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Zoom - Electronically or optically enlarging or reducing the size of an image. Jibbing: - In cinematography, a jib is a boom device with a camera on one end, and a counterweight and camera
controls on the other. It operates like a see-saw, but with the balance point located close to the counterweight, so that the camera end of the arm can move through an extended arc. A jib permits the camera to be moved vertically, horizontally, or a combination of the two. A jib is often mounted on a tripod or similar support.

Videography refers to the process of capturing moving images on electronic media (e.g., videotape, hard disk, or
solid state storage, streaming media). The term includes methods of electronic production and post production. It is the equivalent of cinematography, but with images recorded on electronic media instead of film stock.

Microphones - What's the difference?

The major differences between microphones are the transducer type and the pickup pattern. The transducer is the element inside a mic that converts sound waves to electrical impulses. The pickup pattern is the area around the mic where sound can actually be "heard" by the microphone. First, let's look at microphone pickup patterns. A mic that is equally sensitive to sound from all sides is called an omnidirectional mic. Omni mics are great for picking up natural room sound and are also very good for capturing group vocals... Omni mics also tend to be more "forgiving" because they pick up sound even when the mic is rotated at different angles. Be careful working with omni mics in the studio. If they're not positioned correctly, you may end up with too much ambient sound in your recording. Picks up sound from all directions; good for ambient sound and group vocals A unidirectional mic is sensitive to sound only in a specific direction. The most common type features a cardioid (heart-shaped) pattern that rejects sound coming from behind the microphone. This can be very useful for reducing bleed when recording a guitar amp sitting next to a drum kit. A supercardioid mic has an even narrower pickup pattern, further reducing bleed from nearby sound sources. Sometimes it's better to stick with cardioids when you first start recording. They're a good balance between the omnis which have the widest pickup pattern and the supercardioids which have the narrowest. Picks up sound only in front of the mic; most common type. Cardioid and supercardioid mics are good for crowded spaces (like group recording sessions) where multiple microphones are positioned close together.

Tightest pickup pattern; ideal where multiple mics are used

2|Page Now let's look at the two basic microphone transducer types: dynamic and condenser. To understand the difference between these types of microphones, you have to know something about how they work (which gets a little technical). In a dynamic mic, a coil of wire is mounted on a diaphragm, which sits inside a magnetic field. When the diaphragm is moved by the sound source the resulting fluctuations in the magnetic field create an electric current that travels from the mic through the rest of the recording system. Dynamic mics are rugged and can handle high sound pressure levels, like those delivered by kick drums, snare drums, and high volume guitar amps. They're also good for loud, aggressive vocals. Most people start out recording with dynamic mics because of their lower cost and high durability. A condenser mic utilizes a constant electric charge, provided by a battery or phantom power in a mixer. Because condenser diaphragms have less mass, which requires less energy to move, condenser mics are more sensitive than dynamic mics and are very responsive to high frequencies produced by an acoustic guitar or cymbals on a drum-kit.

Some condenser microphones are called "small-diaphragm" condensers. This configuration is used for vocals in live performance, and for live and recorded instruments. Here are some examples of small-diaphragm condenser mics.

Large-diaphragm condenser mics are often chosen for recording vocals. These condensers may be considered a luxury for people who are new to home recording, but they're a good investment if you want an immediately noticeable upgrade in recording quality. That covers the basic differences between microphones. Which mic you choose will depend on what you're recording (specific instruments or vocals), the room you're recording in and, most importantly the sound you like. You may want to start by borrowing some different mics and experimenting with them.

Omnidirectional - An omnidirectional (or nondirectional) microphone's response is generally considered to be a

perfect sphere in three dimensions. In the real world, this is not the case. As with directional microphones, the polar pattern for an "omnidirectional" microphone is a function of frequency. The body of the microphone is not infinitely small and, as a consequence, it tends to get in its own way with respect to sounds arriving from the rear, causing a slight flattening of the polar response. This flattening increases as the diameter of the microphone (assuming it's cylindrical) reaches the wavelength of the frequency in question. Therefore, the smallest diameter microphone will give the best omnidirectional characteristics at high frequencies. The wavelength of sound at 10 kHz is little over an inch (3.4 cm) so the smallest measuring microphones are often 1/4" (6 mm) in diameter, which practically eliminates directionality even up to the highest frequencies. Omnidirectional microphones, unlike cardioids, do not employ resonant cavities as delays, and so can be considered the "purest" microphones in terms of low coloration; they add very little to the original sound. Being pressuresensitive they can also have a very flat low-frequency response down to 20 Hz or below. Pressure-sensitive microphones also respond much less to wind noise than directional (velocity sensitive) microphones. An example of a nondirectional microphone is the round black eight ball. Unidirectional A unidirectional microphone is sensitive to sounds from only one direction. The diagram above illustrates a number of these patterns. The microphone faces upwards in each diagram. The sound intensity for a particular frequency is plotted for angles radially from 0 to 360. (Professional diagrams show these scales and include multiple plots at different frequencies. The diagrams given here provide only an overview of typical pattern shapes, and their names.)

