'Evolution of Services and Architectures Throughout Mobile Generations''

University College London
Department of Electronic and Electrical
Master of Science in Telecommunications
Evolution of Services and Architectures Throughout Mobile Generations
Author: Konstantinos Rigas
Supervisor: Dr Lionel Sacks Industrial Supervisor: Mr. Mehdi Khorasani
submitted to the University College London for the degree of Master of Science in Telecommunications
August 2002
ABSTRACT
The worlds first public GSM call was made on 1st July 1991 in a city park of Helsinki, Finland. That event is now regarded as the birthday of the second generation mobile telephony. GSM has been an overwhelming success, which was difficult to predict at that early stage. In the past 10 years GSM has become a truly global system for mobile communications. But the rapid growth in traffic volume and increase in new services has begun to change the configuration and structure of wireless networks. Thus, future mobile communication systems will be distinguished by high integration of services, flexibility and higher throughput. The third generation of mobile communication systems (3G) will be a significant step forward in the convergence of telecommunications and data communications industries. More specifically, the convergence of mobile technologies and the Internet allows compelling possibilities for future applications and solutions. It seems likely that third-generation will be available sometime in 2003-4. However, technologies like GPRS and EDGE due out soon, will provide greater bandwidth. The rollout of third-generation networks will be a progression not a fixed date. But we never stop dreaming so after 3G the service generation; the 4th Generation is due to come with more bandwidth, better QoS, personalisation of services and an open IP based network for everyone. This dissertation is written in the same order as it was performed. This report is written for a reader that is not familiar with Mobile networks and for advanced users as well. This Masters dissertation studies the services throughout the Mobile generations. The third generation limitations and the vision of fourth generation mobile networks for providing applications in the light of 3G are also introduced. Comprehensive discussions about the developments after 3G are presented with the introduction of a numerous of projects and some strategic implications as well. This dissertation also discusses operator differentiation and business solutions in an all-IP based world. And finally a few points of the vision of the Fifth generation Mobile networks are being discussed.
I would like to record my indebtedness to Dr Lionel Sacks and Mr. Mehdi Khorasani for introducing me to the limitations of the Third Generation and the vision of the Fourth Generation Mobile Networks. Also I would like to express my gratitude to them for their supervision and useful guidance throughout my dissertation. Among my personal mentors and advisors in understanding the very nature of 3G and 4G have been the companies such as Lucent Technologies, NOKIA and BT. And last but not least the moral support provided by my family and friends is thankfully acknowledged.
Konstantinos Rigas UCL August 2002
MSc in Telecommunications
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Table of Contents
Page Chapter One: Introduction ........................................................................................... 2
1.1 - Evolution of Mobile Communications .............................................................................2 1.2 - Project Aims ...................................................................................................................3 1.3 - Overview of the dissertation............................................................................................3
Chapter Two: Cellular Concept.................................................................................... 5

2.1 - The Evolution of Mobile Telephone Systems ..................................................................5 2.2 - Cellular Concept .............................................................................................................8 2.3 - Circuit-switched and Packet-switched networks ............................................................10
Chapter Three: 2G Architectures & Services ............................................................ 12

3.1 - Introduction to GSM .....................................................................................................12 3.2 - GSM Network Architecture...........................................................................................13 3.2.1 Mobile Station..........................................................................................................13 3.2.2 Base Station Subsystem............................................................................................13 3.2.3 Network Subsystem..................................................................................................13 3.3 - GSM Radio-Link aspects ..............................................................................................14 3.3.1 GSM Speech Coding ................................................................................................15 3.4 - North American standards:............................................................................................15 3.4.1 CDMA-based Digital Cellular System IS-95..........................................................16 3.5 - Japanese standards: .......................................................................................................16 3.5.1 PHS .........................................................................................................................17 3.6 - Second Generation Services ..........................................................................................18 3.7 - Intelligent Network .......................................................................................................22 3.8 - Moving towards 2.5 Generation ....................................................................................24
Chapter Four: 2.5G Architectures & Services ........................................................... 27

4.1 -The enhancements of the Second Generation networks ...................................................27 4.1.1 GSM enhancements..................................................................................................28 4.1.2 TDMA/136 enhancements........................................................................................28 4.1.3 cdmaOne enhancements ...........................................................................................29 4.1.4 PDC enhancements ..................................................................................................29 4.2 - HSCSD-GPRS-EDGE...................................................................................................30 4.2.1 HSCSD ....................................................................................................................30 4.2.2 GPRS.......................................................................................................................30 4.2.3 EDGE ......................................................................................................................31 4.3 - GPRS architecture:........................................................................................................32 4.4 - Key user features of GPRS............................................................................................33 4.5 - Applications for GPRS..................................................................................................34 4.6 - Limitations of GPRS .....................................................................................................36 4.7 - Integration of intelligent network and mobile systems (2.5) ...........................................38 4.7.1 The case of GSM......................................................................................................38 4.7.2 Current developments...............................................................................................39 4.8 - Quality of Services:.......................................................................................................42
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4.9 - Moving towards 2.5 Generation ....................................................................................43
Chapter Five: 3G Architecture & Services ................................................................ 44

5.1 - Introduction ..................................................................................................................44 5.2 - Drivers of third generation development........................................................................45 5.3 - Spectrum allocation.......................................................................................................46 5.4 - Backbone network.........................................................................................................46 5.5 - Third generation data rates ............................................................................................47 5.6 - UMTS architecture R99 ................................................................................................48 5.6.1 System Overview .....................................................................................................48 5.6.2 Network Logic .........................................................................................................50 5.7 - Voice and multimedia in the 3GPP Release 4 network...................................................51 5.8 - Voice and multimedia in the 3GPP Release 5 network...................................................53 5.9 OSA, API.....................................................................................................................56 5.10 - Service Capabilities at UMTS Service Platform...........................................................59 5.11 - WAP (Wireless Application Protocol) .........................................................................61 5.12 - SIP (Session Initiation Protocol)..................................................................................62 5.13 - Third generation services.............................................................................................63 5.14 - Quality of Service (QoS) in UMTS..............................................................................70 5.14.1 QoS classes in UMTS.............................................................................................72 5.15 - 3G Mobile terminals....................................................................................................74 5.16 - The regulatory environment.........................................................................................75
Chapter Six: 4G Architectures & Services ................................................................. 76

6.1 - Introduction ..................................................................................................................78 6.2 - General Trends..............................................................................................................78 6.3 - 4th Generation forums....................................................................................................79 6.4 - From 3G to 4G..............................................................................................................83 6.5 - Next-generation network structure.................................................................................83 6.6 - Technical conditions of fourth generation mobile networks ...........................................85 6.7 - The 60 GHz channel......................................................................................................85 6.8 - IP version 6...................................................................................................................86 6.9 - Current trends for the fourth generation mobile networks ..............................................87 6.10 - Trends for Terminals, networks and applications .........................................................90 6.11 - 4GW project................................................................................................................92 6.11.1 Broadband OFDM Air interface design...................................................................92 6.11.2 Smart antennas .......................................................................................................93 6.11.3 Wireless infrastructure architecture.........................................................................93 6.11.4 Transmission Spectrum - Area coverage - Service area ........................................94 6.12 - 4G scenarios from 4GW:.............................................................................................96 6.12.1 4GW assumptions: .................................................................................................97 6.13 - MIND network concept ...............................................................................................99 6.14 - Wireless Application Layer (WAL) idea.................................................................... 100 6.15 - NTT DocoMo approach ............................................................................................ 102 6.16 - The MultiSphere Reference model ............................................................................ 103 6.17 - Users expectations from 4G mobile networks........................................................... 105 6.18 - Fifth Generation (5G)................................................................................................ 106
Chapter Seven: Threats, Limitations of 3G & 4G Innovation................................. 108

7.1 - Introduction ................................................................................................................ 108 7.2 - The end users willingness to pay for 3G services........................................................ 110
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7.3 - Limitations of 3G and drivers for 4G........................................................................... 111 7.3.1 High costs .............................................................................................................. 111 7.3.2 Data problems ........................................................................................................ 112 7.3.3 No killer application............................................................................................... 113 7.4 - Other technologies ...................................................................................................... 113 7.4.1 Wireless LANs....................................................................................................... 113 7.4.2 (2.5) Generation ..................................................................................................... 114 7.4.3 Bluetooth ............................................................................................................... 115 7.5 - WAP vs. i-mode.......................................................................................................... 116 7.6 - Services should be personalised................................................................................... 116 7.7 4G vision.................................................................................................................... 117 7.8 - Characteristics of 4G................................................................................................... 117 7.9 - 4G Services................................................................................................................. 118 7.10 - Economic Implications.............................................................................................. 120 7.11 - Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 120
Chapter Eight: Conclusion........................................................................................ 121

8.1 - Conclusion.................................................................................................................. 121
Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations ............................................................................123 References ........................................................................................................................127 Bibliography ....................................................................................................................134
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Table of Figures
Figure 2.1:Development of mobile telephone systems Figure 2.2: Cellular layout Figure 2.3: A "real" cellular layout Figure 3.1: GSM Network Architecture Figure 3.2: The relationship between the IN and other networks Figure 3.3: Call Volumes for Fixed and Mobile Phones Figure 4.1: From 2G to 2.5G and 3G Figure 4.2: GPRS system architecture and interfaces Figure 4.3: CAMEL architecture Figure 4.4: Functional architecture of CTM Figure 5.1: UMTS system and radio access network architecture (R99) Figure 5.2: UMTS architecture overview Figure 5.3: 3GPP R4 network overview Figure 5.4: 3GPP R5 network overview Figure 5.5: Old architecture of dedicated applications Figure 5.6: A layered applications architecture Figure 5.7: Service capabilities in 3GPP R99 implementation Figure 5.8: Service capabilities in 3GPP R4/R5 implementation Figure 5.9: WAP dialog principle diagram Figure 5.10: Requested services/user demand Figure 5.11 Two basic access types for mCommerce Figure 5.12 Bearer/QoS architecture in UMTS Figure 6.1: Which way to 4G? Figure 6.2: Future Network Figure 6.3: NTT DoCoMo perspective Figure 6.4: Fifth Generation (5G) 6 8 9 13 22 23 28 31 39 40 48 49 52 54 56 57 59 60 61 63 68 71 77 85 104 109
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Chapter One: Introduction

1.1 - Evolution of Mobile Communications
Communication everywhere, with everybody and at any time we have come much closer to this goal during the last few years. Digitalisation of communication systems, enormous progress in microelectronics, computers and software technology, inventions of efficient algorithms and procedures for compression, security and processing of all kinds of signals, as well as the development of flexible communication protocols have been important prerequisites for this progress. Today, technologies are available, that enable the realisation of high-performance and costeffective communication systems for many application areas. In the field of fixed networks new technologies such as xDSL and cable modem have been introduced, providing broadband access to the Internet. But the largest technological and organisational challenge is, however, the support of subscriber mobility. Mobility gave people the ability to be reachable anytime, anywhere. It can be distinguished between two kinds of mobility: terminal mobility and personal mobility. In the case of terminal mobility, the subscriber is connected to the network in a wireless way- via radio or light waves- and can move with his or her terminal freely, even during a communication connection. The degree of mobility depends on the type of mobile radio network. The requirements for a cordless in-house telephone are much less critical than for a mobile telephone that can be used in a car or train. If mobility is to be supported across the whole network or even beyond (national) boundaries, additional switching technology and administrative functions are required, to enable the subscribers to communicate in wireless mode outside of their home areas. Such extended network functions are also needed to realise personal mobility and universal reachability. This is understood to compromise the possibility of location independent use of all kinds of telecommunication services- including fixed networks. Today wireless voice service is one of the most convenient and flexible means of modern communications. GSM technology has been at the leading edge of this wireless revolution. It is the technology of choice in over 129 countries and for more
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than 324 operators worldwide1. In this dissertation we will go through the mobile evolution from second generation networks to the future of Fourth generation networks, trying to explain in some detail the architectures, services and trends of each generation.
1.2 - Project Aims

The aims of this project are: o To study the evolution of the 2G, 2.5G, 3G and 4G cellular radio systems, focusing on UMTS and its aspects. o To study and evaluate the major services for all generations and analysing the economical, technological and commercial aspects of such services. o To investigate the openness of the 3rd Generation towards the future. And make my own comments for the success of the future mobile networks. o To study the 4th Generation drivers, services and possible recommended architectures. To make recommendations or comments on different aspects of 4G with the focus on the drivers and services.
1.3 - Overview of the dissertation

The remainder of this dissertation is as follows: o In Chapter 2, a review of the history of mobile communication throughout the Four Generations is given and the cellular concept and some basics for cellular telephony are being discussed. o In Chapter 3, an introduction to the cellular principle and an understanding of the GSM system architecture is introduced. It explains the basic structure and elements of a GSM system and their interfaces. Also the American and the Japanese system are introduced. In addition the Intelligent Network of GSM is discussed and the drivers from second generation to 2.5G. Finally the GSM services are reviewed in some detail.
1
As of January 1999, GSM accounted for more than 120 million subscribers, according to the GSM Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) Association. With 324 GSM networks in 129 countries in operation, GSM provides almost complete coverage around the globe. (http://www.conexant.com /news_events/gsm_faq.html)
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o In Chapter 4, we discuss the 2.5 Generation (GPRS, EDGE, HSCSD) and the evolution of the second-generation services to the 2.5-generation services. Also the limitations of this generation and the integration of the Intelligent Network (CAMEL) are discussed. Finally the QoS issue and the drivers from 2.5G to 3G are introduced. o Chapter 5, describes in some detail the 3G architecture focusing on the openness of the third generation mobile networks studies the Open Service Architecture, OSA. In addition killer applications are discussed and pros and cons of the new services are introduced. We review the latest developments in 3G technology and the QoS issue is investigated. Finally the SIP (Session Initiation Protocol) and WAP (Wireless Application Protocol) are reviewed. o Chapter 6 gives the possible 4G architestures, talks about the developments that are being made around the world and gives us an idea of the future of wireless communications. Along with the previous it gives us a glance of the broadband wireless mobile IP based 4G services. o Chapter 7, discusses the writers comments, ideas and vision of mobile services, threats and doubts and also the limitations of the 3rd and 4th generation mobile networks. o And finally in Chapter 8 we conclude this dissertation with an outlook of all generations services and future aspects of mobile communications.
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Chapter Two: Cellular Concept

This chapter introduces the reader to cellular radio, the idea behind the cellular concept and the cellular telephony evolution throughout the three generations into the future.
2.1 - The Evolution of Mobile Telephone Systems

It was in 1896 when Marconi took out his first wireless patent. He then came to England and demonstrated his system to the War Office and Post Office on Salisbury Plain over a distance of 2.8 km (1.75 miles). Development continued and the East Goodwin lightship was the first to make use of radiotelegraphy when in 1899 it used its demonstration equipment to send distress signals after it was damaged in a storm. Radiotelephony became possible and was used during the Great War 1914-18 for military purposes. In 1946, Bell Telephone Laboratories introduced the first mobile system for public use, comprising of three channels in the range of l50Mhz. Private mobile radio has been rapidly expanding since the 1950s. Over the years, more channels have been added and the frequency has been increased, but the limited number of channels available for a given area, along with the high demand, made the service unacceptable. This is what drove Bell Laboratories in inventing the cellular concept, and the first commercial analogue systems, designed purely for voice communications, were introduced in the early 1980s. The First-Generation (1G) of mobile telephony was born. But one challenge facing analogue systems was the inability to handle the growing capacity needs in a cost-efficient manner. As a result, digital technology was welcomed. The advantages of digital systems over analog systems include ease of signaling, lower levels of interference, integration of transmission and switching, and increased ability to meet capacity demands. GSM is a digital cellular communications system, otherwise known as one of the Second Generation (2G) mobile networks, has rapidly gained acceptance and market share worldwide although it was initially developed in a European context. The advanced services and architecture of GSM have made it a model for future thirdgeneration cellular systems, such as UMTS. ISDN compatibility and worldwide
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roaming are some of the many advanced services and features that GSM incorporates. GSM differs from first generation wireless systems in that it uses digital technology and time division multiple access transmission methods. Today, GSM is used mainly for speech communication, but its use for mobile data communication is growing steadily.[5] Increasing demand for wireless data communications, introduced new technologies, since GSM is not capable of handling high data rates. Due to the popularity and successfulness of the GSM system, methods to upgrade it have been proposed. Mainly three systems have been proposed, namely, High Speed Circuit Switched Data (HSCSD), General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) and finally Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE). These systems are termed as 2.5 generation, since they form a bridge to advance from 2nd to the 3rd generation system.[5] People today are asking a great deal from their mobile communications, and fairly soon they will want even more: high-speed access to the Internet, links with their corporate Intranet, video conferencing and much more. These expectations are driving us towards a future, when people will have access to vast amount of information of many different types, whenever they want and wherever they are. For all these possibilities to become a reality, new networks being capable of much faster data rates are necessary. The technology needed to tackle those challenges is known as Third-Generation (3G) Mobile Networks. The focus of third-generation mobile systems is on economical networks and radio protocols to deliver seamless services for use across many networks (wireless and wire line). In Europe, three related network architectures are currently the subject of intensive research. [5] These are Universal Mobile Telecommunications Systems (UMTS), Mobile Broadband Systems (MBS), and HIPERLAN. One major distinction of 3G, compared to second-generation systems, is the hierarchical cell structure. Second-generation systems use a one-layer cell structure and employ frequency reuse within adjacent cells. Thus, each single cell manages its own radio zone and radio circuit control within the mobile network, including traffic management and handover procedures.. The multi layer cell structure in UMTS aims to overcome these problems by overlaying picocells and microcells over the wide coverage area macrocell structure. Global/satellite cells can also be used to provide area coverage where macrocell constellations are not economical to deploy or support long distance traffic. In
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picocells, with low user mobility and smaller delay spread, high bit rates and high traffic density can be supported with low complexity, whereas in larger macrocells, only low bit rates and traffic load can be supported because of the higher user mobility and higher delay spread. The users expect common services across wire line and wireless networks. 3G mobile networks are just around the corner. With the promise of enough bandwidth to support video, seamless global roaming for voice and data, fast, low-powered computer processing onboard, and an explosion of content and commerce sites, the 3G mobile revolutions has the potential to dwarf the Internet in terms of its reach into the mass market. Figure 2.1 shows the whole spectrum of today's and -as far as can be seen - future mobile communication systems.[5(13-27p.)]
Packet Radio Pa
Digital trunked radio TETRA
Mobile data network Mobile IP,Wireless LAN Bluetooth
Private Mobile Radio
Digital Cellular Systems GSM Dig. cordless systems Dig. PBX, DECT GSM Phase 2+: GPRS,CAMEL. . Wireless local loop
Mobile ATM
Analog Cellular Systems
Analog cordless phones
Whats next?
Cordless public telephone Satellite Systems LEO MEO Paging systems ERMES Paging systems UMTS IMT-2000
Satellite systems Inmarsat
Generation 1
Generation 2
Generation 2.5
Generation 3
Generation 4
Figure 2.1: Development of mobile telephone systems.[1]
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On the other hand, researchers have started to talk about Fourth-generation (4G) systems. It is clear that people are using the term 4G with different meanings. One repeated theme seems to be the vision of 4G is about heterogeneous wireless networking with a hierarchical overlay of networks of potentially different technologies. There is also a clear trend toward using Internet protocol (IP) technology in the core network and providing better end to end IP services. A new international initiative that originated in Europe, developing a research agenda for the future of wireless communications, is the Wireless World Research Forum (WWRF). Fourth-generation technologies and wireless Internet systems require increasing amount of interdisciplinary systems-level R&D in order to provide better systems with the appropriate optimizations to exploit the scarce wireless resource, while remaining true to the Internet model and compatible with todays and tomorrows Internet.[1(1-13p)]
2.2 - Cellular Concept

