be dened by the axial force determined by Eq. (28) and the bending moment determined by Eq. (26). Compare m with the material yield stress yid , whether the pipe material enters the state of yield damage can be judged.

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In the second stage of the upheaval buckling, L > Li , and the bending moment equilibrium condition can be expressed as the following two equations (see Fig. 5(b)): (i) 0 < x < Li /2 Mx = EI (V xx Vi xx ) = P (Vm V ) (ii) Li /2 < x < L/2 Mx = EI (V xx ) = P (Vm V ) Fv2t x2 + M. 2 (32) Fv2t x2 + M, 2 (31)

P From n2 = EI and the boundary conditions V |0 = Vm , V | L = V x | L = V xx | L = 0, and 2 2 2 V x |0 = 0, the vertical displacement of dierent parts in the upheaval segment can be obtained as follows: (i) 0 < x < Li /2

V =

Fv2t nLi n2 L i C cos( nx ) sin( nx ) + C + x n2 x2 , 14 15 EIn4 3 3

(33)

(ii) Li /2 < x < L/2 V = (nL)2 n2 x2 Fv2t C16 cos(nx) + C17 sin(nx) + 1 + . 4 EIn 8 2 (34)

And the maximum bending moment at x = 0 is M= where nL nL nL nLi nLi nLi C14 = sin cos sin cos , 2 2 2 6 2 2 (nLi )2 nL nL nL (nL)2 , C16 = sin cos , C15 = 2 + 8 24 2 2 2 nL nL nL C17 = cos sin . 2 2 2 Substituting x = 0 into Eq. (33) yields the maximum vertical amplitude in this upheaval buckling stage as follows: Vm = Fv2t 1 1 2 + C14 + (nL)2 (nLi )2 . EIn4 8 24 (36) Fv2t nLi nLi nLi (nLi )2 C + sin + cos + 2 , 7 n2 6 2 2 24 (35)

Combining with Eqs. (28)(30) and (36), the relationship among the axial force, the buckle amplitude of the upheaval segment, and the temperature dierence can be established. The maximum compressive longitudinal stress m can be dened by the axial force determined by Eqs. (28)(30) and the bending moment determined by Eq. (35). Comparing m with the material yield stress yid , whether the pipe material enters the state of yield damage can be judged.

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3.4 Pipeline with discrete dumping In this case, the linear dierential equation and the solution procedure condition for the deected shape of the buckled part of the pipeline are as follows. In the rst stage of the upheaval buckling, Lu < L < Li , and the following bending moment equilibrium equation can be established: Mx = EI (V xx Vi xx ) = P (Vm V ) Fv3t x2 + M, 2 (37)

where Fv3t is the total ultimate resistance including the pipeline weight and the concrete block action determined by Eq. (6). In accordance with the corresponding boundary conditions V |0 = Vm , V | L = Vi | L , V x |0 = 0, 2 2 P V x | L = Vi x | L , and V xx | L = Vi xx | L together with the assumption n2 = EI , the expression of 2 2 2 2 the buckle amplitude and the maximum bending moment of the pipeline can be written as V = C10 + M= Fv3t nL nL C11 cos nx + C12 sin nx C11 EIn4 2 2 (38) (39)

(nL)2 Li n2 L i 2 3 + x n2 x2 , 12 L 3

Fv3t nL nL (nLi )2 C cos C sin + 2 . 2 3 n2 2 2 24

Substituting x = 0 into Eq. (38) yields the maximum amplitude in the rst stage of the upheaval buckling as follows: Fv3t L4 Vm = C10 + C13 . (40) EI Similarly to Eqs. (13)(16), the axial compressive force in the buckling segment P in this case can be determined by P = P0 Rh Rs , L Rh = A Fv3t , 2 Rs = A Fv3t Ls . (41) (42) (43)

The method to get P0 in this equation is the same as Eq. (16). According to Eqs. (40)(41), the relationship among the axial force, the buckle amplitude of the upheaval segment, and the temperature dierence can be established. The maximum compressive longitudinal stress m can be dened by the axial force determined by Eq. (41) and the bending moment determined by Eq. (39). Compare m with the material yield stress yid , whether the pipe material enters the state of yield damage can be judged. In the second stage of the upheaval buckling, L > Li , and the bending moment equilibrium condition can be expressed as the following two equations (see Fig. 5(b)): (i) 0 < x < Li /2 Mx = EI (V xx Vi xx ) = P (Vm V ) (ii) Li /2 < x < L/2 Mx = EI (V xx ) = P (Vm V ) Fv3t x2 + M. 2 (45) Fv3t x2 + M, 2 (44)

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Run LIU, Wu-gang WANG, Shu-wang YAN, and Xin-li WU