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Cardioids

US664A University Sound Dynamic Supercardioid Microphone The most common unidirectional microphone is a cardioid microphone, so named because the sensitivity pattern is heart-shaped (see cardioid). A hyper-cardioid is similar but with a tighter area of front sensitivity and a tiny lobe of rear sensitivity. A super-cardioid microphone is similar to a hyper-cardioid, except there is more front pickup and less rear pickup. These three patterns are commonly used as vocal or speech microphones, since they are good at rejecting sounds from other directions. Bi-directional - Figure 8 or bi-directional microphones receive sound from both the front and back of the element. Most ribbon microphones are of this pattern.

Shotgun

An Audio-Technica shotgun microphone Shotgun microphones are the most highly directional. They have small lobes of sensitivity to the left, right, and rear but are significantly more sensitive to the front. This results from placing the element inside a tube with slots cut along the side; wave-cancellation eliminates most of the off-axis noise. Shotgun microphones are commonly used on TV and film sets, and for field recording of wildlife. An omnidirectional microphone is a pressure transducer; the output voltage is proportional to the air pressure at a given time. On the other hand, a figure-8 pattern is a pressure gradient transducer; a sound wave arriving from the back will lead to a signal with a polarity opposite to that of an identical sound wave from the front. Moreover, shorter wavelengths (higher frequencies) are picked up more effectively than lower frequencies. A cardioid microphone is effectively a superposition of an omnidirectional and a figure-8 microphone; for sound waves coming from the back, the negative signal from the figure-8 cancels the positive signal from the omnidirectional element, whereas for sound waves coming from the front, the two add to each other. A Hypercardioid microphone is similar, but with a slightly larger figure-8 contribution. Since pressure gradient transducer microphones are directional, putting them very close to the sound source (at distances of a few centimeters) results in a bass boost. This is known as the proximity effect.

Application-specific designs
A lavalier microphone is made for hands-free operation. These small microphones are worn on the body and held in place either with a lanyard worn around the neck or a clip fastened to clothing. The cord may be hidden by clothes and either run to an RF transmitter in a pocket or clipped to a belt (for mobile use), or run directly to the mixer (for stationary applications). A wireless microphone is one in which the artist is not limited by a cable. It usually sends its signal using a small FM radio transmitter to a nearby receiver connected to the sound system, but it can also use infrared light if the transmitter and receiver are within sight of each other. A contact microphone is designed to pick up vibrations directly from a solid surface or object, as opposed to sound vibrations carried through air. One use for this is to detect sounds of a very low level, such as those from small objects or insects. The microphone commonly consists of a magnetic (moving coil) transducer, contact plate and contact pin. The contact plate is placed against the object from which vibrations are to be picked up; the contact pin transfers these vibrations to the coil of the transducer. Contact microphones have been used to pick up the sound of a snail's heartbeat and the footsteps of ants. A portable version of this microphone has recently been developed. A throat microphone is a variant of the contact microphone, used to pick up speech directly from the throat, around which it is strapped. This allows the device to be used in areas with ambient sounds that would otherwise make the speaker inaudible. A parabolic microphone uses a parabolic reflector to collect and focus sound waves onto a microphone receiver, in much the same way that a parabolic antenna (e.g. satellite dish) does with radio waves. Typical uses of this microphone, which has unusually focused front sensitivity and can pick up sounds from many meters away, include nature recording, outdoor sporting events, eavesdropping, law enforcement, and even espionage. Parabolic

4|Page microphones are not typically used for standard recording applications, because they tend to have poor low-frequency response as a side effect of their design. A stereo microphone integrates two microphones in one unit to produce a stereophonic signal. A stereo microphone is often used for broadcast applications or field recording where it would be impractical to configure two separate condenser microphones in a classic X-Y configuration (see microphone practice) for stereophonic recording. Some such microphones have an adjustable angle of coverage between the two channels. A noise-canceling microphone is intended for noisy environments such as aircraft cockpits. They are normally installed as boom mics on headsets. They pick up environmental noise, ideally without also picking up the intended signal, with one diaphragm and electrically combine the output with the intended signal picked up with another diaphragm. In older designs, there is no active electronics involved in the cancellation technique, unlike active noise cancellation microphones. So, in the common configuration, the intended signal is voice and one diaphragm is mounted close to the mouth. The other is, often, placed behind the first, farther away from the intended signal source and electrically out of phase with the first. After combination, signals other than the voice are greatly reduced, substantially increasing intelligibility. Some noise-canceling microphones are also throat microphones.

Characteristics of lens
Focal length: Light rays which are parallel to the axis of the lens, after passing through a convex lens meet at a point
on the other side of the lens. This point is called as a focus of the lens. The distance between focus and the optical centre (or node) of the lens is called as focal length of that lens. Focal length of a camera lens may also be defined as the minimum practicable distance between film/image sensor and (the optical centre of) the lens. The lens is at minimum distance from the film/sensor when it is focused on an object at infinity. Focal length of a camera lens is usually marked in mm on the front of the lens. Focal length remains fixed for a given lens (other than zoom lens). SLR camera may take lenses having different focal lengths. As an object approaches closer to the camera, the lens has to be extended farther away from the film to focus the same. The distance between film and lens may change depending upon how far the object is located from camera but the focal length will not change. A photographer ought to know the focal length of his camera lens.