The advent of the cellular concept was a crucial contribution in the evolution of mobile communications. Commercial cellular systems development did not occur rapidly; almost 36 years passed between the initial vision of the cellular concept seems to have been first "verbalized" by D. H. Ring (AT&T Bell Laboratories) in 1947 - and the debut of the first commercial systems in Chicago and Washington/Baltimore in 1983. What came after was the commercial take-off of the cellular phone in the mid-1980s. Cellular telephone systems are differentiated from their predecessors by the ability to provide mobile telephone service to a large number of mobile users (particularly in urban areas), as well as to permit these users to move freely and rapidly without significant service degradation, almost without geographical limit. The intrinsic technologies of current cellular systems are: The cellular concept itself, with a system architecture that includes:[62]
o
Frequency reuse - Cellular systems are able to accommodate a large number of users within a given geographic area even while using a rather limited portion of the frequency spectrum. This high capacity is achieved by using a large number of relatively low-powered base station transceivers to provide service to a small geographic area known as a "cell." Because the transmitters are low-powered,
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their frequencies can be reused in nearby cells, thereby multiplying the practical number of channels available in a large service area. Furthermore, as demand increases cells can be subdivided or split into smaller units with even lower powered transmitters, further increasing the number of times given frequencies can be reused within a given service area.[62]
o
Hand off (or hand over) - As users move about the service area, they are switched from one base station to another through a complex and sophisticated system known as hand off. Hand-offs are accomplished in a nearly instantaneous manner, so that the users are unaware of their mobile telephones changing frequencies and having been switched to another base station. A computerised control system monitors and directs the entire network, identifying mobile units within the service area and establishing connections over which conversations can take place. Figure 2.2 demonstrates the frequency reuse principle. Frequencies in cell 7 of the diagram are reused in other non-adjacent cells (also marked 7). The frequency reuse distance is given by D = R 3N , where R is the distance from the transmitter to the edge of the cell (i.e., the cell radius) and N is the number f cells in a cluster.[62]
Seven cell cluster 2 1 7 6 5 2 Overlapping area 3 4 6 5 Repeat cell in next cluster Mean reuse distance D Next Cluster 3 1 7 2 3
Figure 2.2: Cellular layout[15] MSc in Telecommunications
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o Cellular geometry consisting of hexagonal shaped coverage zones (or cells), is another critical element of cellular systems. The placement of adjacent base stations determines the shape of the cells used in a system. Out of all possible geometric shapes, the hexagon is the most efficient, permitting the largest number of mobile units to be reached from a single base station. Of course, real life cells are not perfect hexagons. Figure 2.3 shows a "real" cellular layout.[62]
Figure 2.3: A "real" cellular layout[
2.3 - Circuit-switched and Packet-switched networks

Two concepts, previously mentioned in the cellular evolution characteristics, are further explained below: A circuit-switched network is a type of network in which a physical path is obtained for and dedicated to a single connection between two end-points in the network for the duration of the connection. Ordinary voice phone service uses circuitswitched networks. The Telephone Company reserves a specific physical path to the number you are calling for the duration of your call. For the duration of the connection, all resources on that circuit are unavailable for other users. A packet-switched network describes the type of network in which relatively small units of data called packets are routed through a network based on the destination address contained within each packet. A packet is the unit of data that is routed between an origin and a destination on the Internet or any other packetswitched network. Each end of the conversation is broken down into packets that are reassembled at the other end. Breaking communication down into packets allows the
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same data path to be shared among many users in the network. This type of communication between sender and receiver is known as connectionless. Most traffic over the Internet uses packet switching and the Internet is basically a connectionless network
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Chapter Three: 2G Architectures & Services

In this chapter, we will study the architecture of a number of second generation systems, including GSM, North American and Japanese systems, with more emphasis on GSM. A detailed review of the second generation services and the motives which drove us to the 2.5 G and 3G services is also discussed.
3.1 - Introduction to GSM

During the early 1980s, many European countries were involved in the rapid growth of the analogue cellular mobile systems by individually developing a mobile system of their own. Unfortunately, these systems were incompatible with each other, both in operation and equipment. This was an undesirable situation, because not only the mobile equipment were limited to operation within national boundaries, also there was a very limited market for each type of equipment. The Europeans soon realised these facts, and started looking for a solution. In 1982, the Conference of European Posts and Telegraphs (CEPT) formed a research group under the name of Groupe Spcial Mobile, responsible for studying and developing a digital mobile system, offering the subscriber the following advantages: o Good subjective speech quality, o Low terminal and service cost, o Support for international roaming, o Ability to support handheld terminals, o Support for range of new services and facilities, o Spectral efficiency. In 1989, GSM responsibility was transferred to the European
Telecommunication Standards Institute (ETSI), and phase I of the GSM specifications was published in 1990, implemented for commercial service in mid-1991. That was when the second generation of cellular radio and GSM (originally named after its
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research group) concept began, and expanded worldwide, becoming known as Global System for Mobile Communication.
3.2 - GSM Network Architecture

The GSM network can be divided into three parts:
3.2.1 Mobile Station

The Mobile Station (MS) which consists of: o The mobile equipment/ handset (ME) and o A smart card, called the Subscriber Identity Module (SIM). The SIM provides personal mobility, so that the user can have access to subscribed services irrespective of a specific terminal, and it may be protected against unauthorized use by a password or personal identity number.[62]
3.2.2 Base Station Subsystem

The Base Station Subsystem consists of: o The Base Transceiver Station (BTS), which houses the radio transceivers that handle the radio link protocols with the MS and the cell assignment, and o The Base Station Controller (BSC), which manages the radio resources for the BTSs. BSC handles radio-channel set up, frequency hopping, and handovers, and comprises the connection between the mobile station and the Mobile service Switching Centre (MSC). [62]
3.2.3 Network Subsystem

Finally, the Network Subsystem with its basic component: o The Mobile Switching Centre (MSC) which acts as a switching node and at the same time provides all the necessary services to a mobile subscriber, such as registration, authentication, handovers, connection to the fixed networks (such as the PSTN or ISDN) etc,and several other functional entities like: [62] o The Home Location Register (HLR) and the Visitor Location Register (VLR), together with the MSC, provide the call routing and roaming capabilities of GSM. The HLR contains all the administrative information of each subscriber registered in the corresponding GSM network, along with the current location of
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the mobile. The VLR contains selected administrative information from the HLR, necessary for call control and provision of the subscribed services, for each mobile currently located in the geographical area controlled by the VLR. [62] o The Equipment Identity Register (EIR) and the Authentication Centre (AuC) which are used for authentication and security purposes. EIR is a database that contains a list of all valid mobile equipment on the network, where each mobile station is identified by its International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI). AuC is a protected database that stores a copy of the secret key stored in each subscriber's SIM card, which is used for authentication and encryption over the radio channel. Figure 3.1 demonstrates graphically the GSM network architecture. [62]
ME: Mobile Equipment BTS: Base Transceiver Station MSC: Mobile Switching Centre EIR: Equipment Identity Register AuC: Authentication Centre
BSS: Base Station System BSC: Base Station Controller HLR: Home Location Register VLR: Visitor Location Register IWF: Interworking Function
Figure 3.1: GSM Network Architecture[62]
3.3 - GSM Radio-Link aspects

GSM operates in two allocated bands of 25MHz each: the band of 890-915 MHz for the mobile station to base station communication (uplink) and the band of 935-960 MHz for the base station to mobile station communication (downlink). [62]
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The method chosen for GSM to divide the bandwidth in order to exploit the limited radio spectrum resources, is a combination of Frequency-Division Multiple Access (FDMA)2 and Time-Division Multiple Access (TDMA)3. The FDMA part divides the 25 MHz bandwidth into 124 carriers spaced 200KHz apart. Each of these carrier frequencies is then divided in time using TDMA. Eight burst periods of approximately 0.577ms form a TDMA frame, which is the basic unit for the definition of logical channels. TDMA, however, needs precise synchronisation in order for signals to be meaningful and this adds to the complexity of GSM. [62]
3.3.1 GSM Speech Coding

Since GSM is a digital system, speech has to be digitised before is transmitted. The speech coding algorithm chosen for this task is Regular Pulse Excited-Linear Predictive Coder (RPE--LPC)4 with a Long Term Predictor Loop, which uses information from previous samples to predict the current sample. This algorithm, also called Full-Rate speech coding, results in a bit rate of 13kbps, instead of the 16kbps bit rate of Pulse Coded Modulation (PCM) implemented in current telephone systems. In order for the encoded signal to be protected from errors, GSM uses convolutional encoding and block interleaving. The digital signal is modulated onto the analogue carrier frequency using Gaussian - Filtered Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK). [62]
3.4 - North American standards:

In North America, where a common analogue air interface was available and where roaming anywhere in Canada, the USA, or Mexico was possible, there was no need to replace the existing analogue systems. Therefore, the Cellular Telecommunication industry Association (CTIA) requested the TIA to specify a system that could be retrofitted into the existing AMPS system. The high cost of the cell site was the major driving force. Thus the important factor in the IS-54 (North American TDMA system) was to maximise the number of voice channels that can be
2
FDMA - the frequency spectrum is divided among the logical channels, with each user having exclusive possession of some frequency band. 3 TDMA - the users take in turns (in a round robin) the entire channel bandwidth for a little burst of time. 4 RPE-LPC - speech is divided into 20 millisecond samples; current sample may be predicted from previous samples, due to slow change of voice patterns. Predicted and real information are compared and the difference represents the signal MSc in Telecommunications
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supported by a cell site within the available cellular spectrum. IS-54 uses three TDMA 8-kbps-encoded speech channels into each 30-kHz AMPS channel. The IS-54 has been extended to PCS operation at 1.8 GHz and is referred to as upbanded IS136.[5],[9].[10] IS-54 uses a linear modulation technique /4-DQPSK, to provide better bandwidth efficiency. The transmission rate is 48.6 kbps with a channel spacing of 30 kHz. This provides bandwidth efficiency of 1.62bps/Hz, a 20-per-cent improvement over GSM. The IS-54 speech coder is a type of code book excited linear predictive coding called VSELP. The source rate is 7.95 kbps and the transmission rate is 13 kbps.[5],[9],[10]
3.4.1 CDMA-based Digital Cellular System IS-95

IS-95 based on CDMA, was standardised in the US. It is aimed at dual mode operation with the existing analogue cellular system. IS-95 uses a wideband RF channel width of 1.25 MHz. Many users with different codes share each RF channel. IS-95 provides soft handover capability to improve voice quality and a RAKE receiver to reduce the impact of multipath fading. Other factors that affect the channel capacity include use of a variable rate-8kbps vocoder, voice activity, and power control in the forward and reverse channels. J-STD-008 is the PCS version of IS-95. J-STD-008 and IS-95 have been combined into IS-95B[5],[9].[10]
3.5 - Japanese standards:

The development of the PDC system started in 1989, and it was standardised in 1991. Initially, the PDC was intended to increase the system capacity for a cellular voice communication system; it has since developed into a personal communications system that supports both voice and data communications.[5],[9] The PDC system was designed to improve system capacity, voice quality, and privacy over the conventional analogue cellular systems. The PDC system uses /4DQPSK modulation and a low-bit-rate voice codec. In the first stage, full rate VSELP codec with a bit rate 11.2 kbps was introduced to achieve similar capacity and better voice quality than the existing analogue systems. A half-rate codec with 5.6 kbps was introduced in 1995 to further improve the system capacity.[5],[9]
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The PDC system uses three-channel TDMA. Two frequency bands are usedthe 800MHz band with 130 MHz of duplex separation and the 1.5GHz band with 48 MHz of duplex separation. The 800 MHz band is used for the cellular system. The 1.5-GHz band will be used for the PCS system. The carrier spacing in PDC is 25kHz. In the 800-MHZ band, the uplink transmission frequency is 940-956 MHz. The downlink transmission frequency is 810 to 826. Thus, there are 640 carriers and 3 full-rate channel per carrier. A total of 1290 channels is available. The number of channels is doubled with the half-rate speech codec. The PDC system supports these services: o Voice (full-rate and half-rate) o Supplementary services (call waiting, voice mail, three-way calling, call forwarding and so on) o Date services (up to 9.6 kbps) o Packet-switched wireless data
3.5.1 PHS
PHS is a digital microcellular system that is intended to support personal multimedia communication services. PHS became a standard in 1993, and its service was launched in 1995 in Japan. For PHS, 12MHz from the 1.9-GHz band is exclusively allocated for a maximum of three PHS operators in each regional block. The cell radius of PHS is limited to 100-500m to achieve high system capacity, to reduce transmission power for saving battery life, and to reduce the cost of the cell site. PHS is basically a digital cordless system, in which a PHS terminal can be used as a handset of a cordless phone in the business office or home. This operation is called private mode. In this case a parent phone at home or a PBX in the office is connected to the PSTN. Outside home or business office, the terminal accesses the public cell site. This operation is refereed to as a public mode. PHS has 77 carriers with a bandwidth of 300kHz in the frequency range of 1895-1918.1 MHz (23.1 MHz of system bandwidth). Carriers 1-37 (37 carriers) are used for private mode of operation. Of these carriers, 1-10 are also used for the tranceiver mode of operation. Among these,, the high-power cell cites can use only
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carriers 38-53 for the traffic channels, and low-power cell cites can use carriers 38-69 for traffic channels. The features of PHS are: o High quality voice communication and enhanced security o SIM card o High system capacity due to microcellular and dynamic channel allocation technologies o Long continuous call operating time and standby time due to small cell radius, intermittent technologies o Multimedia service capability using bearer service function with bit rate up to 64 kbps o Simple spectrum management due to DCA o Common terminal between cordless phone, public microcellular phone and transceiver reception during standby mode, and other battery-saving
3.6 - Second Generation Services

A telecommunication service supported by the GSM5 is defined as a group of communication capabilities that the service provider offers to the subscribers. The basic telecommunication services provided by the GSM are divided into three main groups. o Bearer services: These services give the subscriber the capacity required to transmit appropriate signals between certain access points[13] o Teleservices: These services provide the subscriber with the necessary capabilities including terminal equipment functions to communicate with other subscribers[13] o Supplementary services: These services modify or supplement basic telecommunication services and are offered together or in association with basic telecommunications services.[13]
GSM services - In this section we will be referring specific to GSM services but the same services apply for all the other different technologies of 2G.
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The GSM system offers the opportunity for the subscriber to roam freely through countries where GSM is operational. Agreements are required between the various service providers to guarantee access to services offered to subscribers.[13] Bearer services: These services give the subscriber the capacity required to transmit appropriate signals between certain points. The capabilities of GSM bearer services include:[13] o Rate adapted subrate information- circuit switched asynchronous and synchronous duplex data, 300-9600 bps[12] o Access to Packet Assembler/Disassembler (PAD) functions-PAD access for asynchronous data, 300-9600bps[12] o Access to X.25 public data networks-packet service for synchronous duplex data 2400-9600 bps[12] o Speech and data swapping during a call-alternate speech/data and speech followed by data[12] o Modem selection-selection of 3.1 kHz audio service when interworking with ISDN[12] o Support of Automatic Request for retransmission (ARQ) technique for improved error rates-transparent mode (no ARQ) and nontransparent mode (with ARQ) [12] Teleservices: These services provide the subscriber with necessary capabilities including terminal equipment functions to communicate with other subscribers. The GSM Teleservices are: o Speech transmission- telephony, emergency call o Short message services: A convenient facility of the GSM network is the short message service. A message consisting of a maximum of 160 alphanumeric characters can be sent to or from a mobile station. This service can be viewed
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as an advanced form of alphanumeric paging with a number of advantages. If the subscriber's mobile unit is powered off or has left the coverage area, the message is stored and offered back to the subscriber when the mobile is powered on or has re-entered the coverage area of the network. This function ensures that the message will be received.[13] o Cell broadcast: A variation of the short message service is the cell broadcast facility. A message of a maximum of 93 characters can be broadcast to all mobile subscribers in a certain geographic area. Typical applications include traffic congestion warnings and reports on accidents[13] o Voice mail: This service is actually an answering machine within the network, which is controlled by the subscriber. Calls can be forwarded to the subscriber's voice-mail box and the subscriber checks for messages via a personal security code.[13] o Fax mail: With this service, the subscriber can receive fax messages at any fax machine. The messages are stored in a service centre from which they can be retrieved by the subscriber via a personal security code to the desired fax number.[13] o Facsimile transmission: GSM supports CCITT Group 3 facsimile. As standard fax machines are designed to be connected to a telephone using analogue signals, a special fax converter connected to the exchange is used in the GSM system. This enables a GSMconnected fax to communicate with any analogue fax in the network.[13] o Dual-tone multifrequency (DTMF)DTMF is a tone signalling scheme often used for various control purposes via the telephone network, such as remote control of an answering machine. GSM supports full-originating DTMF.[13] Supplementary Services: These services modify or supplement basic telecommunications services. These services are offered together or in association with basic telecommunications services. The GSM supplementary services are: o number identification services:
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1. Calling number identification presentation (CNIP). When this service is active, the ISDN number of the incoming call will be presented on a display of the GSM telephone.[8] 2. Calling Number Identification Restriction (CNIR). When the calling party activates this service, the calling partys number will not be presented on the display of the telephone[8] 3. Connected Number Identification Presentation (CNOP). When this service is active, the ISDN number of the telephone where the call is completed will be displayed on the GSM telephone[8] 4. Connected Number Identification Restriction (CNOR). If a called party has restricted the identification of their number, the GSM phone will not display the ISDN number of the telephone where the call is completed[8]
o Calling offering services: 1. Call Forwarding Unconditional (CFU). When this service is active, all calls to the GSM phone will be routed to another number[8] 2. Call Forwarding Mobile busy (CFB). When this service is active and the GSM phone is busy, calls will be routed to another number. [8] 3. Call Forwarding No Reply (CFNRy). When this service is active and the GSM phone is not answered, calls will be routed to another number. [8] 4. Call Forwarding Mobile Not Reachable (CFNRc). When this service is active and the GSM phone is not available, (typically off or out of range) calls will be routed to another number[8] 5. Call Transfer (CT). The current call can be transferred to another telephone[8] o Call completion services: 1. Call Waiting (CW). When this service is active, asecond incoming call will generate an indication in the GSM phone[8] 2. Call Holding (HOLD). This service permits a GSM phone to temporarily set aside a call in order to place or receive a second call[8]
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o Multipath Services: 1. Three-party Service (3PTY). This service permits a GSM telephone to join two calls for simultaneous communications between three phones[8] 2. Conference Calling (CONF). This service permits a GSM telephone to have simultaneous communications with three to five phones[8] o Charging services: 1. 2. 3. Advice of Charge (AoC). This service provides information to the GSM phone about the charging associated with a call that is established.[8] Freephone Service (FPH). A GSM phone with a freephone number will pay for all incoming calls. This service is similar to 0800 service in ISDN[8] Reverse Charging (REVC). This service allows the GSM phone to pay for an incoming call on a selective basis[8] o Call restriction services: 1. Barring All Originating Calls (BAOC). When this service is active, the GSM phone cannot place any calls but can receive calls[8] 2. Barring Outgoing International Calls (BOIC). When this service is active, the GSM phone cannot place any international calls, but can receive calls and can place domestic calls[8] 3. BOIC except Home Country (BOIC-exHC). When this service is active, the GSM phone cannot place any international calls except to the home country, but can receive calls and place domestic calls[8] 4. Barring All Incoming Calls (BAIC). When this service is active, the GSM phone cannot receive calls but can place calls[8]
3.7 - Intelligent Network

Intelligent Network is not an independent physical network but an architectural concept. It is an appending network architecture which is set to provide value-added services on the fundamental communication networks economically, quickly and
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efficiently, for example the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN), Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN), Mobile Communication network and Broadband ISDN etc. it enables the operators to enhance their service creation capability and reduces the time to market of new services. The relationship between the IN and the other communication networks is shown in the following figure.[90]
SCP SSP
SDP IP
SCP: Service Control Point SDP: Service Date Point SSP: Service Switching Point IP: Intelligent Peripheral
PSTN
ISDN
BISDN
Mobile
Figure 3.2: The relationship between the IN and other communication networks[90]
Mobile networks have adopted IN technology to provide the users with new services that can only be obtained in the fixed network before and enhance the mobility management. In the second generation mobile systems, for example GSM network adopting the IN service model is called Customised Applications for Mobile network Enhanced Logic (CAMEL) feature. The CAMEL feature is a network feature and not a supplementary service. It is a tool to help the network operators to provide the subscribers with the operator specific services even when roaming outside the Home Public Land Mobile Network (HPLMN). To introduce IN protocols into the GSM network, the component parts in the network should be redefined according to the In network architecture and the signaling point model. CAMEL brings many benefits to the operators and users. The GSM phase 2+ standards include many CAMEL-supported IN-based supplementary services, for example Personal Number which enables the users to control coming calls and Location Based Services which provide the users with messages of his current locations automatically. These services were not available before in the mobile networks. As to services, CAMEL is a basis for GSM evolving to the 3G mobile communication systems. Many of the thirdgeneration mobile services are provided via IN.[90]
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3.8 - Moving towards 2.5 Generation