P and the boundary conditions V |0 = Vm and V | L = V x | L = V xx | L = From n2 = EI 2 2 2 V x |0 = 0, the vertical displacement of dierent parts in the upheaval segment can be obtained as follows: (i) 0 < x < Li /2

V =

Fv3t nLi n2 L i C cos( nx ) sin( nx ) + C + x n2 x2 , 14 15 EIn4 3 3

(46)

(ii) Li /2 < x < L/2 V = Fv3t (nL)2 n2 x2 C16 cos(nx) + C17 sin(nx) + 1 + . 4 EIn 8 2 (47)

And the maximum bending moment at x = 0 is M= Fv3t nLi nLi nLi (nLi )2 C + sin + cos + 2 . 7 n2 6 2 2 24 (48)

Substituting x = 0 into Eq. (46) yields the maximum vertical amplitude in the second upheaval buckling stage as follows: Vm = Fv3t 1 1 2 + C14 + (nL)2 (nLi )2 . 4 EIn 8 24 (49)

dW Based on the former point, from d Vm = 0 and Eqs. (41)and (49), the relationship among the axial force, the buckle amplitude of the upheaval segment, and the temperature dierence can be established. The maximum compressive longitudinal stress m can be dened by the axial force obtained by Eq. (40) and the bending moment obtained by Eq. (48). Comparing m with the material yield stress yid , whether the pipe material enters the state of the yield damage can be judged.

Case study

4.1 Engineering description The example is an API 5L X65 grade oil pipeline in Bohai Gulf. The design internal pressure is 4.65 MPa, and the operational temperature change is 85 C. Other design parameters of this pipeline are shown in Table 1, where is Possions ratio, T is the wall thickness, g is the steel density, o is the oil density, s is the seawater density, is the coecient of linear thermal expansion. The soil properties are shown in Table 2, where w is the water content, e is the void ratio, Ip is the plasticity index, c is cohesion, al2 and El2 are the compaction indexes, and Su is the undrained shear strength. In term of the operational conditions, upheaval buckling may occur.
Table 1
E /(Nmm3 ) 2.06E+5 0.3 T /mm 0.012 7

Design parameters of pipeline

g /(kgm3 ) 7 850 o /(kgm3 ) 800 s /(kgm3 ) 1 120 / C 1.1E5

D /mm 0.323 9

Table 2
Horizon Silt clay Clay H /m 02 23 w /(%) 38.8 45.8 /(kNm3 ) 7.8 9.4 e 1.05 1.27 Ip

Soil properties
c/kPa 18 10 /( ) 18.6 15.9 al2 /MPa1 0.63 0.89 El2 /MPa 3.26 2.58 Su /kPa 4.07.5 7.516

14.3 21.5

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The analysis results indicate that the minimum temperature dierence causing the upheaval buckling of the pipeline without protection measures is about 22.0 C[17] , which is much lower than the designed temperature dierence. Therefore, the protection measure must be used to prevent the pipeline from thermal buckling. The foregoing three protection measures are investigated separately. In the analysis, the internal pressure is converted into an equivalent temperature dierence determined by Eq. (16). In this case, the total equivalent temperature dierence is 90.7 C. Considering the soil properties, the frictional coecient between the pipeline and the subsoil is adopted as 0.2. 4.2 Analysis with natural backll measure In accordance with the pipeline practice of Bohai, the depth of the trench is about 1.5 m, and the trench slope is 20 . The restraint force of the trench to the pipeline can be calculated by Eq. (1), which is 1.302 kNm1 . Therefore, the relationship between the temperature dierence and the upheaval amplitude with the continuous prop initial imperfection amplitude varying from 50 mm to 300 mm can be obtained, which is shown in Fig. 6. The results show that the amplitude of the initial imperfection has a great impact on the upheaval buckling of the submarine pipeline. The larger the imperfection is, the smaller the temperature dierence needed to lead to upheaval buckling is, which implies that the upheaval buckling is more likely to occur in the the pipeline with large initial imperfections. Figure 6 shows that with relatively small imperfections, such as 50 mm and 100 mm, a peak value appears on the curve of the dierential temperature against the buckling amplitude. The peak value on the curve indicates that the pipeline will suer unstable deformations and a dynamic snap will occur subsequently. With a slight increment of the thermal stress at this point, the buckle amplitude of the pipeline will increase greatly and suddenly to release the accumulated internal compressive axial stress. With the increase in the initial imperfection, the peak on the curve vanishes gradually. It implies that the deformation of the pipeline is continuous rather than sudden. The initial imperfection keeps increasing until the pipeline falls into failure. The broken line in the gure is the yield stress of the pipeline material. Figure 6 shows that the material of the pipeline will yield when the buckle amplitude is in excess of 750 mm. The analyzing results imply that the protection measure of the natural backll can improve slightly the capacity of the pipeline to bear the thermal stress. For example, when Vom = 300 mm, the pipeline buckling temperature increases from 22.0 C to 22.7 C. However, the increased temperature is still much lower than the designed value. It can be concluded that the natural backll measure cannot achieve the purpose of preventing upheaval buckling.