Angle of View: The angle through which a scene is recorded on the film/sensor. The angle of coverage of a
photograph. Angle of view varies with focal length. Smaller the focal length, wider the angle of view and vice versa. Angle of view is measured diagonally.

Lens Elements: A camera lens is generally a combination of a number of glass pieces called as lens elements. Such
lens is called as a compound lens and its final effect is similar to a single convex lens. Optical defects or aberrations that are generally associated with a single lens element are corrected by a compound lens to deliver a sharp and high quality defect free image. Camera lenses are designed and manufactured with utmost care using superior optical glass. One should choose lens with least lens elements. As the number elements increases, the scattering of light is more inside the lens also there is loss in light as it has to travel through more glass elements. Therefore Prime lenses always have fewer elements in them.

Lens Coating: Every lens element is coated with a very thin layer of some chemical to avoid internal reflections and
scattering of light resulting from various surfaces of the lens elements. These internal reflections reduce image contrast and the resulting image looks dull. Lens coating minimizes this effect and improves the image quality. Lens coating are very delicate and have to be preserved with proper care. Cleaning/wiping of lens damages these coatings to some extent. Don't make a habit to clean lens frequently. Avoid this by protecting, covering the lens with lens cap when not in use. Use Blower to remove dust and use Chamois leather to wipe.

Speed of Lens: Highest transmitting power of the lens. It is usually denoted in terms of the f-number of the widest
practical aperture of the lens. Fast lenses make photography possible in poor light conditions and are also helpful in getting a bright viewfinder image in SLR camera. Lens speed is marked on the front of a lens e.g., 1:1.4, 1:3.5 etc. Some zoom lenses have variable speed. These are usually marked on the lens as 1:4.5 - 6.7 etc. so for a 100-300mm focal length zoom lens, at 100mm the speed of the lens is f4.5 and at focal length 300mm speed is f6.7. Even though you set aperture to 4.5 at 100mm and change the zoom position/focal length of the lens to its tele-end, the aperture will automatically change to f6.7.

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Lenses
Normal. A normal lens shows most accurately what a normal human eye will see. 50mm is a typical normal focal length. The 50mm is the most popular and versatile lens. The quality is excellent while also being inexpensive. It is smaller and lighter, and the aperture allows photographs to be taken in low-light situations. Telephoto. A telephone lens brings the background closer. Longer-than-normal focal lengths such as 70mm and 300mm are typical for a telephoto lens. Since a telephoto lens will bring the subject up close, it is popular for sports photography. Wide. A wide lens captures a wider expanse of the background than what the human eye will see. Shorter-thannormal focal lengths such as 24mm and 35 mm are typical for a wide lens. Wide lenses are popular for landscape photography and large group shots. Other special lenses to consider include the following: Macro. A macro lens's focus is closer to the subject and is used for close-up photography. Fisheye. A fisheye lens uses an angle of view up to 180 degrees. The angle distorts the photograph so the four sides appear to be farther away. Teleconverter. A teleconverter attaches between the camera and another lens. It increases the focal length of your lens. Although teleconverters will bring the subject closer, they do not allow as much light through the lens. Thus, they need slower shutter speeds and/or a fast ISO.

Three-Point Lighting for 3D Renderings

The Key Light - The key is, as the name suggests, the most important light - it's the primary light source that provides most of the illumination on your subject. You place this light about 45 degrees to the model's right or left and about 45 degrees above, aimed straight at the face. The 45-degree angle isn't written in stone - it's simply a starting point. The Fill Light The fill light is about two stops dimmer than the key - you can soften it by backing it up, changing the power setting (if your lights have variable power) or using a diffuser to cut back the amount of light. You place it on the opposite side from the key light, at about the height of the camera. There may be a temptation to put it at the same angle as the key - after all, we like symmetry - but don't do that. One thing we're trying to do here is use shadowing to make the two sides of the face look different, so try your fill light at an angle of 15 or 25 degrees, and adjust it to suit your aesthetic. The Back Light The back light illuminates lights the space above and slightly behind the model. Photographers sometimes call this a rim light or hair light. Its purpose is to give some sense of separation between the model and the background. Using it in a dual purpose, the backlight can also become the background light, rimming the back of the subject while spilling across a background, especially one with some texture, such as fabric. This background light can be snooted or gobo'ed, illuminating some small part of the area behind the subject. How Big a Light Kit Do I Need? The minimum number of lights that you need to do three-point lighting is ... one. You can actually do three-point lighting with a single light, by using the sun and a reflector as your key and fill. But for all practical purposes, a threepoint lighting kit should have at least two lights and a reflector. Use key and back lights with a reflector for the fill.