Today the combined annual revenue from fixed and mobile telephony services is around US$680 billion6. The challenge for mobile operators is to snatch larger shares of market from the fixed networks- in terms of the actual traffic carried. Mobile phones are popular because they are convenient, and the mobile phone market has plenty of room for growth. Despite much hype surrounding exotic data applications for mobile phones, the plain old voice service in fact represents the largest growth potential for mobile phone operators and equipment vendors. A look into the true penetration of mobile phones in Japan shows that while ownership of mobile phones is high, the actual call volumes (in million-hours) carried over mobile networks is only about 18% of total telephone traffic.
6000
Million Hours
5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 1994 1995 1996 1997 Year 1998 1999 2000
Figure 3.3: Call Volumes for Fixed and Mobile Phones[91]
Similar low usage patterns exist in United States and Europe. The market for cellular services is changing very rapidly and what originally exceeded the market needs is now short of facilities in several areas. Therefore something is needed in order to catch up with the market requirements after second generation. And it has been realised that the GSM market requirements were unlikely ever to stop moving, and that further standards work would be required for some time to come. Mobile
2002 Genista Corporation
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internet, and next generation wireless multimedia products and services are intended to respond to perceived consumer demand for improved: o Capacity in networks (throughput and bandwidth) o Convergence in voice and data communications o Content in information and entertainment services o Commonality in handsets and networks o Consistency in handset, services and network operation o Coverage in the home, office, car and around the world
GSM is evolving to enable higher data rates and increased capacity. But it is services and applications and value that drive the number of mobile subscribers, and level of usage. Innovation, functionality, smart packaging and competitive pricing not raw data rates will win and retain subscribers, and increase ARPU (Average Revenue Per User). Subscribers already value GSMs service capabilities in areas such as global roaming and SIM card-based portability, and user-friendly services such as two-way text messaging. The service potential for GSM is set to expand exponentially, with the arrival of high-speed, packet data-based always on Mobile Internet connectivity offered by the 2.5 generation with GPRS; mobile portals; secure mobile transactions; multimedia messaging and seamless synchronization with Personal Information Management (PIM). Furthermore, GSM networks are evolving into a layered, more open architecture in which the development and delivery of services is logically separated from the underlying network infrastructure that delivers them. This will enable greater creativity and flexibility in the creation of service packages, with the involvement of many more players, such as media and entertainment companies, financial firms and retailers. Because GSM has the largest global share of subscribers, the application developer community is aggressively and rapidly producing innovative Mobile Internet services in areas such as mobile commerce; infotainment for example games, music and video, news; location-based services, and messaging and businesses services like mobile intranet. The GSM brand will also support operators in their efforts to market Mobile Internet services effectively to customers across the world. It is an extremely well-known and trusted
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global brand, and that is likely to lead to faster acceptance and take-up by customers of new types of service. All leading GSM vendors have established cross-industry partnerships and third-party application development programs that have already attracted many thousands of developers into the Mobile Internet arena. The inclusion of todays AMPS and TDM operators and vendors in this global application and service development community will add considerable new resources and energy. So the next step had happened already with the introduction of the 2+ generation towards the third generation. The next chapter will go through the detail of the middle generation before the third generation and the openness of the mobile networks to a global network.
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Chapter Four: 2.5G Architectures & Services

In this chapter, we will study the architecture of a number of 2.5 generation systems, including GPRS, North American and Japanese systems, with more emphasis on GPRS. A detailed review of the 2.5 generation services and the motives which drove us to 3G services is also illustrated.
4.1 -The enhancements of the Second Generation networks

The GSM evolution path is closely linked to the expected traffic boom resulting from exponential growth in Mobile Internet services, and continued strong growth in voice services. GPRS is being introduced as the first step to meeting increasing demand for data services, and will be followed by EDGE and WCDMA, which will increase capacity and add new data capabilities. Following the GSM/GPRS/EDGE/WCDMA path offers a gradual, graceful upgrading of technology that is a lower risk than making a big leap, and allows for a pay as you grow approach. Operators also get the chance to test and develop possible 3G services and business models as they go, and prepare the market for new types of service. The migration path is a smooth, cost-effective process, which allows operators to capitalise on existing investments by upgrading their original GSM network, reusing much of the same infrastructure, and without needing to change the operation and maintenance system. Both EDGE and WCDMA, for example, use the same GPRS backbone for packet data services. The 3GPP is currently defining standards for interoperability between GERAN (GSM/EDGE Radio Access Network) and UTRAN (Universal Terrestrial Radio Access Network), allowing the two standards to co-exist in operators networks. The GSM evolution path, therefore, offers TDMA operators a way to deliver commercial Mobile Internet services in a timely manner with a low investment, while maintaining necessary quality of service for end-users throughout the evolutionary process. In the next four paragraphs the enhancements of GSM, TDMA/136, cdmaOne, and PDC to the 2.5G generation are introduced.[10]
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4.1.1 GSM enhancements

The GSM standard is being enhanced to provide even better services, capacity, coverage, quality, and data rates. A series of developments has already been initiated to enhance the functionality of GSM networks. The customised application for mobile enhanced logic (CAMEL) gave subscribers continued support for intelligent network (IN) services when they roam into other networks. The first phase of CAMEL has already been implemented. Several new, value-added applications are being implemented, including GSM on the net GSM at the office, and prepaid subscriptions. The first commercially deployed enhancement for increasing data rates is called high-speed circuit-switched data (HSCSD) and supports data rates of up to 57.6 kbit/s, using from one to four 14.4 kbit/s time slots. GPRS is a packet-switched service that allows full mobility and wide-area coverage with data transmission rates of up to 115 kbit/s. Enhanced data rates for GSM and TDMA/136 evolution (EDGE) uses enhanced modulation and related techniques, raising data rates to 384 kbit/s or higher. The GSM carrier bandwidth (200 kHz) and the complete TDMA frame structure, logical channel structure, frequency plans and methods remain unchanged. Channels and transceivers with EDGE functionality will operate in either GSM/GPRS or EDGE modes.[10],[94]
4.1.2 TDMA/136 enhancements

TDMA/136 (formerly IS-136 or D-AMPS) is also being enhanced to provide better services, capacity, coverage, quality, and data rates: Numerous service enhancements have recently been implemented, including wireless intelligent networks (WIN), digital wireless office systems (DWOS), and SMR services. Two additional phases of data-rate enhancements are also envisaged. In the first phase, the bit rate of the 30 kHz radio carrier will be increased by means of high-level modulation to yield bit rates of up to approximately 64 Kbit/s. Similarly, GPRS will be introduced into the core network. During the second phase (EDGE), a new air interface will be introduced (the same air interface as in GSM/EDGE). Initially, TDMA/136 will provide data rates up to and beyond 384 Kbit/s. Operators will thus be able to offer third-generation wireless services in either of todays TDMA frequency bands, 850 and 1900 MHz.[10],[94]
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4.1.3 cdmaOne enhancements

As with GSM and TDMA/136, CdmaOne will also be enhanced to provide improved services, capacity, coverage, quality, and data rates. The current data rate is 14.4 Kbit/s, but the introduction of cdma2000/1XRTT will provide packet data rates of between 9.6 and 144 kbit/s. Later, the introduction of cdma2000 wideband (multicarrier CDMA and WCDMA- DS) will increase data rates to as much as 2 Mbit/s.[10],[11],[94]
4.1.4 PDC enhancements

The PDC standard is also being improved to provide enhanced services, capacity, coverage, quality, and data rates. The standard has recently implemented the packet-mode (P-PDC), which gives packet data rates of up to 28.8kbit/s. Several innovative data services have also been introduced. In a later phase, operators will directly move from PDC to the IMT-2000/WCDMA-DS mode. In the next figure we can see the transition from the 2G to 3G through the existing systems.[10],[94]
TDMA
EDGE
Existing Spectrum
GSM
GPRS WCDMA
New Spectrum
PDC
cdmaOne
cdma2000
cdma20003X
Existing Spectrum
2G <28.8Kbps
2.5G 64-144Kbps 2000/2001
3G phase I 384K-2Mbps 2001/2002
3G phase II 384K-2Mbps 2003+
Figure 4.1: From 2G to 2.5G and 3G[5]
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4.2 - HSCSD-GPRS-EDGE
Three transmission systems will play a role in the evolution from GSM to the third generation networks (3G):
4.2.1 HSCSD
The HSCSD (High-Speed Circuit Switched Data) system bundles several frequencies or radio channels of the established GSM mobile radio standard scheduled for voice communication. It makes many times the capacity available, making fast transmission rates possible for sending and receiving data. In a GSM network, eight phone conversations can be conducted in parallel simultaneously over a single radio channel.7 [22],[70],[5(29-53p)] Bundling the GSM data channels using the HSCSD system quadruples this figure, so with four timeslots the maximum rate is 57.6 kbps. HSCSD is generally only suitable for a transitional phase. [22],[70],[5(29-53p)] This is because, just like GSM, the HSCSD operates on a circuit-switched basis. This means that while the data connection is online the transmission link is switched from one end to the other exclusively for the relevant interacting partners, regardless of whether a large amount, little or even no data is being sent. And HSCSD also means the more capacity a provider makes available for transmitting data, the less remains for voice telephony. [22],[70],[5(29-53p)]
4.2.2 GPRS
General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) permits packet-switched data transmission at high speed for the first time based on GSM mobile radio GPRS is an expansion of GSM. The RAN (Radio Access Network) remains identical (except for a software update and new hardware module for packet-oriented communication) a significant development step toward 3G, which is why GPRS is also classed as being 2.5G technology. Instead of having a virtually permanently switched and so
7
Background information: GSM belongs in general terms to the class of technologies known as TDMA whereby several mobile radio calls are transported on a time-shifted basis. This means that with GSM, each phone conversation is assigned one of eight timeslots or timeframes The time gaps for transmitting the other calls are so short as to be imperceptible to the call partners. A limited transmission rate of 9.6 is achieved on each line connection using the GSM standard.
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relatively expensive nailed connection, the digitised contents (text, images, tones, soft-ware etc.) are broken down into small data packages, compressed, and coded. These data packages are then sent to the recipient in packaged form more or less in the gaps arising in voice communication. With the GPRS standard, charging is no longer based on length of transmission time; the basis instead is the volume of data exchanged or the type of service, for instance. It means terminals can be always on and display arriving messages without delay. Depending on the coding, much faster data transmission rates can be achieved per time-slot with GPRS than the 9.6 kbps with GSM. Provision has been made for four coding schemes in all, the scheme with the largest bandwidth achieving a theoretical maximum of 21.4 kbps per timeslot. This means GPRS can make around 100 kbps available. [22],[70],[5(29-53p)] A distinction is also made between different quality levels (Quality-of-Service: QoS), offered to suit different requirements and usage situations. Less time-critical applications (such as downloading multimedia files not required immediately) can manage well enough with a lower-level Quality-of-Service than called for in situations where data has to be exchanged in real time without any delays. With the GPRS standard also, mobile radio providers have to decide how much capacity to make available for data services. Extensive mobile data use could easily lead to overloads in the GSM network with bottlenecks in voice communication. [22],[70],[5(29-53p)]
4.2.3 EDGE
EDGE stands for Enhanced Data Rates for Global (instead of Global, originally: GSM) Evolution. Based on the GMS standard, EDGE permits faster data rates and so is an-other intermediate step from GSM technology toward UMTS. The performance enhancement in terms of throughput rate is achieved by a new, higher-grade modulation system. When these modulations are also applied in combination with coding techniques (as in the case of GPRS), it is possible to achieve data rates of up to 384 kbps. [22],[70],[5(29-53p)] However, this maximum rate can only be offered over a very short range. EDGE presents some interesting prospects for the mobile future as it can also be used with the D-AMPS TDMA mobile radio system widely employed in the USA. Market harmonisation through the matching of standards is in the offing promising positive
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effects and significant cost savings (cheaper terminal production, faster return-oninvestment for mobile services, for instance). [22],[70],[5(29-53p)]
4.3 - GPRS architecture:

In order to investigate GPRS into the existing GSM architecture a new class of network nodes, called GPRS Support Nodes (GSNs), has been introduced. GSNs are responsible for the delivery and routing of data packets between the mobile stations and external packet data networks (PDNs). Figure 4.2 illustrates the resulting system architecture.
Other GPRS network Gd Gp GGSN SGSN Gn G GGSN MSC/VLR HLR PDN
SMS-GMSC SMS-IWMSC BSC BTS BTS MS Gb
EIR
SGSN Service GPRS Support Node User data and signalling data GGSN Gateway GPRS Support Node ------ Signalling data
Figure 4.2: GPRS system architecture and interfaces[22]
A service GPRS Support Node (SGSN) delivers data packets from and to, the mobile stations within its service area. Its tasks include packet routing and transfer functions for attach/detach of mobile stations and their authentication, and logical link management. The location register of the SGSN stores location information (e.g. current cell, current VLR) and user profiles (e.g. IMSI, address used in the packet data network) of all GPRS users registered with this SGSN. [22],[70],[5(29-53p)] A Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN) acts as an interface to external packet data networks (e.g. to the Internet). It converts GPRS packets coming from the SGSN into the appropriate Packet Data protocol (PDP) format and sends them out
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on the corresponding external network. In the other direction, the PDP address of incoming data packets is converted to the GSM address of the destination user. The readdress packets are sent to the responsible SGSN. For this purpose, the GGSN stores the current SGSN address and profiles of registered users in its location register. In general there is a many-to-many relationship between the SGSNs and the GGSNs a GGSN is the interface to an external network for several SGSNs; an SGSN may route its packet to different GGSNs. Figure 4.2 also shows the interface between the GPRS support nodes and the GSM network. The Gb interface connects the BSC with SGSN. Via the Gn and the Gp interfaces, user and signalling data are transmitted between the GSNs. The Gn interface is used, if SGSN and GGSN are located in the same PLMN, whereas the Gp interface is used, if they are in different PLMNs. [22],[70],[5(29-53p)],[34],[35]
4.4 - Key user features of GPRS

The General Packet Radio Service is a new nonvoice value added service that allows information to be sent and received across a mobile telephone network. It supplements todays Circuit Switched Data and Short Message Service. GPRS is NOT related to GPS (the Global Positioning System), a similar acronym that is often used in mobile contexts. GPRS has several unique features which can be summarised as: o Speed: Theoretical maximum speeds of up to 171.2 kilobits per second (kbps) are achievable with GPRS using all eight timeslots at the same time. This is about three times as fast as the data transmission speeds possible over todays fixed telecommunications networks and ten times as fast as current Circuit Switched Data services on GSM networks. By allowing information to be transmitted more quickly, immediately and efficiently across the mobile network, GPRS may well be a relatively less costly mobile data service compared to SMS and Circuit Switched Data. [34],[35] o Immediacy: GPRS facilitates instant connections whereby information can be sent or received immediately as the need arises, subject to radio coverage. No dialup modem connection is necessary. This is why GPRS users are sometimes referred to be as being always connected. Immediacy is one of the advantages of GPRS (and SMS) when compared to Circuit Switched Data. High immediacy is
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a very important feature for time critical applications such as remote credit card authorisation where it would be unacceptable to keep the customer waiting for even thirty extra seconds. [34],[35] o New applications: GPRS facilitates several new applications that have not previously been available over GSM networks due to the limitations in speed of Circuit Switched Data (9.6 kbps) and message length of the Short Message Service (160 characters). GPRS will fully enable the Internet applications you are used to on your desktop from web browsing to chat over the mobile network. Other new applications for GPRS, profiled later, include file transfer and home automation- the ability to remotely access and control in-house appliances and machines.[34],[35]
4.5 - Applications for GPRS

A wide range of corporate and consumer applications are enabled by nonvoice mobile services such as GPRS. This section will introduce those that are particularly suited to GPRS. o Chat: Chat can be distinguished from general information services because the source of the information is a person with chat whereas it tends to be from an Internet site for information services. The information intensity- the amount of information transferred per message tends to be lower with chat, where people are more likely to state opinions than factual data. Because of its synergy with the Internet, GPRS would allow mobile users to participate fully in existing Internet chat groups rather than needing to set up their own groups that are dedicated to mobile users. Since the number of participants is an important factor determining the value of participation in the newsgroup, the use of GPRS here would be advantageous. GPRS will not however support point to multipoint services in its first phase, hindering the distribution of a single message to a group of people. As such, given the installed base of SMS capable devices, we would expect SMS to remain the primary bearer for chat applications in the foreseeable future, although experimentation with using GPRS is likely to commence sooner rather than later. o Textual and visual information: A wide range of content can be delivered to mobile phone users ranging from share prices, sports scores, weather, flight
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information, news headlines, prayer reminders, lottery results, jokes, horoscopes, traffic, and location sensitive services and so on. This information need not necessarily be textual- it may be maps or graphs or other types of visual information. The length of a short message of 160 characters suffices for delivering information when it is quantitative- such as a share price or a sports score or temperature. When the information is of a qualitative nature however, such as a horoscope or news story, 160 characters is too short other than to tantalise or annoy the information recipient since they receive the headline or forecast but little else of substance. As such, GPRS will likely be used for qualitative information services when end users have GPRS capable devices, but SMS will continue to be used for delivering most quantitative information services. o Still images: Still images such as photographs, pictures, postcards, greeting cards and presentations, static web pages can be sent and received over the mobile network as they are across fixed telephone networks. It is possible with GPRS to post images from a digital camera connected to a GPRS radio device directly to an Internet site, allowing near real-time desktop publishing. o Web browsing: Using Circuit Switched Data for web browsing has never been an enduring application for mobile users. Because of the slow speed of Circuit Switched Data, it takes a long time for data to arrive from the Internet server to the browser. Alternatively, users switch off the images and just access the text on the web, and end up with difficult to read text layouts on screens that are difficult to read from. As such, mobile Internet browsing is better suited to GPRS. o Internet mail: Internet email services come in the form of a gateway service where the messages are not stored, or mailbox services in which messages are stored. In the case of gateway services, the wireless email platform simply translates the message from SMTP, the Internet email protocol, into SMS and sends to the SMS Centre. In the case of mailbox email services, the emails are actually stored and the user gets a notification on their mobile phone and can then retrieve the full email by dialling in to collect it, forward it and so on. Upon receiving a new email, most Internet email users do not currently get notified of this fact on their mobile phone. When they are out of the office, they have to dial in speculatively and periodically to check their mailbox contents. However, by
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linking Internet email with an alert mechanism such as SMS or GPRS, users can be notified when a new email is received. o Vehicle positioning: This application integrates satellite positioning systems that tell people where they are with nonvoice mobile services that let people tell others where they are. The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a free-to-use global network of 24 satellites run by the US Department of Defence. Anyone with a GPS receiver can receive their satellite position and thereby find out where they are. Vehicle positioning applications can be used to deliver several services including remote vehicle diagnostics, ad-hoc stolen vehicle tracking and new rental car fleet tariffs. The Short Message Service is ideal for sending Global Positioning System (GPS) position information such as longitude, latitude, bearing and altitude. GPS co-ordinates are typically about 60 characters in length. GPRS could alternatively be used. Next a table with some examples of data services is illustrated.[70],[34].[35],[25] Examples of Data Services for 2G and 2.5G networks Services e-mail Instant Messaging Web Browsing Streaming Audio/Video VoIP File Transfers Access to Corporate Applications Location-based Services 2G SMS SMS Short Text Screens No No No Very limited No 2.5G Text-based with small attachments Text-based 100KB Web pages approx. 30 sec Short clips Limited 500KB documents approx. 2 min Text-based Limited
Table 4.1: Examples of Data Services for 2G and 2.5G networks
4.6 - Limitations of GPRS