Fig. 6

Temperature dierence with buckle amplitude for natural backll of trench

4.3 Analysis with trenching and burial measure With this measure, the trench will be lled with soil by machine, which increases the force to resist the pipeline uplift, and the soil resistance of dierent depths of cover can be determined

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Run LIU, Wu-gang WANG, Shu-wang YAN, and Xin-li WU

by Eq. (4). In terms of the soil disturbance, due to the installation activities such as trenching, paving, and burying, the soil strength decreases, especially for cohesive soil. Therefore, the remolding strength of the subsoil is adopted in the analysis, cu = 5 kPa. Since the typical depth-to-diameter ratios are between 3 and 6 in Bohai Gulf, these depth-to-diameter ratios are employed in the calculations. The calculated results are summarized in Table 3. In the analysis, dierent initial imperfections with continuous prop modes and dierent depth-to-diameter ratios are investigated in great detail. The typical relationship between the upheaval amplitude and the temperature dierence is obtained, and one of them is shown in Fig. 7.
Table 3
Embedment ratio (H/D ) 3 4 5 6

Analysis results of depth-to-diameter

Temperature / C Tu Tmax Tu Tmax Tu Tmax Tu Tmax 50 102.4 123.9 116.0 139.8 128.0 154.0 141.1 167.2 Vom /mm 100 200 92.6 101.9 106.9 115.2 120.8 127.4 130.1 138.5 82.7 93.8 108.6 113.2 300 69.1 82.4 94.8 103.4

Resisting uplift force /(kNm1 ) 15.6 19.4 23.2 27.1

Fig. 7

Temperature dierence with buckle amplitude for trench-burial

Figure 7 depicts the relationship between the pipeline upheaval amplitude and the temperature dierence when H/D = 5. It shows that the pipe material will yield when the buckle amplitude is in excess of 850 mm. Comparing Fig. 7 with Fig. 6, it can be seen that the pipeline with the trenching and burial protection measure has the same buckling mode as the natural backll protection measure, except the increase in the buckling temperature. For example, when Vom = 300 mm, the buckling temperature increases from 22.7 C to 94.8 C. The results suggest that the trenching and burial protection is an eective measure to improve the capacity of the pipeline to bear thermal stresses. However, the validity depends mostly on the depth-to-diameter ratio and the initial imperfection amplitude. Table 3 shows that the higher the designed temperature is , the larger the depth-to-diameter ratio is required. That is to say, a deeper depth of cover is needed to prevent the pipeline from buckling when the initial imperfection amplitude is large. In this practice, H/D = 5 is adopted. The engineering has been constructed in Bohai Gulf since 2005. The protected pipeline is under good conditions up to the present.

Engineering measures for preventing upheaval buckling of buried submarine pipelines

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4.4 Analysis with discrete dumping measure The concrete mattress is widely used in the pipeline installation in Bohai. The force, which is provided by the concrete mattress to resist the pipeline uplift, can be calculated by Eq. (6). The thickness of one layer concrete mattress is usually 300 mm, and the corresponding resistance is 3.43 kNm1 . The relationship between the upheaval buckling amplitude and the temperature dierence is illustrated in Fig. 8. Comparing Fig. 8 with Figs. 6 and 7, it can be concluded that the bucking mode of the pipeline under these three protection measures are almost the same. Figure 8 shows that the yield stress of the pipeline material corresponds to the buckle amplitude of 750 mm. If one layer of the concrete mattresses is laid on the pipeline, for Vom = 300 mm, the initial buckling temperature will increase from 22.0 C to 52.4 C. Since it still cannot meet the requirement of the designed conditions, more layers of concrete mattresses are needed. By considering that the conguration and the force analysis of the concrete mattresses on the pipeline are similar to the catenary[18] , the uplift resistance can be solved by
n

Fv3nt =
i=1
x

Fvi3 + q,

(50)

i ai e ai ) is the resistance of the concrete mattress of the ith layer, in where Fvi3 = k a 2 (e which ai is the shape factor of the concrete mattress and k is the weight of the mattress per unit area.