It should already be clear that GPRS is an important new enabling mobile data service, which offers a major improvement in spectrum efficiency, capability and functionality compared with todays nonvoice mobile services. However, it is
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important to note that there are some limitations with GPRS, which can be summarised as: o Limited cell capacity for all users: GPRS does impact a networks existing cell capacity. There are only limited radio resources that can be deployed for different uses- use for one purpose precludes simultaneous use for another. For example, voice and GPRS calls both use the same network resources. The extent of the impact depends upon the number of timeslots, if any, that are reserved for exclusive use of GPRS. However, GPRS does dynamically manage channel allocation and allow a reduction in peak time signalling channel loading by sending short messages over GPRS channels instead. RESULT: NEED FOR SMS as a complementary bearer that uses a different type of radio resource. o Speeds much lower in reality: Achieving the theoretical maximum GPRS data transmission speed of 172.2 kbps would require a single user taking over all eight timeslots without any error protection. Clearly, it is unlikely that a network operator will allow all timeslots to be used by a single GPRS user. Additionally, the initial GPRS terminals are expected be severely limited- supporting only one, two or three timeslots. The bandwidth available to a GPRS user will therefore be severely limited. As such, the theoretical maximum GPRS speeds should be checked against the reality of constraints in the networks and terminals. The reality is that mobile networks are always likely to have lower data transmission speeds than fixed networks. RESULT: Relatively high mobile data speeds may not be available to individual mobile users until Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE) or Universal Mobile Telephone System (UMTS) are introduced. o Suboptimal modulation: GPRS is based on a modulation technique known as Gaussian minimum-shift keying (GMSK). EDGE is based on a new modulation scheme that allows a much higher bit rate across the air interface- this is called eight-phase-shift keying (8 PSK) modulation. Since 8 PSK will also be used for UMTS, network operators will need to incorporate it at some stage to make the transition to third generation mobile phone systems. RESULT: NEED FOR EDGE.
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o Transit delays: GPRS packets are sent in all different directions to reach the same destination. This opens up the potential for one or some of those packets to be lost or corrupted during the data transmission over the radio link. The GPRS standards recognise this inherent feature of wireless packet technologies and incorporate data integrity and retransmission strategies. However, the result is that potential transit delays can occur. Because of this, applications requiring broadcast quality video may well be implemented using High Speed Circuit Switched Data (HSCSD). HSCSD is simply a Circuit Switched Data call in which a single user can take over up to four separate channels at the same time. Because of its characteristic of end to end connection between sender and recipient, transmission delays are less likely. RESULT: NEED FOR HSCSD.
4.7 - Integration of intelligent network and mobile systems (2.5)

The basic idea of IN is that many services can be implemented as a series of elementary actions, executed by the network irrespective of the service and arranged in accordance with a logic peculiar to the service, which can be reused to implement other services. At the same time it is sought to separate the advanced service control functions from the basic switching and carrier functions so that the former are resident in the sets of equipment that comprise the advanced IN platforms, which are kept separate from the switching centres. In this way IN does not modify the carrier services (which transport information) of the networks on which it acts but optimises the services and provides new service control capabilities.
4.7.1 The case of GSM

The GSM system provides advanced mobility support based on specific procedures and protocols. Because it is capable of managing databases and interrupting call control, the GSM is often considered to be a kind of "intelligent network". GSM further supplies many of the supplementary services that can be supported on fixed networks by IN solutions. But despite the many similarities, one should be cautious in saying whether the GSM network can be considered to be structured in accordance with IN architecture. In the first place, for the moment there is some GSM mobility services that IN cannot support. The current specification of IN CS-1 (capability set 1) will not support call-unrelated services, which means that
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services like location updating cannot be implemented as native IN services. And moreover, the call processing models are not compatible. In the second place the way in which GSM supports mobility services is not consistent with the way in which IN supports services. For example, new services cannot be programmed on the basis of reusable functional building blocks. Again, there is incompatibility at a protocol level, given that GSM uses a specific part of the SS7 signalling system known as the Mobile Application Part (MAP), whereas IN uses the Intelligent Network Application Part (INAP). Thus, although the two have many points in common, being based on the Transaction Capabilities Application Part (TCAP), they are not compatible.[7],[61],[29] It therefore seems likely that full integration of GSM in IN -where the latter supports not only supplementary services but also some mobility functions- will come at a later stage (GSM 2+, IN CS2) where IN turn incorporates more advanced services. Aspects like control points and/or distributed databases may help solve the problems of an architecture like that of GSM in the event of much greater density of users and a denser base station network structure.[7],[61],[29]
4.7.2 Current developments

In this section we shall look at some of the main developments in the area of the IN and mobile systems in standardisation bodies and research initiatives. There are two types of development at the moment: 1. Developments aimed at facilitating interworking between mobile systems and IN platforms. Important here is specification of the Customised Applications for Mobile network Enhanced Logic (CAMEL) service by the ETSI, which seeks to facilitate the creation and implementation of IN services on the GSM network in a general and compatible way (most GSM network equipment makes have proprietary solutions for provision of services now supplied by the IN. However, owing to differences among the various operators and the lack of standard solutions, operators cannot offer these services to their own users when they are roaming on another network), so that the ranges of services offered by operators can be distinguished from one another. [7],[29] One the GSM's limitations is that the switching centres were not specified in such a way as to be able to interrelate with the IN; they have no Service Switching
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Function (SSF) and their respective call models are incompatible. CAMEL proposes gradual progress from the existing systems to a situation in which all networks elements are fully integrated. This process will proceed in several stages. [7],[61] In the first stage, the Mobile Switching Centre (MSC) has to detect the CAMEL service mark and interrogate the CAMEL Server (CSE). The CSE is a SCP located in the mobile HLR. It incorporates the gsmSCF function for control of the operator's specific services. This means that a special Service Switching Function (SSF) has to be incorporated in the MSC. There are two separate types of functions: those that implement the Gateway MSC or GMSC (GSSF) and those that implement the Visited MSC (VSSF). Another objective of CAMEL is to provide the possibility of requesting information on a given subscriber at any time (and not only during a call) from the network of origin. CAMEL is also intended to provide an alternative for implementation of new GSM 2+ services, such as: [7],[61] i. The private numbering plan ii. The Mobile Access Hunting (MAH) service[7],[61] iii. The new barring services (based on location, for example) [7],[61]. The architecture proposed for phase 1 of CAMEL is shown in figure 4.3. [7],[61]
HLR
gsmCSF
CSE
GSSF
Incoming
VSSF
VLR
GMSC
Roaming leg
MSC
MS
Forwarding leg
Forwarding leg
HLR: Home Location Register GSSF: GSM Service Switching Function MSC: Mobile Switching Centre CSE: Camel Server MS: Mobile Station VLR: Visitor Location Register GMSC: Gateway Mobile Switching Centre gsmCSF: gsm Service Control Function VSSF: Visited Service Switching Function Figure 4.3: CAMEL architecture[7],[29]
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Hopefully CAMEL will have a positive impact on both MAP and INAP. As regards MAP, some messages such, as Send_Routing_Information between the GMSC and the HLR have to be enriched with the CAMEL service mark. As to the INAP, the messages used in CAMEL must incorporate new data. [7],[61],[29] 2. Developments that seek to use the capabilities of IN to support wider terminal mobility in fixed-network cordless telephony systems The most important of these is a project called Cordless Terminal Mobility (CTM), which is being developed in the ETSI by STC NA6. This service is intended to extend the mobility of cordless telephony systems, mainly DECT and CT2, to public and private environments and also among CTM operators. The functional architecture to support the CTM mobility service is based on the ITU-T's IN CS2 architecture model. The service requirements specified for phase 1 of the CTM service are: [7],[61],[29] Basic capabilities: Outgoing call Location management Emergency call Optional capabilities: User's service profile query Back-up number----- Supplementary services The CTM functional model is shown in figure 4.4: Modification of the user's service profile Incoming call Authentication
CCAF: Call Control Access Function CCF: Call Control Function CUSF: Call Unrelated Service Function SCF: Service Control Function SDF: Service Data Function SCUAF: Service Call Unrelated Access Function
SDF e SCF
SCUAF f CCAF d CUSF
SSF CCF
Figure 4.4: Functional architecture of CTM[7],[29]
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The main difference with respect to the IN CS1 functional model lies in the existence of: A new service switching function, the Call-Unrelated Service Function (CURF) which makes it possible to detect a request for an IN call-unrelated service (e.g., a location area update). The new SCF-SCF and SDF-SDF relationships that are needed to enable interworking between the CTM networks of different operators. Relationships b, e, g and h are supported by the INAP CS1. Relationship d is based on DSS1. Relationship f can be supported by either CS2 or DSS1(+). Relationship a requires INAP CS2. CUSF and SCUAF supply the functions to support call-unrelated services. [7],[61]
4.8 - Quality of Services:

The Quality of service (QoS) requirements for the variety of mobile data applications, in which GPRS is used as transmission technology, are very diverse (for example, compare the requirements of real-time video conferencing with those of email transfer with respect to packet delay and error-free transmission). Support of different QoS classes is therefore an important feature to support a broad variety of applications but still preserve radio and network resources in an efficient way. Moreover, QoS classes enable providers to offer different billing options. The billing can be based on the amount of transmitted data, the service type itself, and the QoS profile. At the moment, four QoS parameters are defined in GPRS: service precedence, reliability, delay and throughput. Using these parameters, QoS profiles can be negotiated between the mobile user and the network for each session, depending on the QoS demand and the currently available resources. [16] The service precedence is the priority of a service (in relation to other services). There exist three levels of priority: high, normal, and low. In case of heavy load, for example, packets of low priority will be discarded first. [16] The reliability indicates the transmission characteristics required by an application. Three reliability classes are defined which guarantee certain maximum values for the probability of packet loss, packet duplication, mis-sequencing, and packet corruption.[16] Delay is defined as the end-to-end transfer time between two communicating mobile stations or between a mobile station and an external network, respectively. This includes all delays within GPRS network, e.g. the delay request and assignment
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of radio resources, transmission over the air interface, and the transit delay in the GPRS backbone network. Delays outside the GPRS network, e.g. in external transit networks, are not taken into account. Finally, the throughput parameter specifies the maximum/peak bit rate and the mean bit rate. [16]
4.9 - Moving towards 2.5 Generation

The 2.5G technologies have been designed to extend the capabilities of existing 2G systems. The 3G technologies take that one step further, providing forward compatibility for many of the existing 2G and 2.5G systems while adding further capabilities to make these systems sustainable for the foreseeable future. But todays best 2G wireless performance is just a stepping stone toward the next round of customer demands. Network operators do business in one of the most challenging, competitive markets in the world today. They have no choice but to continuously expand and improve their services, while steadily reducing prices. To stand still is to fall behind. What improvements are needed? Fundamentally, wireless users want even more from their mobile sets: o Email and fast internet access o Location-based services such as navigation and mobile yellow pages o Robust "buddy" features such as messaging o Video o Wireless purchasing o Global roaming o Synchronization of mobile personal management tools with popular personal management software such as Microsoft Outlook, Lotus Organizer or Symantec ACT! To meet these demands, network operators and wireless equipment manufacturers alike are turning toward a third generation (3G) of wireless systems that deliver higher data rates based on packet transmission and new modulation formats. But the path toward 3G, though evolving, is far from clear. In fact, there are many parallel paths, and at least one, probably two, generations of transitional technologies. My job here is to describe this road to the third generation (3G), as well as to show you how these services will allow new applications never before possible.
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Chapter Five: 3G Architecture & Services

In this chapter, we will study the architecture of 3rd generation system and the openness of the UMTS system. A detailed review of the 3rd generation services and the motives which drove us to 4G scenarios is also illustrated.
5.1 - Introduction
3G technology provides a flexible platform that offers content developers and applications providers the opportunity to design products in a new way. 3G's open interfaces enable richer solutions and products that can be created and evolved quickly. There will be tremendous opportunities in 3G for both existing players and new entrants and these will become more apparent as products are introduced over the next few years. The early delays experienced by the 3G community are hardly surprising given the complexity of the new technology, the levels of investment required and the difficult transition from 2G. Nevertheless, despite early setbacks and the poor public perception of 3G, the evidence from the market suggests that these difficulties are transitory and the long-term future for 3G is bright.[1(1-13p)] The complexity of the WCDMA/3G technology means that standardisation was inevitably going to be a lengthy process, requiring much careful work. The 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) is firmly on track. The definitive 3G standard, Release 99, was frozen in December 99. Release 99 represented a vital step forward in the evolution to 3G as it enabled equipment manufacturers to press ahead with the development of standards compliant infrastructure and terminals. Since Release 99, 3GPP has continued to work on eliminating ambiguities and clarifying key elements. This work culminated in Release 4 which codified the changes to Release 99. This is important because it indicates the increased level of activity by the equipment vendors in terms of 3G products development. All of the major vendors are confident that Release 99 compliant infrastructure will be available to operators within the agreed upon timescales during the second or third quarters of 2002. Already, some vendors have reported successful Release 99-compliant end-to-end voice calls.
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The next step was Release 4 and Release 5 due for publication at the end of 2001. This release laid the groundwork for the further integration of 3G networks with IP networks and technology, further opening the architecture of the system and the potential for rapid product and service creation.[1(1-13p)]
5.2 - Drivers of third generation development

Much as second-generation radio access brought mobile telephony capabilities to the mass market, third-generation radio access will introduce value that extends beyond basic telephony. The widespread growth of the Internet has created a massmarket base for multimedia and information services. The challenge is to merge mobile telephony coverage and the associated user base with the Internet and other multimedia applications. To successfully meet this challenge, third-generation radio access must provide:[23] o Flexible multimedia management; o Internet access; o Flexible bearer services; and o Cost-effective packet access for best-effort services. Most new multimedia services will be offered via the Internet. Therefore, a characteristic feature of third-generation radio access is that it provides mobile Internet. Multimedia requires considerable flexibility that is, the cost-effective ability to support different bearer services with very different requirements, such as different bit rates (constant or variable), real-time or best-effort service, and packet- or circuitswitched service. In addition, third-generation radio access must provide full-area coverage (same as second-generation voice service); high-peak bit-rate services (384 kbit/s full-area coverage, 2 Mbit/s local coverage); and any kind of service mix. Finally, third-generation radio access must use the radio spectrum and network resources in a cost-effective fashion.[23]
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5.3 - Spectrum allocation

Spectrum is allocated differently in different parts of the world. Moreover, the availability of spectrum varies greatly from operator to operator. In many regions of the world, new spectrum is to be allocated with in parts of the 2 GHz IMT-2000 frequency band defined by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). According to the ITUs recommendation, Europe will allocate 1920-1980 MHz and 2110-2170 MHz for the operation of frequency-division duplex (FDD), and 19001920 MHz and 2010-2025 MHz for the operation of time- division duplex (TDD). In Japan, an identical allocation has been made for the operation of FDD, but no allocation has been made for the operation of TDD. The allocation of spectrum in the USA differs from that of Europe and Japan (Figure 3), since parts of the 2 GHz frequency band have already been allocated for use by personal communication services (PCS) systems. Although spectrum has been reserved in certain parts of the world for IMT-2000 services, this does not mean that similar services cannot be provided in other bands. For instance, EDGE and multicarrier cdma2000 support the majority of IMT-2000 services. Accordingly, we can expect to see the following developments in the market:[9] o Operators will be allocated new spectrum, either paired (FDD) or unpaired (TDD) bands o Operators will migrate existing second-generation spectrum, adding support for third-generation services.
5.4 - Backbone network

The radio network will be connected to the core network by a backbone network allowing wideband access and interconnection of subscribers. The 3Gbackbone network can use any transport technology but is certain to be based on packet technologies such as Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) and Internet Protocol (IP). The backbone network is built as a mesh of IP routing or ATM switching nodes interconnected by point to point links. Technologies such as IP over ATM may be used that uses ATM switching to multiplex IP traffic. This IP over
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ATM architecture supports voice traffic alongside IP. Many vendors prefer a pure end to end IP approach whereas others (such as Fujitsu profiled below) prefer an ATM/ IP hybrid to guarantee quality of service. Alternatively, IP over SDH is a different backbone network solution that eliminates the ATM layer by establishing point to point links between IP routers directly over SDH rings which run over a Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM) layer that enables Terabits per second (Tbits/s) of aggregate network bandwidth.[92]
5.5 - Third generation data rates

The International Telecommunications Union (ITU) has laid down some indicative minimum requirements for the data speeds that the IMT-2000 standards must support. These requirements are defined according to the degree of mobility involved when the 3G call is being made. As such, the data rate that wills available over 3G will depend upon the environment the call is being made in: o High mobility 144 kbps for rural outdoor mobile use. This data rate is available for environments in which the 3G user is travelling more than 120 kilometres per hour in outdoor environments. Let us hope that the 3G user is in a train and not driving along and trying to use their 3G terminal at such speeds.[17] o Full mobility 384 kbps for pedestrian users travelling less than 120 kilometres per hour in urban outdoor environments.[17] o Limited mobility At least 2 Mbps with low mobility (less than 10 kilometres per hour) in stationary indoor and short range outdoor environments. These kinds of maximum data rates that are often talked about when illustrating the potential for 3G technology will only therefore be available in stationary indoor environments.[17]
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5.6 - UMTS architecture R99

Due to the absence of global standardization in the early ages of wireless communication, there are today two major regional telecommunication standards dominating the global market, TDMA/CDMA developed by TIA in the USA and GSM developed by ETSI in Europe. Moving toward 3G wireless, there has been a rising need to develop more global and collaborative standards. There are two major recent partnerships projects created by the global wireless industry to address this issue:[23] 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP). The 3GPP is developing 3G standards for GSM based systems. The consortium includes ETSI (Europe), T1 (USA), ARIB/TTC (Japan), TTA (Korea) and CWTS (China). The North American part of the TDMA community is participating and contributing in 3GPP as ANSI-41 based TDMA systems evolve towards 3G architecture based on EDGE and GPRS.[23]
3rd Generation Partnership Project 2 (3GPP2). The 3GPP2 is developing 3G standards for IS-95 based CDMA systems. The consortium includes TIA (USA), ARIB/TTC, TTA and CWTS. As the 3GPP represents the partnership project most relevant for European countries, we refer to UMTS as the technology based on the 3GPP specification during the rest of this section. There are three current specifications available:[23] o The first phase, UMTS Release 99 (R99), o The second phase, UMTS Release 00 (R4). o The third phase, UMTS Release 5 (R5) This section will briefly introduce the main technology changes, advantages, and features provided by the UMTS as of Release 99.[23]
5.6.1 System Overview

The UMTS architecture can be divided into three major components: the User Equipment (UE), the radio access network, and the core network. The radio access
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net-work, also known under the name UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN), is the entity connecting the UE and the core network with each other. The UTRAN can be subdivided into a set of interconnected Radio Network Subsystems (RNS), each of which consist of a Radio Network Controller (RNC) with an underlying set of Node Base Stations (BS) [75]
UMTS Core Network UTRAN UE RNC
RNS
RNS
RNS
Figure 5.1: UMTS system and radio access network architecture (R99)[74]
A novelty in the UTRAN concept is the existence of two different, but complementary, radio access modes: o Frequency-Division Duplex (FDD). Suitable for symmetric traffic, this mode offers fullmobility.[75] o Time-Division Duplex (TDD). Suitable for asymmetric traffic such as web browsing, this mode offers only a limited mobility and therefore is more adapted for indoor environments. These two modes offer high efficiency within one system whatever the conditions (wide area, urban, indoor coverage from outdoor, indoor, etc.).[75]
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5.6.2 Network Logic

The core network is based on two separate domains, one packet switched and one circuit switched, allowing integration and compatibility with 2G systems. Thus, the circuit switched domain is built on the current GSM system, whereas the packet switched domain can be regarded as an extension, as in GPRS and EDGE. The circuit switched core network domain consists of a Mobile Services Switching Centre (MSC), a Gateway MSC (GMSC) as well as Visited Location Register (VLR) and Home Location Register (HLR). The packet switched core network domain consists of two gateway support nodes, Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN) and Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN). The UMTS packet switched domain is highly similar to the logical architecture of the GPRS. Basically, only the UTRAN and the UE consisting of Terminal Equipment (TE) and Mobile Terminal (MT) have been added. One of the main changes in UMTS is an increased functionality shift from the core network nodes to the UTRAN. The functionality and logic of the UMTS network architecture is described below:[92] SMS-GMSC SMS-IWMSC HLR
----- Signalling interface Signalling and Data Transfer MSC/VLR
SM-SC
TE
MT
UTRAN
SGSN
GGSN
PDN
TE
CGF TE MT BSC GGSN SGSN Other PLMN EIR Billing System
Figure 5.2: UMTS architecture overview[74]
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o SGSN: The SGSN is responsible for keeping track of the UEs individual location and performs security functions and access control. In the UMTS framework, the SGSN is connected to the UTRAN whereas in the GPRS system, it is connected to the GSM base station system.[92] o GGSN: The GGSN is responsible for providing interworking with external packet switched networks, e.g. an IP network, and is connected over an IP-based backbonethe Public Land Mobile Network PLMN).[92] o CGF: The Charging Gateway Functionality (CGF) monitors charging information from the SGSNs and GGSNs.[92] o MSC/VLR: Depending on whether the system is based on GSM/GPRS or not, the SGSN can send location information to the MSC or VLR, respectively. The SGSN may furthermore receive paging requests from the MSC/VLR.[92] o HLR: The HLR contains individual GSM and UMTS subscriber-related information. o EIR: The Equipment Identity Register (EIR) contains the terminal device equipment information. Equipment-related services and support can be implemented in the EIR. o SMS-GMSC/SMS-IWMSC: The Short Message Service Gateway MSC (SMSGMSC) and the Short Message Service Interworking MSC (SMS-IWMSC) provide support for SMS transission over the SGSN. This messaging is administered by the Short message Service Centre (SM-SC).[92]
5.7 - Voice and multimedia in the 3GPP Release 4 network

The following phases of UMTS evolution specify how voice and multimedia can be supported by an Internet Protocol (IP) transport service. Currently, two phases are defined: o Release 4, which includes the migration of the Release 1999 circuit-switched domain core network and services to an IP transport, o Release 5, which takes a more radical approach to the introduction of conversational and interactive multimedia services on to an end-to-end IP transport, provided by an enhanced general packet radio service in the packetswitched domain. These releases were previously known singly as Release 2000.
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The 3GPP Release 4 standards provide a means for operators to migrate the Release 1999 circuit-switched domain to an IP-based core network infrastructure. An overview of the Release 4 network is shown in Fig 13. In this case, the Release 4 circuit-switched domain connects to the UTRAN via the Iu-CS interface, which supports the same speech transport and signalling protocols as in Release 1999. GSM radio networks can also be connected via the GSM A interface. The Iu-CS interface (and similarly the GSM A interface) is terminated at the circuit-switched domain entry point by a media gateway. This relays the signalling path from the ATM transport on to IP transport (such as TCP or SCTP) and on to the MSC call server. Speech paths in the Iu-CS interface are relayed into the IP core network from ATM AAL2 transport on to UDP/IP transport. For the speech circuits, the media gateway operates in a similar way to the one used for PSTN interconnect, and is controlled by the MSC call server by an appropriate protocol such as the H.248/Megaco protocol. The signalling from the GMSC call server to other networks (including Release 5 CSCFs) is via a signalling gateway. The speech paths are interconnected to other circuit-switched and other VoIP networks via a media gateway. The operation of these gateways is similar to the PSTN interconnect case for the Release 5 voice service. Additionally, interconnect of the speech paths to Release 5 networks may not require a media gateway if the speech paths are compatible, although additional security measures (such as firewalls) will be required in the case of interconnect to other operators. The MSC call server supports the Release 1999 call control, service features and mobility management of an MSC, while the GMSC call server performs the call control and HSS interrogation of a Release 1999 GMSC both, however, using media gateways to perform the circuit-switching functions, with IP providing the core transport network. Using this design, the Release 4 networks are capable of supporting the Release 1999 voice service with minimal enhancement to the network and little, if any, impact on the end user.[72]
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A: mobility management signalling to other networks B: call related to other networks C: circuit switched speech circuits to other networks (GSM) D: speech paths to other R5 and other VoIP networks
Application and service environment
HSS
A Signalling GW
EIR ---- signalling speech paths MSC call server GMSC call server Signalling GW B
RNC
C RNC BSS Media GW D
Media GW
UMTS terrestrial radio Access network (UTRAN)
GSM Access network
Circuit switched domain (IPv6 core network)
Figure 5.3: 3GPP R4 network overview[72]
5.8 - Voice and multimedia in the 3GPP Release 5 network

Release 5 specifies voice and multimedia services that make use of GPRS for the transport of speech and signalling, rather than the circuit-switched domain trans-port. A new core network domain, the Internet multimedia (IM) core network subsystem, or IM domain for short, is introduced for the control of voice and multimedia calls and sessions and the interconnection to other networks, such as the PSTN and other UMTS networks. The IM domain also relies on a managed core IP network that is enabled to provide the quality of service needed for voice and multimedia services. The main reasons for the introduction of the IM domain are to enable new services and to reduce cost. The IM architecture uses IP and the other protocols standardised by the Internet engineering task force (IETF) as interfaces to component building blocks of the Release 5 network. These protocols provide a very adaptable suite of technologies for building packet-based networks and services, and the growth in the use of these protocols and associated networking equipment over the last decade has resulted in considerable cost reductions. However, while the IETF
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protocols can be adopted to provide many of the functions of the IM domain, each UMTS service has specific requirements that impact on the overall design of the network and the detailed information carried within the protocols. Therefore, to determine the IM network and protocol design, the services to be supported must be understood. Examples of the services that will be supported in Release 5 by the IM domain are: o Voice telephony, o Real-time interactive games, o Video telephony, o Instant messaging, o Emergency calls, o Multimedia conferencing. These services tend to share a number of characteristics they are generally a conversational session between two or more parties requiring some degree of realtime interactivity. The real-time aspects of the service can be described in terms of the quality of service of the transport (such as transmission delay or packet jitter) and of the session (or call) control, such as time to establish the session. To meet the interactive needs of these services, the GPRS network provides quality-of-service levels for example by operating at low levels of network utilisation or by employing mechanisms such as Diffserv. Additionally, IP version 6 (IPv6) has been recommended as the transport protocol to be used for the IM domain, since this has a number of features that are beneficial to UMTS networks (such as a large address space, support for packet prioritisation, and easier manageability). The IM domain has four important roles in meeting the requirements of services: o It enables users and applications to control the sessions and calls between multiple parties, for example to establish, maintain, modify and terminate calls 1 , o It controls and supports network resources (such as media gateways and GPRS gateway support nodes (GGSNs), multimedia resource functions (MRF) and the core IP network) to provide the functionality, security and quality required for the call,
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o It provides for registration of users on the home and roamed to networks, so that users may access their services from any UMTS network, o It generates call detail records (CDRs), for example containing information on time, duration, volume of data sent/received, and the call participants the CDRs, together with records from the GPRS network on the data volumes transmitted and received are used for charging purposes.
A: mobility management signalling to other networks B: call related and mobility signalling to other R5 networks C: call related signalling to other circuit switched and VoIP D: circuit switched speech circuits to other networks (GSM) E: speech paths to other R5 and other VoIP networks
Application and service environment
HSS
A Signalling GW B
---- signalling speech paths

CSCF RNC EIR DHCP and DNS servers MRF Media GW MGCF Signalling GW
RNC GGSN UMTS terrestrial radio Access network (UTRAN) SGSN
Packet-switched domain GPRS
Internet multimedia domain (IPv6 core network)
Figure 5.4: 3GPP R5 network overview[72]
The IM domain architecture complements the voice over IP (VoIP) protocols and architectures developed by the IETF, ETSI Tiphon and ITU-T Study Group 16, although these were primarily developed for fixed IP networks. Supporting VoIP in a mobile and wireless environment raises a number of additional requirements, which are being addressed by the 3GPP group. In particular, they include: o The ability of the network to hand over a call (signalling and speech paths) from one radio base-station to another, without perceivable loss of speech quality, for example as a user moves between radio base-stations,
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o The ability of the network to cope with the additional delays imposed on the speech path due to radio access and use of AMR coding, without perceivable loss of speech quality, o The ability of the network to allow users to roam to another operators network (a visited network), and still receive service, o The ability of the network to control the voice service of a roaming user from either the users home network or the visited network. The first two points are addressed by the mechanisms used to transport IP packets carrying speech and IP packets carrying signalling over the GPRS network and IM domain core IP network. The subsequent points are addressed by the registration, discovery and call control procedures of the IM domain.[72]
5.9 OSA, API

As we examine the mobile evolution and the introduction of new and improved systems, at first glance we tend to focus on the radio and network characteristics. Everyone wants to know how bit rates will be and what kinds of functionalities the handsets will have. Remember that telecommunications networks were traditionally built to carry voice. Compared to the fixed Internet, these networks are secure and extremely reliable but also extremely rigid. Third parties have not found it easy to add functionalities and applications that are limited to SMS, voice mail and other features that are tightly integrated into the existing networks. One system had a set of applications that was incompatible with those of other systems. Thus, a CDMA user could not access an SMS centre for a GSM network, and a fixedline user had an answering machine that was different from the voice mail of his mobile phone. Figure 5.8 illustrates this architecture of services that are dedicated to the individual networks.[3(128-135p)]
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Applications
Applications
Applications
Fixed phone network
Mobile network
Local area network
Figure 5.8: Old architecture of dedicated applications
When developers added data functionality to 2G networks, these limitations became more and more visible, especially wit the rapid growth of the openly designed Internet. The Internet facilitated an enormous growth of applications and content, and it was extremely easy for anyone to connect to the Internet. With the advent of wireless packet data networks, the telecommunications industry realised that the fixed-Internet developer had to be mobilised in order for the mobile Internet to take off. A key issue that needed to be resolved was how to introduce open and flexible application architecture to mobile networks without jeopardising security and reliability. Another important aspect was to make applications for one network avail available to others as well. Applications: - E-mail - Voice Mail - Travel Guides Network-specific: - Call Control - Mobility Management - Session Management Moving Bits: - Routing - Switching - Coding
Applications
Control
Transport
Figure 5.5: A layered applications architecture[32]
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Someone might develop banking application for WCDMA users, and it should then also be possible for CDMA2000 users to access it, as well. The solution is a horizontally layered architecture. The three main planes are transport, control, and applications (services) as shown in figure 5.9.[3(128-135p)] o Application plane: Not only are the applications located here, but a number of nodes the facilitate the new services also reside in this location. These applications include positioning servers, WAP gateways, and so on. As a result, mobile networks and clients or servers on the fixed Internet can all access these applications. The applications can be anything from browser-based WAP applications to any generic IP-based application.[3(128-135p)] o Control plane: This layer handles setting up calls, tracking mobiles, and managing billing information. Practically all of the intelligence of the mobile networks resides here.[3(128-135p)] o Transport plane: Once the control plane decides to set up a call, the actual transportation of the bits place in the transport layer. This process includes all sorts of routing, coding and switching. Some functionalities that previously took place in the middle of the mobile network, such a voice transcoding, can now instead be moved to the edge of the networks. This feature makes things more efficient and easier to control for the operator.[3(128-135p)] This new architecture provides the opportunity to divide the networks into logical entities based on functionality rather than on system technology. All three layers are based upon open interfaces, which open the possibility for third parties to enter the game. If there were no open interfaces, the applications would have to terminate the telecommunications protocols and communicate with them directly. This process is not only inefficient and difficult, but is also limits the application to a particular network. The nodes of the application layer that offer these APIs now perform this dirty work, and the application developer gains access to high-level, network-independent functions. These layers are logically separated, which means that they can be physically located at different places. Therefore it would be possible for a company to start a business as a service provide, operating an application layer and not have to have any wireless infrastructure. This service provider offers services and applications, rather than the traditional mobile subscriptions that primarily offer network access. The service
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provider could then optionally choose to sell subscriptions that include network access as well and then buy this capacity from traditional mobile system operator. In other words, the existing operator will have to decide what to decide what their role in the value chain should be. [3(128-135p)]
5.10 - Service Capabilities at UMTS Service Platform

One of the main principles in UMTS is that the network establishing connections is separated as much as possible from the network maintaining services. This differentiation creates more commercial potential and openness in the market place. To implement this development, 3GPP R99 introduces network components, which are called service capabilities, also known as service platform. This part of the UMTS network will experience the most dramatic changes as time goes by. The most important service capabilities already available in the 3GPP R99 could be listed as follows. The list is not exhaustive:[1].[71] o WAP server/WAP gateway: this service capability offers a browser for the end users. The browser can be textual; later on it will contain more sophisticated features. o Positioning servers: this service capability provides other service capabilities with UE positioning information. Thus, these services are often referred to as location based services.[1(150-162p)] o Mobile Station Application Execution Environment: this service capability provides other service capabilities with information about the terminal abilities to handle information.[1(150-162p)] o UMTS SIM Application Toolkit: this service capability offers the tools required for SIM card handling[1(150-162p)] o Customised Application for mobile network Enhanced Logic (CAMEL): this service capability is populated with numerous services the end users, i.e. this is a common platform for all kind of services the subscribers may use. When the UMTS network evolves from 3GPP R99 to 3GPP R4, R5, the role of CAMEL increases and it will start acting as a service interconnection point, i.e. it will
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have a central role in service implementation. One example of this is Virtual Home Environment (VHE). WAP Positioning MExE USAT
CAMEL 3G Network (3GPP R99)
UE
Uu Interface
Figure 5.6: Service capabilities in 3GPP R99 implementation[1]
In 3GPP R99 implementation the service capabilities are somewhat proprietary ones and thus they may be partially vendor-dependent. They do not have complete and common control and, because of this, there is not any universal service creation environment. Figure 5.11 introduces the 3GPP R4/R5 implementation, where the service capabilities are more uniformed: they have a common, open interface(s) called Open Service Architecture (OSA). The OSA enables the possibility to have common, centralised point through which the services can be created. This point is called Service Creation Environment (SCE). Through the SCE anyone creating services have access to the service capabilities available under the SCE. Within OSA, the separate service capabilities have Application Programming Interfaces (API), which contain management and control entities for each service capability. Hence, there will be for example, MExE API and USAT API in the interface between the SCE and related service capability within the OSA system. In order to effectively use the service capabilities, the CAMEL, is in practice, a mandatory functionality to be included. Since CAMEL provides open protocol interfaces, it is possible to encapsulate service creation and content provision from the CN. This is a major difference compared to GSM: in GSM the IN based service creation was only valid and available in home network. In UMTS the services are available in every UMTS network if the connection through CAMEL is available and the carrier and service providers have agreed on the services to be used between networks.[71]
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Service Creation Environment (SCE)
API
API
API
API
OSA (Open System Architecture)
WAP
Positioning
MExE
USAT
CAMEL 3G Network (3GPP R4/R5)
UE
Uu Interface
Figure 5.7: Service capabilities in 3GPP R4/R5 implementation[1]
5.11 - WAP (Wireless Application Protocol)

Principally, WAP is a way to provide (web) browser for the end user (Figure 5.12). The browser application is located at the terminal and, upon users generated requests; the browser retrieves information to be downloaded from the network. When WAP is implemented over UMTS network, the HTML used in the Internet was not suitable for the mobile environment as such because the HTML format is not exact enough at this may lead to confusion as far as different terminals and their browser implementations are concerned.[1(150-162p)] Instead of HTML the WAP system uses Wireless Markup Language (WML), which is more exact in syntax and format. The WML pages can be stored in a normal Internet server but they are not readable through a normal Internet browser. The core of the WAP service is WAP gateway. It is a server able to receive user
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requests and reforming them to Hypertext Transfer Protocol (http) requests and vice versa. Because used bandwidth is an essential issue in mobile networks the WAP gateway performs data packaging and compression towards the terminals. WAP is a suitable service capability for the services requiring interactive QoS class using request-response model. The delay of the connection is not an issue as such, rather it can be stated that the opening of the connection should be fast. WAP is not in the scope of 3GPP specifications.[1(150-162p)]
UE
WAP Gateway
Server
UMTS Network Compression Decompression WML Syntax Other network
Figure 5.8: WAP dialog principle diagram[1]
5.12 - SIP (Session Initiation Protocol)

SIP (Session Initiation Protocol), is a new signalling protocol for UMTS which allows a vast range of new services to be created. SIP was set by an IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force) and has been selected by cable and UMTS architecture industries to be the sole call signalling protocol in cable and 3GPP standard of UMTS. Using SIP as the signalling protocol and OSA as the service creation and execution environment of UMTS networks provides a tremendous opportunity for the operators to really differentiate themselves as service providers. New and innovative services can be created rapidly an customised by each end-to-end user to their personal needs and preferences thus generating customer satisfaction and loyalty. New services start from the area of call control. In practical terms these services include such features as delivering ringing tones and caller image when calling someone. So apart from the current way of selecting how my phone rings, with
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SIP I can now effect how your phone rings when I call you. Better yet, I can send a picture to your phone when it rings. Thus the subject of the call can be displayed immediately to the caller. Internet URLs (Uniform Resource Locator) can be passed within signalling. E-mail and media-on-demand integration can be made more seamless within a call. During a call a video file may requested, the spoken language can be specified when calling a help desk. And Java or HTML payloads may be sent within SIP to support Java based gaming for example. These create numerous combinations abilities to use and call up various applications and content and combine those with the call or data transmission.[92]
5.13 - Third generation services