Fig. 8

Temperature dierence with buckle amplitude for mattress

The calculated results show that when three layers of the concrete mattresses are laid on the pipeline, the vertical resistance can reach 16.31 kNm1 , and the corresponding initial buckling temperature is 104.1C, which is higher than the design conditions. Based on the foregoing analysis, the protection measures of trenching and burial and discrete dumping are both eective measures to prevent the upheaval buckling of the submarine pipeline. In the design, the depth of cover and the layer number of mattresses should be determined by the initial imperfection conguration and the operation conditions of the pipeline.

Conclusions

By considering the commonly used engineering measures, the upheaval buckling analysis of the submarine pipeline with typical initial imperfections is carried out. The following conclusions can be obtained. (i) Three engineering measures can be employed to prevent the submarine pipelines from thermal upheaval buckling in practice, i.e., the natural backll after trenching, the trenching and burial, and the discrete dumping. (ii) The amplitude of the initial imperfection has a great eect on the pipeline thermal upheaval buckling. The larger the imperfection is, the smaller the temperature needed to induce

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Run LIU, Wu-gang WANG, Shu-wang YAN, and Xin-li WU

the upheaval buckling of the pipeline is. The pipeline with a small initial imperfection will suer a dynamic snap procedure with thermal stresses. With the increasing initial imperfection, a continuous deformation will develop instead of an unstable deformation procedure. (iii) The protection measures of the natural backll after trenching can raise the initial buckling temperature slightly, while the other protection measures can raise the initial buckling temperature greatly. The increment of the buckling temperature depends on the depth of cover and the thickness of the mattress, separately. Considering the pipeline initial imperfection and operation conditions, the covered depth and the number of layers can be determined in practice.

References
[1] Liu, R., Yan, S. W., and Sun, G. M. Improvement of the method for marine pipeline upheaval analysis under thermal stress (in Chinese). Journal of Tianjin University, 38(2), 124128 (2005) [2] Taylor, N. and Tran, V. Experimental and theoretical studies in subsea pipeline buckling. Marine Structures, 9(2), 211257 (1996) [3] Hobbs, R. E. In-service buckling of heated pipelines. Journal of Transportation Engineering, 110(2), 175189 (1984) [4] Maltby, T. C. and Calladine, C. R. An investigation into upheaval buckling of buried pipelines-II. theory and analysis of experimental observations. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, 37(9), 965983 (1995) [5] Palmer, A. C. and Davies, P. Advances in submarine pipeline trenching by plough. Advances in Oshore Oil and Gas Pipeline Technology (ed. De la Mare, R. F.), Gulf Publishing Co., Texas, 6175 (1985) [6] Schaap, D. Natural backfull of submarine pipeline trenches. Oshore Pipeline Technology Conference, Amsterdam, 131 (1985) [7] Schaap, D. Natural burial of submarine pipelines. Proceedings of the Eighth International Conference on Oshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering, 5(8), 3338 (1989) [8] Pedersen, P. T. and Jensen, J. J. Upheaval creep of buried heated pipelines with initial imperfections. Marine Structures, 1, 1122 (1988) [9] Gokce, K. T. and Gunbak, A. R. Self burial and stimulated self burial of pipelines by waves. Proceedings of the First International Oshore and Polar Engineering Conference, Edinburgh, 308314 (1991) [10] Abduljauwad, S. N., Al-Ghamedy, H. N., Siddiqui, J. N., Asi, I. M., and Al-Shayea, N. A. Stability of vertically bent pipelines buried in sand. Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology, 126(3), 382390 (2004) [11] Hu, Y. X., Sun, S. X., and Xing, Z. Z. Study of hydrodynamic loadings on pipe near seabed in wave and current (in Chinese). Journal of Dalian University of Technology, 31(4), 445453 (1991) [12] Ma, L. The on-position stability of submarine pipeline (in Chinese). China Oshore Platform, 12(2), 6472 (1997) [13] Jin, L. Hydrodynamic forces laboratory study of horizontal cylinder with masses near the ocean bottom (in Chinese). Journal of Henan Normal University (Natural Science), 29(3), 3036 (2001) [14] Cao, Q. Application of high strength concrete interlock block to yard and road of port (in Chinese). Port Engineering Technology, 2, 3537 (2002) [15] Bransby, M. F., Newson, T. A., and Brunning, P. The upheaval capacity of pipelines in jetted clay backll. International Journal of Oshore and Polar Engineering, 12(4), 280287 (2002) [16] DEP 31.40.10.16-Gen. Upheaval Buckling of Pipelines, Shell DEP Mechanical Engineering Equipments (1998) [17] Gao, X. F., Yu, J. X., and Liu, R. Anchor wire design for drop anchor near the pipeline (in Chinese). Ocean Technology, 28(1), 97100 (2009) [18] Sun, X. F. and Fang, X. S. Mechanics of Materials, 2nd ed., Higher Education Press, Beijing, 294321 (1979)