o Mobile entertainment: The moment need arises easily whenever the user has a moment of time to kill. This could happen, at the bus stop the airport, standing in line, waiting for a friend, sitting in a taxi, almost anywhere we wait. These spare moments are opportunities to relax a bit and laugh a little with a joke or cartoon, or entertain oneself with a game, or catch up on the sports scores, or whatever brings entertainment value to the individual in a spare moment.[33]
Mobile Office: -Internet/Intranet Access - Personal Organiser (business)
11.7% 8.7%
Entertainment: -Audio/Video Download - Lottery and online Games 28.0% Information: -Location Info -Traffic Info - Internet Access - Online News
24.9% M-Commerce: - Booking & Reservation - Micropayment - Product & Price Locator - Online Banking - Online Shopping
26.7%
Communication: - Video telephony - Multimedia Messaging - Video Conferencing - Control of Household Devices
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Figure 5.9: Requested services/user demand[70]
o Audio: Audio or video over the Internet is downloaded (transferred, stored and played) or streamed (played as it is being sent but not stored). The later tends to be of lower quality than the former. Content is transferred using various different compression algorithms such as those from Microsoft or Real Networks or the MPEG-1 Audio Layer 3 (better known as MP3) protocol. In fact, MP3 is a codec a compression/decompression algorithm. With 3G, MP3 files will be downloadable over the air directly to your phone via a dedicated server. There are numerous business models to allow both the network providers as well as the copyright owners of the MP3 material to benefit financially. Mobile Streams expects that the integration of mobile telephony with everyday consumer products will emerge within the next four years to the extent that we will be able to retrieve data be it voice, Internet or Music anytime, anyplace through the next generation of mobile devices. The era of downloading multimedia content from the Internet over fixed telecommunications and cable links to PCs is only just beginning and is dependent upon bandwidth to a large degree- with quality of image and availability of service inversely proportionate to the amount of available bandwidth. Due to bandwidth constraints, currently, users go online and downloaded files to their portable device over the fixed network which are then watched and listened to a later date- there is no real time audio and video streaming over mobile networks. Since even short voice clips occupy large file sizes, high-speed mobile data services are needed to enable mobile audio applications. The higher the bandwidth, the better hence the attractiveness of 3G for mobile multimedia applications such as mobile audio and video.[66] o Still images: Still images such as photographs, pictures, letters, postcards, greeting cards, presentations and static web pages can be sent and received over mobile networks just as they are across fixed telephone networks. Two variables affect the usability of such applications- bandwidth and time - and they are inversely related. The faster the bandwidth the less time is needed to transmit images, and vice versa. This is the reason why transmission of image based rather than textual information has not been a popular nonvoice mobile application until now- it takes too long given the slow data transmission speeds that were available prior to the introduction of mobile packet data. Once captured, images can then be
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sent directly to Internet sites, allowing near real-time desktop publishing. The size of the file for a picture depends on the resolution and type of compression. Typically each picture is between 50K and 100K in the JPEG format. This can be transmitted quickly using mobile packet data. Still image transmission is a muchtouted application for lower packet data services such as GPRS and beyond. Many people see still images as a killer compelling application for GPRS. Whilst a picture paints a thousand words, and this amount of text can easily be handled by GPRS, we expect the single image to be used instead. o Moving images: Sending moving images in a mobile environment has several vertical market applications including (monitor sensor triggered) monitoring parking lots or building sites for intruders or thieves, and sending images of patients from an ambulance to a hospital. Videoconferencing applications, in which teams of distributed sales people can have a regular sales meeting without having to go to a particular physical location, is another application for moving images that is similar to the document sharing/collaborative working applications reviewed below. Skeptics argue that vertical markets dont need video and consumers dont want it. However, with the Internet becoming a more multimedia environment, 3G will be able displaying those images and accessing web services. The transmission of moving images is one of the applications that GPRS and 3G terminal and infrastructure vendors routinely and repeatedly tout as a compelling application area that will be enabled by greater data rates. And they are not incorrect to do so. However, it must be noted that even demonstrations of one megabyte of data over the air using Microsoft NetMeeting to perform a video conference facility do not deliver smooth broadcast quality video images. However, improving compression techniques should allow acceptable quality video images to be transmitted using 64 kbps of bandwidth. Whilst videophones have failed to alight the publics imagination on fixed networks, this could be a function of the fact that a videophone is only as good as the number of other people who have one too. Corporations with several people with video capable mobile phones could easily hold virtual remote sales meetings between all their regional sales representatives. As such, whilst we are confident that still images such as pictures and postcards will be a significant application for GPRS, moving images may not be of high enough quality initially to elevate the
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communication above the medium. Users could spend all their time adjusting the size of the image on their screen and trying to work out what they are seeing. This is where 3G comes in- once again, the bandwidth uplift it enables allows for high quality image transmission over the mobile network. As such, we see all moving video and image transmission application migrating to the 3G bearer as soon as it becomes available. By the time 3G is here, full-length moves could be downloadable from Internet sites.[66] o Virtual home environment: A Universal Mobile Telephone Service (UMTS) service that is often mentioned in the vendors brochures is so called Virtual Home Environment (VHE). A service that simply lets customers have seamless access with a common look and feel to their services from home, office or on the move and in any city as if they were at home. VHE is therefore aimed at roamers (a small subset of total mobile phone users). VHE could also allow some other more useful services by placing their Universal Identity Module (UIM) into ANY terminal and those terminals could be something other than mobile devices if smart cards are more widely supported than they are today. Virtual Home Environment could hardly be described as a killer application though, especially since email and other services are increasingly available worldwide as the Internet becomes more widespread and services migrate to the Internet and can therefore be accessed from any Internet browser- with or without a smart card! In general, smart cards are hyped beyond their usefulness. They have very limited storage capability (64 K counts for being the state of the art) but are useful in switching devices (users are likely to have multiple devices in different form factors in the 3Gworld) and for non-mobile applications such as identification and security for mobile banking and the like.[63] o Mobile Location Services: When talking about mobile Location Services, it is useful to make a distinction between location-based services and locationdependent services, both of which come under Mobile Location Services. Location based services are actual services that are visible to the user, e.g. find a friend, navigation, yellow pages etc. Location based services are provided either by the operator or a third party service provider that utilises the available location information of the terminal. Additionally, the location application offers the user interface for the service. Services that are available depending on the users actual
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(x,y) position are called location dependent services. Such a service is provided either by the operator or a third party service provider that is available or is activated when the user enters a certain area. Location based charging is a good example of this kind of service. Furthermore when talking about ones position, refers to rather exact information usually presented in terms of longitude and latitude. The distinction between position and location is that position is accurate information on ones location, i.e. location can be seen as quite a wide area geographically. From the operators perspective, Mobile Location services present an opportunity to reduce churn and increase customer loyalty through the delivery of a unique and personalised service in a competitive market. A number of critical success factors will determine the ability to achieve these objectives; technology adoption is one of them. As technology adoption will ultimately be driven by consumer demand, the starting point for any service must be a focus on end-user needs. To this extent ease of use and personalisation are key elements in building a profitable subscriber base. For this reason, optimised device interfaces and platforms that support multiple access and service delivery methods should be implemented with personalised content provisioning being made available according to the end-users location. Mobile location Services will not in themselves be identified as a set of killer applications but rather location information will be integrated as the value-adding element in a whole range of services. For example, tourist information services letting you know the price of fuel in a country do not deliver value but being directed to the cheapest petrol station near your location does. An attractive set of location based applications will be based on life management services supported by a dynamic portal that uses end-users personalisation details to change the type of information and delivery methods according to the end-users changing time or context.[63] o Mobile commerce: Mobile commerce is one of the biggest opportunities for the mobile operator. A service, which is, adjusts for movement and time, becomes personalised, is automated with machines and of course deals with money. For example commuters purchasing train tickets would be close to an ideal such service. The service involves something which is not always tangible and could be embedded into another service or enable the extension of a service such a purchasing a travel ticket. The need moves about we board the train from a
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different station going to work, and going home. The service can become time sensitive, such as recognising patterns of travel and automatically offering a discount ticket, or monthly pass for example, when the travel justifies it. As part of a promotion service the mCommerce or Money characteristic of this service allows the main service to add more value to the user. In this case it could be the redemption of a discount coupon for rail travel. There will be two basic access types for mCommerce, local and online. Local connection can be either via Bluetooth to machines like parking meters or cash registers to pay for goods at point of sale or online to sites where goods or services are paid for downloaded to the UMTS terminal. This could be music or ring tones. Alternatively the goods are paid for and then collected or delivered by the postal or courier service.[70]
Online Local Music Downloading Vending Machines App. Downloading Ticket Machines Online Banking Doors, Gates Cash Registry Parking Meter Information Services Mobile Shopping Mobile Personal Ads
Figure 5.10: Two basic access types for mCommerce[70]
o Mobile Advertising: Perhaps the most heated topics of new services, and definitely the one arousing most passionate opinions, is that of mobile advertising (mAd). The often expressed view is that people do not want advertising on their mobile device. In part this is the industrys fault since there has been story after story about how UMTS users will walk past shops and get the latest promotion or ales blurb appear on their phone along the lines of we have Levis jeans on sale
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today. Wonderful the operators and analysts say no thank you reply the consumers![94] o Intangible services: Ticketing is likely to be one of the early success stories of mobile services. Several other examples mentioned elsewhere in this book talk about ticketing in particular ways, but ticketing should be viewed overall, considering that any ticket sold anywhere are great prospects for UMTS services. The service being bought is of course not the ticket itself, even though in some cases the ticket itself may even hold residual value as a collectable item say for a farewell rock concert. We buy the ticket to prove our right to do something, such as fly on an aeroplane, see a movie, take the bus or attend a theatre. The event, occasion or trip, is what we are actually purchasing. The ticket is only our proof that we have paid. The most compelling benefit of UMTS ticketing is the lack of any need to stand in line to pick up tickets. With UMTS ticketing, the ticket authorisation can be linked directly to the mobile phone, and its validation can happen electronically. Being totally electronic, the process of selling, billing, and validating the right to the ticketable event or occasion will be vastly simplified as will be the costs of managing the money collection.[94] o Rich calls: Voice telephony with without doubt remains a very important application category in the future and on UMTS. Telephony itself, as part of IP multimedia, will be enhanced through the possibility of allowing the user to not only listen to what we say but also to see what we mean. Rich calls, that are audio conversations supported with concurrent access to an image or data, will greatly enhance personal communication. Unlike fixed video telephony, mobile video telephony provides flexible real user value by allowing people to see what is being discussed, not only who is discussing. Videophones will become more and more popular with UMTS offering a range of services. The miniaturisation of camera technology is driving the market towards digital imagery.[66] o Telehealth: Telehealth refers to a means to provide health care and other medical services remotely through modern communications networks. In general terms, telehealth can be divided into a number of different service segments: o Exchange of treatment specific information between health care professionals o Delivery of health related information to the public, mainly over the Internet o Monitoring of patients on off the hospital premises, typically at home
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Remote consultation
The cost of health care is rising constantly and national health care organisations are striving to find ways to make limited resources meet ever-growing demands. As the average age of the population grows steadily, more resources are needed, but not necessarily allocated, to take care of peoples health problems. Mobile networks provide an ideal platform for the home treatment concept. Personal monitoring devices can be carried anywhere, yet maintain a connection to treatment professionals 24 hours a day. Thus, mobile telehealth brings sizeable cost savings and flexibility without compromising the values of health care: full confidentiality, total privacy and high reliability. To hospitals, mobile telehealth means reduced bed stay and cost of care. To local health care providers, such as general practitioners, mobile telehealth means a greater reach of consultancy services. To patients themselves, who appreciate a high quality of care but may prefer to stay at home instead of going to the hospital, mobile telehealth means independence and fewer consultations with their doctor, as well as virtually no constraints on location.[64] o Instant Messaging (IM): Instant Messaging is a way of sending short, simple messages that are delivered immediately to online users. Combining two key technologies instant message delivery and presence information IM is an attractive messaging service that has already proven popular with end-users. Presence information describes the status of the user. Using it in a mobile application expands its usefulness beyond merely knowing whether a user is online or not it can be used to indicate their location, their need for privacy or willingness to communicate and give an idea of their moods and sentiments. It introduces the idea of see before you connect a user wanting to communicate with someone first checks the status and availability of the other user and then chooses the most appropriate way to communicate. Presence and instant messaging features are separate and can work independently of each other. However presence service gives a user a better idea about a recipients ability to receive instant messages.[67]
5.14 - Quality of Service (QoS) in UMTS

From the end user point of view, the UMTS network is a network for services. In this respect the technology itself is not the most important but it is an enabler
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providing QoS so that the end users can be satisfied with the end-to-end services they use. To express this more technologically, the end-to-end services are carried over the UMTS network with bearers. Bearer is a service providing QoS between two defined points. Since the UMTS network structure contains many system levels having their own QoS properties the QoS is handled in many levels talking into account the special characteristics related to that level. QoS covers both connection control and user data flows.[26] Based on the bearer service division presented in Figure 5.15, the QoS can be guaranteed well within the UMTS network. On the other had, the QoS problems will probably relate to the item external bearer service, which aims to cover QoS in connections to the other networks. The QoS mechanisms outside the UMTS network are not in the scope of 3GP specifications and in this respect some problems may occur. Referring to figure 5.15, the end-to-end service sets the requirement for QoS. These requirements are then mapped to the next level, which in turn performs QoS mapping for the next level and so on. As a result, the UMTS network forms a connection through itself fulfilling the original QoS requirements. To make this mapping possible, the QoS requirements are classified.[26]
BS
RNC
MSC/VLR/SGSN GMSC/GGSN
TE
MT
End-to-end Service Local Bearer Service UMTS Bearer Service External Bearer Service CN Bearer Service Backbone Service Physical Service
Radio Access Bearer Service
Radio Bearer Service UTRA Service
lu Bearer Service Physical Bearer Service
TE: Terminal Equipment MT: Mobile Termination
Figure 5.11: Bearer/QoS architecture in UMTS[1(12p)]
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5.14.1 QoS classes in UMTS

UMTS QoS classes also known as traffic classes. The following four leading principles can be applied: o The QoS classes must allow efficient use of radio capacity (UTRA service) [26] o The CN and UTRA must be able to evolve independently[26] o UMTS network must be able to evolve independently from its surrounding networks. On the other hand, the backward compatibility mechanism must be present[26] o The operator must be able to utilise existing transmission technology within UMTS system in a cost-effective way.[26] From the end user point of view the impression of the connection quality is often related to the delay experienced on the connection. Due to this, the connection delay is the main separating attribute between the UMTS QoS classes. The other main factors are guaranteed bit rate (bandwidth) and nature of traffic. As defined, UMTS QoS classes are as follows: [26] o Conversational class: minimum fixed delay, no buffering, symmetric traffic, guaranteed bit rate[26] o Streaming class: minimum variable delay, buffering allowed, asymmetric traffic, guaranteed bit rate[26] o Interactive class: moderate variable delay, buffering allowed, asymmetric traffic, no guaranteed bit rate[26] o Background class: big variable delay, buffering allowed, asymmetric traffic, no guaranteed bit rate[26] The conversational class is the most demanding QoS class meant for Real Time (RT) traffic, for instance, voice calls. Actually all the services using CN CS domain have conversational class on the UMTS bearer service level. On the end-toend service level the user may still experience quality problems if the external bearer service and the other end of the connection are not able to guarantee QoS. Conversational class may also be used in the over killing manner, for example
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when a user likes to perform web surfing over circuit switched connection. The connection itself is capable of doing continuous symmetric bit flow through the UMTS network. The experienced QoS for the web surfing session, however, may still not be satisfactory to the user, since the flow of information is not RT due to overload in the web server or in the external networks involved. As a conclusion, in this case the end user had QoS Conversational class service in use at the UMTS bearer service level, but the endto-end service is still something else. [26] The streaming class does not set so tight limits for the delay; delay may vary during the connection and thus the information may be buffered in the network. Typically streaming class services will be asymmetric in nature; for example, the user may download music from the network. Interactive and background classes are meant for end-to-end services not sensitive for delays. A typically interactive class service could be, for instance, WAP service; the user sends a request and the network responses when there are free resources to respond. This is, the delay between response and request may vary and the information to be delivered to the user may be buffered in order to optimise the networks performance and capacity. The most important QoS parameters in UMTS are: o Maximum bit rate (kb/s) o Guaranteed bit rate (kb/s) o Allowed transfer delay (ms) and o Whether the requested QoS class is negotiable or not The maximum bit rate defines the maximum bit rate the UMTS bearer may use when delivering information between the end-points of the UMTS bearer. Guaranteed bit rate defines the bit rate the UMTS bearer must carry between the endpoints of the UMTS bearer. Transfer delay, is the main distinguishing factor between UMTS QoS classes. Also it should be noted that the QoS class for the end-to-end service requests might be negotiable or not. For example, in the case of circuit switched speech call the QoS class must be conversational and there is no room for negotiation. On the other hand, packet data services could be used within various QoS classes. [26]
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5.15 - 3G Mobile terminals

Some of the common trends in 3G terminals are shown below: o Bigger and better screen technology- screens will be colour which unusual today and have be bright and have considerably larger screen areas in many cases than todays phones. [65] o Video is central to the technology demonstration- of course; multimedia is the biggest single new understandable thing about 3G. Videoconferencing is an application that many of the concept terminals anticipate. [65] o Consumer electronics and mobile phones converge, as cameras are built into mobile phones. The majority of these devices include built-in miniature cameras. [65] o The most popular form factor that has been shown in the 3G concept devices is the video palm- a device form factor that can be held in one hand and supports video applications with varying small, medium or large screen sizes. [65] o Nearly all of the devices are in form factors that are familiar to us today- we may use the phone for different things and in different ways, but it will probably look similar to todays mobile phones[65] The broadband bandwidth on 3G networks enables mobile multimedia, as will the devices. When the networks and the devices are in harmony and the customer is king, the Three Dimensions of the Third Generation will enough a level of applications and services never before possible on mobile networks.[65]
5.16 - The regulatory environment

In this section we are going to say a few things about the regulatory issues in the European Union. It is not easy to find the regulations for the whole globe but here is an example of the regulations that apply in the EU. In the Community, the regulatory conditions for a harmonised introduction of the new mobile system are based on existing legislation governing licensing conditions. In addition, a Community Decision defines the capabilities of the new 3G services, calls for
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harmonised spectrum use and sets out a time frame for Member States to prepare their authorisation systems by January 1st, 2000. This time limit, agreed by all parties, was considered essential to enable those market players wishing to engage in this new market to have a co-ordinated and progressive introduction of commercial 3G services by January 1st, 2002, if they so wished. Under this regulatory framework, it is the responsibility of each Member State to determine the mechanism for spectrum licensing and to define the licensing conditions applicable on its territory. Member States must follow certain principles laid down in the EU legislation 3 requiring licences to be granted through open, non discriminatory and transparent procedures, based on objective criteria defined in advance. Eleven Member States8 have already issued 3G licences, corresponding to 48 licensed networks. These countries cover nearly 90% of todays 2G (GSM) market. Licensing conditions vary greatly across these Member States. Different selection procedures have been used: auctions, comparative selections, or a mixture of the two. The number of licences proposed in each country varies from 4 to 6, while the charges for the licences normalised on the population of each country average between 0 and about 650 per inhabitant. Licences have varying duration and enter into force at different moments. Deployment conditions (legal coverage requirements and network-sharing conditions) also differ considerably. The spectrum assignment per operator is not harmonised. Finally, access conditions to 2G mobile networks (e.g. national roaming) are not treated equally. Such fragmented conditions will inevitably create distortions in the way 3G networks and services will be implemented throughout Europe. The development of the market in each country could be affected by the effects of diverging licensing conditions between EU Member States, to the extent that the costs and timing of licences granted in other countries may influence pan-European operators in their decision on possible entry in a national market.[92]
As of 20 March 2001: Austria, Belgium, Germany, Italy, Finland, France (licences not formally issued,two 3G licence applicants), Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, United Kingdom.
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Chapter Six: 4G Architectures & Services

In this chapter, we will study the possible architecture of the fourth generation mobile networks, current projects and trends, technology issues and service aspect of the upcoming generation and finally we go through the MultiSphere concept from the book of visions 2001.
6.1 - Introduction
After the commercial success of GSM (2nd generation mobile), the basis for the 3rd generation mobile has already been laid in Europe. The Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) was conceived nearly a decade ago and now there are concrete plans for deployment in Europe starting in 2002. It is now time to start thinking about the next generation of mobile and wireless networks that will complement GSM and UMTS the 4th generation. This chapter has a forward looking nature and addresses 4th generation technologies, networks and services from the following three perspectives, which are certainly not mutually exclusive, and whose evolution will be market led:[37] o 4th generation as a concept that refers to bandwidth-on-demand broadband access and distribution networks with (a) symmetric bit rates in excess of 2 Mbit/s, including broadband wireless fixed access, broadband wireless local area networks, mobile broadband systems (MBS), interactive broadcasting networks (both terrestrial and satellite based). Within this perspective, it is important to maximise spectral efficiency and to explore new spectrum frontiers to support the anticipated demand. o 4th generation as a concept that refers to the need to provide seamless services over an increasing number of distinct and heterogeneous, fixed and wireless platforms and networks operating across different frequency bands. The concept goes beyond the need to develop systems-on-a-chip that can cover a few frequency bands and different technological parameters. It extends to full network and terminal reconfigurability, where continuous adaptation to the actual carried data streams, traffic load, channel conditions and service environments,
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takes place. This implies network protocols that adapt dynamically to changing channel conditions; protocols that allow the coexistence of low and high-rate users; congestion-control algorithms for changing channel conditions; etc. The service and applications potential of this perspective will also be discussed.[37] o 4th generation as a concept that refers to: the need to network, necessarily on an ad hoc basis, a myriad of ultra-low power devices (wireless sensors and actuators embedded in appliances as well as in living beings) capable of wirelessly transmitting a wide range of data rates (10bit/s 10Mbit/s) over a wide range of frequencies (100kHz-100GHz) over low power (0.1 - 100mW) equipment, including PDAs, palmtops and laptops, where the available services and applications reconfigure and adapt themselves to the capabilities of the devices available in specific environments.[37]
Celcos viewpoint
-2/2.5G -GPRS/EDGE -UMTS/WCDMA -Cdma2000 -3GPP/3GPP2 -MWIF/Bluetooth -WAP/i-mode
IP viewpoint
4G?
-Wireless LANs, PANS. MANETs -Mobile IP -Fast and seamless handoff -Fast security/AAA -IP Paging -TCP/IP Application
Figure 6.1: Which way to 4G?
6.2 - General Trends

In the last 10 years many countries introduced deregulation of
telecommunications services through liberalisation and privatisation to support competition in the telecommunications markets. Due to this competition the rates for telecommunication services decreased and the number of subscribers, in particular for mobile radio systems, increased much faster than expected. This new environment is changing the role model for service delivery and the value chain for mobile service provision. The roles of access network operators, core transport network operators,
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service providers, and content providers have to be distinguished. There are interrelations between these different possible players. In addition, users and subscribers are not necessarily the same. Service and content providers play an increasing role in the value chain. The dominant part of the revenues moves from the network operator to the content provider. Both are using the services of the access network and core network operators. It is expected that value-added data services and content provisioning will create the main growth. The combination and convergence of the different worlds should involve:[89] o IT: for example, Internet access, e-mail, real-time image transfer, multimedia document transfer, browsing, broadcasting, publishing, and mobile computing o Media: for example, audio-video content, video on demand, interactive video services, infotainment, value-added Internet services, and TV and radio contribution o Telecommunications: for example, mobility, video telephony, wideband data services and global connectivity, access security, and QoS Advanced services for the information society are being and will be developed in many areas information, Internet browsing, communication, videoconferencing, education, financial services, e-commerce, telemetric services, location- based services, personal navigation, personal health, security, remote monitoring and controlling, social networks, and leisure. These different types of services are subdivided into individual services such as multimedia, e-mail, file transfer, and so on, symmetrical and asymmetrical services, real-time and non-real-time services, and distribution services such as radio, TV, and software provision. In addition, services might be distinguished in: o Wide area services like mobile telephony, messaging services as always on, mobile multimedia[88] o Local area services such as wireless secure high-speed access, fast Internet and Intranets, and shared databases and applications[88] The major step from the second to the third generation was not directly driven by technology since both are based on digital techniques; the major step was the
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ability to support advanced and wideband services. Therefore, the user is much more in focus today. Users do not care about the technology. Their expectations are increasing for a large variety of services and applications with high quality of service (QoS), which is related to delay, data rate, and bit error requirements. IMT-2000 will be an important step to enable such services and will improve the grade of service for data services. Therefore, seamless services and applications via different access systems will be the driving forces for future developments.[88] In the future this paradigm will be shifted to communication from people to people, people to machines, machines to people and machines to machines. It is expected that due to the dominating role of mobile radio access the number of portable handsets will exceed the number of PCs connected to the Internet around 2004. Therefore, mobile terminals will be the major manmachine interface in the future instead of PCs. These new roles of different players and the increasing user expectations require more advanced multimedia services, flexibility, and interworking in the network between different access technologies, including service negotiation between the different access technologies. Due to the dominant role of IP-based data traffic, in the future networks and systems have to be designed for economic packet data transfer. The expected new data services consume high amounts of bandwidth. This results in increasing data rate requirements for future systems. Major areas of growth will be terminals (e.g., palm-sized PCs, net appliances) for data applications, Internet, smartcards for software download, and security. Decreasing costs per transmitted megabyte will drive new bandwidth-consuming applications.[88]
6.3 - 4th Generation forums

Some of the activities are at a global system level, intending to embrace the entire system beyond 3G. Japanese Telecommunications Technology Council (TTC) Strong drivers of a vision for future generation telecommunication can be found in Japan. Operators in Japan have already pushed for third generation networks and services, which is most vividly reflected in the i-Mode services and the FOMA. In their recent report Future Prospect of the New Generation Mobile Communication System the impact of communication and its growing impact on the society is acknowledged. Similar to the notion of the Wireless World, it is stated that ubiquitous
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access to information will play an increasing importance for modern societies. IP and Internet technology are expected to be cornerstones of a new generation mobile communications system, which is supposed to realise:[85] o Ultra high-speed, high quality transmission o Flexible, diverse services o Open services. ITU-R WG8F The ITU-R Working Party 8F is planned as international focal point for the continuing vision of next generation wireless services and systems. Its visions and recommendations for technical realisation of those built on expected user requirements on future mobile telecommunication systems. It is responsible for the overall system aspects of IMT-2000 with a focus on wireless terrestrial components. Included in the work assigned to WP8F are issues such as spectrum needs, higher data rate capabilities, Internet Protocol (IP)-based service needs of mobile systems such as IMT-2000, and the development of systems beyond IMT-2000. In general the views of ITU-R and WWRF are aligned to a large extend.[85] 4Gmobile Forum 4Gmobile Forum is the first international technical body focusing on the next generation broadband wireless mobile communications which converge wireless access, wireless mobile, wireless LAN and packet-division-multiplexed (PDM) networks. This integrated 4Gmobile system provides wireless users an affordable broadband mobile access solutions for the applications of secured wireless mobile Internet services with value-added quality-of-service (QoS) through application layer all the way to the media-access-control (MAC) layer. This statement of direction issued by the 4Gmobile Forum gives some indication on the underlying assumptions on possible future networks. The official kick-off of the forum is planned for May 2002. Working and study groups will be established as agreed during the kick-off meeting. Cluster on Systems beyond 3 G (IST initiative) IST initiative is the Community Research and Development Information Service, is a free service provided by the European Commission's Innovation/SMEs programme. ISToffers access to a wide range of information on EU research and innovation
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development activities. The timely and comprehensive coverage of Community R&D helps you: o Find information about participation in, and benefit from, the European Commission's Fifth R&D Framework Programme o Identify assistance to exploit or further develop research results o Keep up-to-date on current research findings and strategic directions o Identify various funding sources for R&D o Promote and locate transferable technologies, and more o Evolution of access systems, including terrestrial and satellite technologies, both telecom and interactive broadcasting systems o IP in core and radio access including mobility management o Interworking of existing, evolving and emerging access systems. Software Defined Radio (SDR) Forum The SDR Forum is an open, non-profit corporation dedicated to supporting the development, deployment, and use of open architectures for advanced wireless systems. The Forum membership is international, and growing. Members are encouraged to establish Web links to and from their own Web sites that have content related to or contributing to SDR.. The SDR Forum is dedicated to supporting the development, deployment, and use of open architectures for advanced wireless systems. To that end, the Forum helps to: o Accelerate the proliferation of enabling software definable technologies necessary for the introduction of advanced devices and services for the Internet o Develop uniform requirements and standards for SDR technologies to extend capabilities of current and evolving wireless networks. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) Forum The OFDM Forum is a voluntary association of hardware manufacturers, software firms and other users of orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) technology in wireless applications. The OFDM Forum was created to foster a single, compatible OFDM standard, needed to implement cost-effective, high-speed wireless networks on a variety of devices. OFDM is a cornerstone technology for the next generation of high-speed wireless data products and services for both corporate and consumer use. With the introduction of the IEEE 802.11a, ETSI BRAN, and
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multimedia applications, the wireless world is ready for products based on OFDM technology. At the invitation of W-LAN Inc. and Philips Semiconductors, 101 representatives from 60 companies worldwide met in December 1999 to discuss the formation of an international market development organization. After a day long discussion of requirements for mass market success, including specific technical and marketing issues, the meeting concluded with the task of assimilating proposals for specific working groups to address these issues. The Forum has been tasked to address such issues as interoperability between market segments, harmonized standards and spectrum allocations, among other issues. The Forum will encourage the broad acceptance of a single compatible global OFDM standard on a worldwide basis. Membership in the Forum is open to any corporation or organization that is, or will be, engaged in research, development and/or manufacture of any OFDM products. As well, any software firms or other users of OFDM products that are interested in developing and improving OFDM technology and standards are invited to join. Members of the OFDM Forum will not be required to support the OFDM standards to the exclusion of other standards. IPv6 Forum A world-wide consortium of leading Internet vendors, Research & Education Networks are shaping the IPv6 FORUM, with a clear mission to promote IPv6 by dramatically improving the market and user awareness of IPv6, creating a quality and secure Next Generation Internet and allowing world-wide equitable access to knowledge and technology, embracing a moral responsibility to the world. To this end the IPv6 FORUM will o Establish an open, international FORUM of IPv6 expertise o Share IPv6 knowledge and experience among members o Promote new IPv6-based applications and global solutions o Promote interoperable implementations of Ipv6 standards o Co-operate to achieve end-to-end quality of service As we go through this chapter we will discuss a few things about the vision of the 4 generation, new services, some projects that are happening at the moment and also technologies that are needed for the structure of the next generation of mobile networks.
th
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6.4 - From 3G to 4G
In order for 4G to deserve that designation, to be clear evolution of 3G, it has to bring about some clear change. Besides new technologies in some areas where gaps have been identified (personal area networks and body LANs, low power sensors, networked appliances and self-configuring ad hoc networks), we content that what will define is the ability to integrate all systems offering all services, all the time, allowing for the integrated provision of personalised, enhanced services over the most efficient/preferred networks, depending on the user profile, on the type of data stream under consideration, and on the traffic load in the available networks. Furthermore, 4G will be designed to take into account multiple classes of terminals, adjusting content delivery to the terminal capabilities and the user profile. No one knows what shape(s) 4G will end up taking, but given the above assumptions, we certainly know what it is: o NOT just higher data rates this would correspond to UMTS Phase 2 and what some call IMT-2010, and has already been done by HIPERLAN. o NOT technology driven, whereby the label 4G is seen as the way to sell a new access method
6.5 - Next-generation network structure

The significant increase in data traffic, together with the convergence of services in a multiservice network, calls for a new generation of networks. The nextgeneration, packet-oriented network will be characterised by:[80],[84] o A layered network structure and that for packet-ready networks. Indeed, in some markets, packet data accounts for more than 50% of the traffic volume applications, control and connectivity (transport and switching) of bits; [80],[84] o A connectivity layer composed of a common backbone network; separate wireless, copper, and fibber/coax access; and media gateways that connect different packet- oriented (ATM/IP) and circuit-switched networks;[80],[84] o A client/server type of architecture between servers in the call/mobility control level and connectivity layer (media gateways). A Client/server architecture will also exist between different communication applications and external content
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applications, as well as between end-user devices (clients). The end-user devices will also work with each other in client/server networks;[80],[84] o The development of open interfaces and standards, which are essential to this type of architecture. Especially important are acceptance and support for thirdparty development, end-to-end control through the layers, in order to provide a quality-of-service solution or application. Especially vital to end-to-end control and management are telecom management, network management (supervision, alarm handling, traffic control, QoS agreements), billing, security, and customer care. The benefits of a multiservice network are a common network with shared management and services and servers (for multiple services) and an open, layered architecture with open interfaces for improving time to market and third-party applications. Put another way, multiservice networks cost less to operate and offer greater flexibility.
New Radio Interface Digital Broadcast
IP based Core Network
Wireline xDSL
Cellular 2nd gen. IMT-2000
WLAN type
Other entities
Short Range Connectivity
Figure 6.2: Future Network[84]
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6.6 - Technical conditions of fourth generation mobile networks

Anatomising the 4G mobile systems by developing parameters it will be a complete network if set of features are realised like below: [88],[84] o Majority of people can access voice or data-based services that are provided by mobile networks (This requires efficient resource-management, for example usage of ad hoc extension in wireless systems). [88],[84] o The mobile network is fully able to attach to Internet because of basic concept of it (In this way IP based technologies would be used through mobile network (e.g. VoIP, Voice over IP)). [80],[84] o Problem of virtual private networks is worked out their security and dataprotection are warrantable (Security and authentication technology are improved).[80],[84] o The network is able to realign itself (It manages several type backbones and it uses the best one, it means adaptation). [80],[84] o The system is able to keep on QoS parameters (Quality of Service). [88],[84] o Parameter of availability of communication network is close to 100%.[88],[84] o Application what are required by a daily normal lifestyle will be run on mobile terminals without any restriction (e.g. news reading with multimedia, sending some orders, voice recording, and pocket-secretary functions). [88],[84] o A universal software/hardware interface could be standardised that should facilitate to develop new services without any problem (Easy to develop for four generation mobile systems). [88],[84]
6.7 - The 60 GHz channel

In the quest for ever-increasing bandwidth, we have chosen to investigate the unlicensed 60 GHz frequency band, offering up to 5 GHz of bandwidth. The large bandwidth offers a great capacity for wireless broadband systems. For example, a single (Access point) AP in an meeting room could offer, using simple modulation, a steady throughput of 200 Mbit/s to not less than 25 users at the same time, without sharing any resources or, similarly, offer up to 5 Gbit/s to a single user.[59]
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6.8 - IP version 6
There are many motivations behind the development of a next generation IP, originating from the weaknesses of the current IP such as o Progressive depletion of the IPv4 address space; o Difficulties in providing IP host and router configuration; o Inability to handle renumbering and mobility, causing continuous growth in routing tables; o Insufficient handling of security and QoS requirements. IPv6 was designed so as to deal with these weaknesses. Its 128-bit address space, as opposed to IPv4s 32-bit address space, permits a far greater quantity of addresses. This is essential in a converged IP environment where IP phones and always-on broadband connections will require their own unique IP addresses. Users will be able to communicate in different ways, using different devices. This will increase the need for static IP addresses, something which may be successfully handled by IPv6. IPv6 also boasts a re-engineered header format with 8 compulsory fields as opposed to IPv4s 14 fields. Several of the IPv4 fields have been removed or reformed to make packet processing more efficient. Extensions to the basic header structure of IPv6 allow options such as encryption-authentication (via IPSEC), source routing etc. The transition from IPv4 to IPv6 will not occur instantly. There will be a period during which both versions will have to interoperate, and it will likely be years before IPv6 completely replaces IPv4. For this purpose, an operators policy should include appropriate transition methods from one protocol to the other. These methods are dual stacks and tunnelling. The dual stack method involves new IPv6 devices that will be backward compatible with IPv4. The devices will select how to process respective packets based on their format. The tunnelling mode sends packets between two IPv6 domains over an IPv4 network. To do so, a dual-stack node encapsulates an IPv6 packet with an IPv4 header, sends the packet over the IPv4 part of the network and a receiving dual stack node strips the IPv4 header and processes the packet accordingly.[92]
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6.9 - Current trends for the fourth generation mobile networks

There are four technical trends from the current trends what are reckoned among pioneers in this moment but they have well-grounded concepts. They are: content provision and agents, software radio, managing ad hoc networks and virtual private networks. Content Provision and Agents In the future the group of network supporters and the group of contentproviders will be different significantly. As at present day we differentiate the Internet-supporters and the information and entertainment providers (e.g. CNN on the Internet) as we will do it in the market of mobile communication. The customer could pick and choose among the mobile application and theirs providers what offer high level of performance. The user chooses the best newsreader program to his terminal and what is more suitable for him will determine his network supporter, too. The socalled agent-technology will help his decision. Agent means a special, intelligent program, which runs basically on the owner terminal, or it starts his work on it. Its aim to collect the users habits in telecommunication and everyday lifetime and to offer gathered services based on them. Often these programs create new agents what run independently from users terminal and travel in different networks to complete tasks of their parent agents. They contact to network supporters and to information or application providers to collect information with interest of user in view.[85] Finally they compose a list of found and suitable services. Advantages of this technology are: the agents could accomplish multiple tasks (data mining, self location, finding other agents and users, etc) due to programmed intelligent; the agents usually do not run on users equipment so they do not allocate its resources but they run on specified systems (for example Internet); the processed results could be displayed on the screen of mobile device easily. Other way, the monitoring of networks could be easier, too.[85] Software Radio Software radio is a newer tendency to reduce the number of components of hardware but to keep on the performance of functionality of the radio terminal.
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Software radio is an emerging technology, thought to build flexible radio systems, multi-user-vice, multi-standard, re-configurable and re-programmable by software. The flexibility of an SW radio system consists in its capability to operate in multiservice environments, without being constrained to a particular standard, but able to offer, in theory, services of any already standardised systems or future ones on any radio frequency band. The compatibility of a SW radio system with any defined radio mobile is guaranteed by its reconfigurability, that is, by digital signal processing (DSP) engine re-programmability, which, in real time, implement radio interface and upper layer protocols. The users could take a trip round the world with a SW radio, and he is able to communicate anywhere even though the local radio parameters (modulation, bandwidth) could be different than at home system. Any changes in functionality of radio could be caused by reloading the software of radio across the air interface. The software radio concept has several advantages. For manufacturers, there is the possibility to concentrate research and development efforts on a reduced hardware platform set, applicable to every cellular system and market. Mass production of this kind of terminals would allow lowered costs. Operators will be able to rapidly roll out new services tailored to the needs of each user. The advantages for users are the possibility to roam their communications to other cellular systems and take advantage of world-wide mobility. Moreover, users can configure their terminals according to their preferences.[85] Forging ahead of Ad Hoc Networks We assume that the fourth generation mobile networks will mean global sized and uniform systems. In the case of existing of more than one-milliard users the efficient resource managing will be required because the frequency bandwidth and the data processing capabilities are limited. Situations could be evolved where users are close to the each other but a distant base control processes their radio signals in conformity with current protocols. A reasonable solution is that the terminals should be able to transact their packet-based traffic among them while there is no need for administration of distance base control. In this way a lot of resources are freed and they could be reallocated. We define ad hoc network as a set of uniform devices where the terminals have the selfsame hardware platform and there are no other assigned fix-settled equipments to control the systems. This type of network could
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provide better performance in particular cases. Situations of ad hoc will be usually in 2010 in everyday life. By that time the so-called intelligent household utensils will spread and they will be very popular. In our home the conventional tools and utensils will be clever.[85],[56] For example the refrigerator will able to sense the decrease of foods and it will order them using the Internet; our coffee maker will make an offer about our breakfast; our heating system will adapt to our present at home; TV will find our programme-watching habits out and it will try to propose us the available best TV channels. There are several situations where the information-sources could be connected by ad hoc radio networks. If we bring home a new device we will have to put it down to the floor, the other utensils will put it into operation. There is no need for a special centre and there is no point to in setting one by automating our homesystem. Of course, there would be outdoor cases (disasters, extended network failures) where the fix-settled infrastructures come to unusable states but the communications are required strongly. In this situation a fourth generation network with ad hoc extension could stand in the gap.[85] Virtual Private Networks We could determine the rule that terminals of a world-wide communication system are far cheaper than others. It follows users requirement that they want to establish a special private network based on it. For example a firm would like to deploy a mobile communication system to solve the communication problems between the employees but there are difficulties because of the high price of unique system and the frequency band allocation is a complex administrative task, too. Instead of it the solution would be easier if the firm could make a contract with a local or a global network supporter to divide its network reallocating resources; so the network supporter assigns a virtual private network to this firm whats workers could access to the network of their firm using a standard device. Of course, the fourth generation mobile networks require high security level, so efficient security and authentication processes should have been worked up. Naturally, stability of these systems is very important, too. Also bigger social group could have resort to a kind of networks we have to analyse the fourth generation networks whether they will have
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strong and efficient security processes to guarantee a level of data safety where general civic administration tasks would be done.[60] So practice of civic right would be very cheap and the social decisions would be faster than nowadays. Disadvantage of it is the dependence upon the technology. In a failure of communication network could indicate unforeseeable economic and confidential crisis. As matter stand there are and there will be some reserve forces what do want to play a lone hand (for example military). It is easy to see that kind of extension of fourth generation mobile networks will be developed by above a limit of user requirements.[60]
6.10 - Trends for Terminals, networks and applications

Terminals In order to adapt to the diverse applications and networks, together with the various requirements of users, the terminal domain must possess both internal and external diversity. Support techniques of the field may include the following: 1) User interfaces of terminals vary from traditional keyboard, display, and tablet, to new interfaces based on speech, touch, vision, soft buttons, etc. This will be common at a time when one terminal has multiple user interfaces. 2) Adaptive techniques such as smart antennas, software radio, and smart transceivers, enhance interoperability through simultaneous support of several radio interfaces in a single terminal. This makes a terminal roamable across any air interface standard and connectable to any wireless access point by exchanging configuration software. These approaches can also be used on wireless access points as an advanced smart base station. 3) Terminals will be aware of location and context, often based on some wireless low power sensors that are human-sensitive and/or environment-sensitive in order to monitor and interact with the physical world to report the human and/or environmental factors. The advances in this area have been used in e.g. wearable computers as a novel terminal type.
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4) An intelligent terminal is able to dynamically improve its processing capability in order to contain various services. Some function modules can even be downloaded to a terminal when needed. Networks More advances in networks are needed to keep pace with the rapidly changing terminals and applications, as follows: 1) Smart antenna, software radio, together with advanced base station are the key techniques to achieve adaptability of wireless access points to diverse terminals, i.e. to make radio systems and air networks re-configurable. 2) Hierarchical and ubiquitous as well as overlay cellular systems, including picocell, microcell, macrocell, and megacell ones, implement seamless network interconnection of both symmetric and asymmetric nature, and seamless terminal handoff of both horizontal and vertical levels respectively. 3) Network layer hierarchical mobility management based on Mobile IPv6 and Cellular IP brings quick and seamless handoff to terminals. The Mobile IPv6 also presents a great contribution to the adaptability of heterogeneous networks. 4) Ad hoc wireless networks are kind of self-deployed wireless networks to make networks portable and adaptable, and thus dynamically share unlicensed radio spectrum. 5) Network reconfiguration can be obtained by the reconfiguration of protocol stacks and programmability of network nodes. Thus, it can adapt dynamically to the changing channel conditions and low or high data rate users. 6) Miscellaneous services can be delivered through a mixture of transmission networks including unicast, multicast, and broadcast ones. According to the service types, e.g. real-time attribute, importance, bandwidth demand, or data stream type, multiple levels of QoS can be defined for various services. 7) Network resource can be dynamically allocated to cope with varying traffic load, channel condition, and service environment. Traffic conditions will be dynamically monitored and controlled via techniques such as distributed and decentralised control of network functionalities.
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Applications Adaptability will be one of the basic requirements to the development and delivery of new mobile services. Promising techniques and possible topics may include: 1) Mobile application should refer to a users profile so that it can be delivered in a way most preferred by the subscriber, such as context-based personalised services. This also brings the applications with adaptability to terminals that are moving in varying locations and speeds. Microsensors and GPS receivers are the mains driven techniques. 2) Techniques such as adaptive multimedia and unified messaging take the terminal characteristics into account and ensure that the service can be received and run on a terminal with the most suitable form to the host type. 3) Intelligent mobile software agent is a common technique to all of the three targets, which act as a platform for service development, delivery, and auto-configuration. 4) Applications can negotiate with networks so that they can be transferred with the most efficient channel, e.g. indoor networks or WLAN or cellular systems in a wide area. Services will be tailorable in order to fit the different network environments and the varying traffic conditions. 5) Services and applications can also be smoothly delivered across a multiple domain of operators and service providers.
6.11 - 4GW project

In order to make feature wireless services reasonable priced, we need to find more efficient methods to share frequency spectrum.
6.11.1 Broadband OFDM Air interface design

The working assumptions state that user deployed access points and selfplanning capabilities will be the key factors in making the 4GW infrastructures economically viable. Short-range broadband wireless systems play a major role. In several countries, the 60 GHz unlicensed band has been proposed for this purpose, offering at least 5 GHz of available bandwidth. In a 60 GHz system, coverage is not
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the main limitation in indoor office deployments but rather that unstable handover situations are caused by the fact that interference occurs in short bursts. Using a ray tracing simulated channel, a study of the dynamics of the 60GHz time varying channel in particular situations typical for office environments took place. The study was extended to shopping mall environments from the same group. The results give an insight into the time variations of the signal-to-interference ratio. However, the simulations were based on a single frequency network and Omni-directional antennas. Also the impact of the human body shadowing on the 60GHz channel has also been studied. This is a particular important problem when considering imperfect installation of the infrastructure. The strong attenuation of the human body at 60GHz considerable decreases the received power and changes the character of the Multipath fading statistics, so the resulting error floor increases with the shadowing density, but exploiting site diversity can considerably improve system performance, since it effectively reduces the shadowing probability. Despite the difficult propagation situation at 60GHz, it appears feasible to design wireless systems for high data rates that function in office areas or public hot spots of high-density population.[59]
6.11.2 Smart antennas

In order to provide high data rates at low cost, smart antennas systems have been proposed for shortrange WLAN type systems. Using the 60GHz band requires an increased number of access points, but may allow inexpensive radio access equipment. Systems at 5 GHz offer greater range, and have the advantage that several users can share one access point, which offers flexibility for the operator at the cost of more complex access points. Our research results so far show that dual arrays at above 5GHz in indoor environments fulfil the 4GW requirements of link capacity. Furthermore we have found that it is feasible to deploy an antenna array on the user terminal, since one wavelength is sufficient of the channel. The results have been derived from analysis and capacity computations on measured multiple-inputmultiple-output channel data. The results indicate that operation at 5GHz is an important alternative in 4G wireless systems. In addition to further work in this area, an infrastructure study is needed in order to compare coverage and QoS vs. infrastructure cost for the proposed systems.[45] 93
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6.11.3 Wireless infrastructure architecture

The assumption in the program is that high-data-rate wireless services can only be provided at a low cost if infrastructure deployment costs are reduced by some orders of magnitude. In current cellular systems, large sums are spent for antenna site acquisition, network planning and installation of base station transceivers, while hardware components are continuously getting cheaper. If wireless networks could be deployed according to the wireless LAN paradigm and still offer sufficiently high data rates and guarantee adequate coverage, large cost savings would be possible. The high data rates intended for 4G infrastructure will require the use of unlicensed spectrum with sufficient bandwidth to accommodate such high capacities. Acceptable bandwidth can be, for example around 17 and 60 GHz. Propagation at these frequencies suffers high free loss, strong shadowing by humans, and high attenuation by common building materials. The number of Wireless Access Points (APs) required to achieve sufficient coverage is therefore high.[60] An interface called REFA was adopted for the purpose of making comparisons in three environments an office environment, a shopping mall, and a campus area. The results showed that the user deployment is indeed a viable alternative to traditional infrastructure installation methods. In particular, dense networks, typically needed to satisfy the high capacity demands in, say, office environments are tolerant of arbitrary placement of the APs, as long as, they are reasonably uniformly distributed over the entire area. In densely populated large buildings such as shopping malls, train stations or airports, user deployment also achieves acceptable performance, although AP placement will require some coarse preplanning. From their results the 17 GHz systems should be recommended for such scenarios since 60GHz achieve very limited cell radii, hence requiring an extremely high number of APs to achieve adequate coverage. On the other hand outdoor scenarios are more situated for the 60GHz band.[60]
6.11.4 Transmission Spectrum - Area coverage - Service area
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In the section possible wireless transmission characteristics for the 4G system are described. Then requirements for the network are discussed considering these characteristics. o Transmission bit rate: The 3G system achieves a maximum bit rate of 2Mb/s but the bit rate may decrease in a vehicular-speed environment. Wireless LANs and, broadband wireless access systems using 5GHz frequency bands for example IEEE. and HiperLAN will offer greater than 30MB/s transmission capability in an indoor/pedestrian environment. For the 4G system more than 20MB/s to 100MB/s transmission will be realised in an outdoor/vehicular environment.[85] o Spectrum - Because the 4G system will provide greater than 20 MB/s wireless channels and should accommodate the significantly increasing amount of traffic sufficient frequency resources will be required. A lower frequency band which is considered suitable for mobile communications is now heavily used. Therefore it seems unlikely that a frequency band below 3GHz will be used for the 4G system. Although the frequency band for the 4G system has not yet been discussed in the ITU-R, the 4G system design consider a higher frequency band for operation.[85] o Area coverage: one of the advantages of mobile communications is the ability to communicate independently of time and place. Therefore expanding the service area of mobile communication systems is always an important issue for system operators. The 4G system is expected to have coverage similar to 2G. The 4G system will offer channels of more than 20MB/s which is three orders of magnitude greater than of the 2G system. The cell radius covered by a base station generally decreases if assuming all other conditions are the same, radio signals are transmitted at higher bit rates because the received signal level must be higher than that at a lower transmission bit rate to compensate for the increased noise level. Moreover, the 4G system may be operated at a higher frequency band so that propagation loss of the wireless signal is higher than that of 2G and 3G system.[85] o Hierarchical Service Area: although we expect that all objects will be connected to a network through wireless links, it may be difficult for small devices to be
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directly connected to the 4G system due to power consumption and antenna size. However compact devices will be capable of exchanging wireless signals at short range. Therefore, compact devices will be able to access the 4G network through a miniature BS, which will act as a MT for the 4G system. By employing such a configuration, service areas will consist of multiple overlapping cells.[85]
6.12 - 4G scenarios from 4GW:

Scenarios are the outputs that reveal the essence of the world some decades ahead. By using different perspectives, three different scenarios as outlined below have been designed. More extensive, narrative descriptions of the scenarios are found below: o Anything goes: The diversity of telecommunications equipment has increased dramatically, as well as the possibilities of manufacturing cheap, co-existing products. The manufacturing companies have become dominant in the telecommunication world. They advocate open de-facto standards, and use software solutions to create flexible, multi-standard equipment. Because of dramatic price reductions, both residential and business environments have Wireless Local Area Networks (WLAN) solutions. They are operated by a multitude of operators, and the end-users have great freedom of choice in selecting where to purchase wireless services. Competition between operator and equipment provider is fierce and new wireless products and services appear at a high rate. Services and equipment are affordable for almost every-one in the industrialized world, which tends to narrow the social gaps in society.[80] o Big Brother: As more and more personal information is available in the information infrastructure, the personal integrity issue become a major concern of the ordinary user. There is a widespread call for regulation and government intervention to ensure information integrity and secure networks. All citizens and companies wishing to deal with almost any aspect of computing and communication will need some kind of regulatory approval. In the private sphere most of the public information services use broadcasting. The impact of this scenario is that the complexity of products and services increase and thus the
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cost. Service, transport and equipment providers are reduced to a few large actors (brands) that, in the public eye, can be trusted. The development rate and the number of wireless systems is limited and so is the number of operators.[80] o Pocket computing pictures the world where the technological development is fast, but due to economical and educational differences, the society is divided between those who can follow the development and those who cannot. Thus some parts of the population have access to a multitude of advanced services, and other parts are using more simple services adapted to their needs. Service providers dominate the scene by providing the wide range of different services (that may include specialized hardware) tailored to various user groups. The mobile multimedia services mainly focused on the high-end consumer and business need. Global solutions are available but too expensive to be affordable by the low-end user. Cultural and educational differences between nations and different standards in society have also led to political instability and unrest.[80]
6.12.1 4GW assumptions:

o Tele-presence is used to create virtual meetings between individual and provides full stimulation of all senses required to provide the illusion of actually being somewhere else - an illusion that cannot be distinguished from the "real thing". The bandwidth required for tele-presence is, with efficient data compression and fast sensory feedback, less than 100 Mbit/s. The data stream is mostly dominated by 180-degree stereo, hi-resolution, full motion video. The multiple party meeting process is one of the major communication patterns foreseen for this application. Meeting processes will be mainly real-time.[80] o Information anywhere, anytime with virtually seamless connection to a wide range of information services is a key feature of the information infrastructure. Information access of large volumes of data, pictures, video etc is nearly instantaneous in small portable terminals. Compared to real-time meeting process, this application is less delay sensitive. Users can tolerate longer delays since the information is not real-time critical. Possibly high data rates are required for high volume data transfer applications such as video retrieval. The traffic pattern is highly asymmetric with 50=1 ratios or more favoring the system97
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to-terminal links. Seamless virtual connections (creating the feeling of always being connected) is important for the users.[80] o Inter-machine communication is an important application/service, ranging from simple maintenance routines (e.g. refrigerator telling repair shop that it's broken) to sophisticated massive data exchange (e.g. camera and PC/TV exchanging video/picture information). All cars, household and office equipment down to less than 20 US$ could have wireless interface as standard feature.[80] o Security is an indispensable feature of the infrastructure. Data integrity and protection against unauthorized access are key features providing reliable services for banking, electronic payment and handling of personal information. Schemes that reliably prevent unauthorized tracking of users and other intrusions in the private sphere are in operation.[80] o One-stop-shopping Services are provided in a one-stop fashion ("turn-key") directly to the consumer at the point of sales. Services are immediately available when leaving the store. The store (information provider) takes full responsibility for the service as well as for the hardware/software provided, if any.[80] o Non-homogeneous infrastructure consisting of several switching fabrics and a multitude of physical media. All elements of significance are digital. The _xed backbone structure is dominated by connection-less packet switching (IP-style). Also, the new air interfaces in wireless systems use packet switching technology. The wireless infrastructure uses a multitude of air interfaces, inherited from the wireless systems of the late 90s and early year of the new millennium. Among the newer, packet oriented micro and millimeter wave wireless systems for the high data rates in the 5 and 60 GHz bands have emerged with data rates up to 100 Mbit/s for hand-portable use. An overlaid architecture provides seamless, transparent internetworking using all kinds of air interfaces.[80] o Public & private access mixed. Public wireless access quality and bandwidth varies, where higher data rates are confined to dense urban areas, office environments (private/public systems) and homes (private systems). Operators/service providers provide partial coverage for non- real-time wideband (10 Mbit/s) information access in most public places ("info-kiosk", info-stations), in public transportation. Rural area information access bandwidth is limited to 1
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Mbit/s but provides reasonable coverage along all main highways and villages.[80] o Ad-hoc, unlicensed operation dominates and many actors will provide parts of the infrastructure. Ad-hoc networking (spontaneous deployment, self-planning) in unlicensed bands (5 and 60 GHz) plays an important role (the dominant role in the "pocket computing" and the "anything goes" scenarios) and compete fiercely with the existing traditional public operator which experience dwindling market shares. Techniques for efficient multi-operator (private/public) sharing of unlicensed spectrum have been developed. Ad-hoc structures, where the equipment of the users (companies or even individuals) provides part of the infrastructure, are adaptive to possible new communication patterns. Control of the new emerging ad-hoc networks (incl. routing, mobility etc.) is fully distributed and highly reliable.[80] o Multimode access ports in public systems with multiple access air interfaces are used to accommodate a wide range of terminals. Large operator systems use advanced access ports with adaptive antennas that self-configure with non-critical installation procedures (self-configuration) to reduce cost. Access ports (wireless gateways) in ad-hoc access systems are simple single mode/single air interface devices. The cost of access port hardware in these systems is negligible in comparison with the cost of planning and physical installation.[80] o Terminals exhibit a large range of user rates, from less than 10kbit/s (e.g. simple appliances) to 100 Mbit/s (tele-presence terminals). Battery life for personal terminals will last at least for some weeks. Battery capacity/weight/volume ratios are up one order of magnitude compared with today's. Terminals in the 5 and 60 GHz range use advanced adaptive antennas. Terminals are either multi-mode, multi-function terminals (as in the "anything goes" scenario), or single-purpose, cheap terminals designed solely for a specific service ("pocket computing") or function specific (e.g. receive only).[80]
6.13 - MIND network concept

The basic components of the MIND network shows that it is as a peer network to UMTS and other access technologies. Our usage scenario considers only
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IP-based applications and services, so the MIND network only handles the transport of IP data. Indeed, the basic goal of the MIND network can be summarised as marking mobile access through a fixed IP network (such as ADSL). In this sense, the MIND network is comparable to the combination of a radio access network and mobile core network packet domain. For the end-user, the MIND network can therefore provide UMTS services in the same way as is currently being considered for WLANs, either basic Internet access or services from the Internet Multimedia Subsystem.(IMS).[79] As well as providing IP access, the MIND network is itself fully IP-based, both in the same of using IP transport internally, and using IP mechanisms to support terminal mobility and QoS support all the way from the mobile device to the inner boundary of the access network. Indeed, we treat even the base stations as routers implementing mobile-optimised routing and QoS mechanisms. This architectural approach is sometimes referred to as all IP or native-IP radio access. An effect of this is that the particular physical air interface being used is significant only at the very edge of the network, so a single access network naturally supports heterogeneous environments. Fundamental Components: Implementation of the MIND network requires the development of the basic functions of terminal mobility and QoS support. These are considered for two regions:[79] o A traditional managed infrastructure, using wired links for routing from the base stations towards the core network and[79] o At the outer edge, networks of self-organising, unmanaged routing nodes-either fixed nodes, or possibly even end user devices themselves. This part is referred to as the ad hoc fringe[79] The terminal mobility solution includes both handover signalling and rerouting within the network to support seamless mobility between base stations and within the ad hoc fringe. QoS support includes protocols for signalling the QoS requirements of particular application flows and carrying out admission control, as well as traffic management mechanisms for the actual QoS provisioning itself.[79]
6.14 - Wireless Application Layer (WAL) idea
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The combination of both developments, the growth of the Internet and the success of wireless networks, suggests that the coming trend will be an increasing demand for wireless access to Internet applications. The Wireless Internet Network (WINE) project was born to study this scenario, that is, to find transparent compensation methods for the poor performance of Internet wireless links in an indoor environment where mobility of users has to be considered. In such an environment, users with mobile Internet equipment require acceptable performance when communicating over the Internet, to perform their everyday work. It is highly desirable to design an internet-oriented wireless communication system that behaves in the same way as a wire-dominated system to a great extent. Background work in the field proposes adaptive link layer protocols in terms of error control for Internet wireless links. WINE augment existing approaches by introducing the wireless application layer (WAL), which is a generic framework combining adaptive local error control and traffic control. The WAL fourth generation (4G) scenario is focusing on the key aspect of providing quality of service in underlying wireless networks carrying IP traffic.[78] 4G will be a system that will include several different networking technologies and this heterogeneous architecture will interoperate through IP and WAL in order to provide the best possible networking services whereas the user is located.[78] Also there is going to be new access methods and software radio breakthroughs in the future, so new transmission methods will also be incorporated into the heterogeneous 4G scenario. One issue we are interested in is how one can use IP to glue together different radio networks to provide pervasive access to the Internet. Thus, the WAL is a step towards ubiquitous IP access over heterogeneous networks. It can be seen as one of the building blocks of the forthcoming 4G systems. There are two main responsibilities of the WAL:[78] o First, to compensate for the impairments of the wireless medium and enhance throughput by incorporating transport/link layer control mechanisms and[78] o Second, to control the traffic characteristics according to a set of specified parameters in order to cope with congestion states and achieve a fair allocation of link resources.[78]
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The WAL approach is flexible enough to contemplate the use of an undetermined set of modules for a WAL class, which can be particularised to a specific wireless platform so that it can always bring enhancements and avoid unnecessary functional duplications. Examples of WAL modules can be Forward Error Correction (FEC), Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ), Segmentation And Reassembly (SAR), Traffic Control, and Header Compressor.[78]
6.15 - NTT DocoMo approach

NTT DoCoMos approach is one of equating 4G with 2 MB/s basic rate and 20 MB/s best effort in the downlink. Furthermore, DoCoMo has already a Fifth Generation in mind, again only better in the data rate. In their vision for 2010, DoCoMo introduced the concept of MAGIC Mobile multimedia; anytime, anywhere, anyone; Global Mobility support; integrated wireless solution; and Customised personal service. However, the focus is solely on public systems, as 4G is seen as an extension of 3G cellular service. Besides the need for accommodated the accelerated growth in the demand for broadband wireless connectivity, the focus is on ensuring seamless services provisioning across a multitude of wireless systems and networks from private to public, from indoor to wide area, and providing for optimum delivery via the most appropriate network available.(Figure 6.3)
Vehicular 5G 5G 4th Generation
IMT-2000 Pedestrian Wireless Access
WLAN Stationary 0.1 1 10 100 Mb/s
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Figure 6.3: NTT DoCoMo perspective[83]
Particularly is to cope with the expected growth in machine-to-machine Internet based communications: wireless low power sensors and actuators, Internet appliances and myriad of smart devices, capable of monitoring and interacting with the physical world.[5]
6.16 - The MultiSphere Reference model

During the discussions in preparation of the Book of Visions 2000 it became apparent that a reference model for the Wireless World was needed. As a result the MultiSphere model was sketched out. It should, however, assist in putting the issues and ideas into a common context. Driven by the horizontalisation introduced by 3Gs mobile Internet, future vertical applications and services will draw together a multitude of wireless technologies in an ad-hoc manner. Those elements will be around us like a number of spheres in which we live. In the following paragraphs the various spheres of this model are introduced. As model is intended to reflect our current thinking, no particular technology is mentioned here. o The PAN: The closest interaction with the Wireless World will happen with the elements that are the nearest to us or might even be part of our body. Communication facilities will be contained in clothes and wearable items. On request they will start to discover each other and distribute a common virtual terminal over us. This Personal Area Network (PAN) vision is certainly feasible in todays technology but needs much closer integration with the overall concept. As electronic communication will happen at our body power issues will be critical for PANs together with fast, flexible and automatic configuration and privacy protection. o The Immediate Environment: At the next level we find the elements of the real world around us. Currently we do not interact with them but in future we will expect that they take notice of us, that they start to interact with us and turn into personalised items rather than general-purpose devices. TV sets should know
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what programmes we are interested in, toasters might want to deliver toast with the right level of toasting and fridges might want to tell us what we probably would like to re-order as we might run out of milk over the weekend. As the difficulty of using current technologies is irritating to many people, learning and adapting environments will start to address real and fundamental user needs. While personalisation as a technology might become part of nearly all devices in the future what will be important is the possibility to personalise several devices with a common approach or at the same time rather than individually. Similarly a user will expect at least consistent errors when interacting with devices using speech. Therefore, the immediate ad-hoc environment is to be an important part of the Wireless World model. o Instant Partners: One step further, interaction with people around us as well as with more complex systems like cars. We may want to talk to them or just relay information through them. It is believed that in the future our wireless possibilities should enable an easier and maybe richer interaction with close-by people than with people on the other continent. On the other hand, closeness can also be seen as being part of a close net of people with whom we want to be closely interconnected and where we would like to be kept informed about their wishes and thoughts quickly. Current chat communities are just a glimpse of what people might desire and enter into in the future. o Radio Accesses: What has made mobile communication so successful was the possibility to rely on ubiquitous coverage of a wide area system. This will certainly remain a fundamental requirement. Either directly from the PAN or via the instant partners publicly accessible radio interfaces must be reachable. Current infrastructures might be supplemented by a host of additional commercial ventures like flying base stations high-speed local media points or dedicated road technologies. For these new infrastructure types it will be vital to provide adaptivity to various terminals, simple interaction with the backbone and low, close to zero, operational cost. One might expect to see more specialised radio interfaces that have short innovation cycles.
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o Interconnectivity: The value of communications technologies is sometimes said to grow proportionally to the square of the number of the connected devices. Therefore, it will be a crucial task to maintain universal wireless interconnectivity, as in todays mobile Internet core networks. To offer the right level of support for the various specialised radio interfaces and terminals will be a key requirement. One can therefore see an emerging need for both a radio convergence layer and a number of APIs beside the evolved IP transport and networking layers. Evolutions of interconnectivity in the Wireless World will convey radio interface state specific information to applications and also allow for seamless integration of synchronous direct communication services with asynchronous message based services. o CyberWorld: The outmost sphere, most remote from our immediate real world, represents our CyberWorld. It is soon likely that presence in our self-created CyberWorld will be as important to us as presence in the real world. This trend is already visible if we look at todays explosion of services and the perceived realism of advanced games. In the CyberWorld we can stay in touch with our (semantic) agents, knowledge bases, communities, services and transactions. The Wireless World will be the way for us to become permanent residents in the CyberWorld[85]
6.17 - Users expectations from 4G mobile networks

What kind of life would be lived in 2010 in the advanced countries? Presumably, the signs of information society will appear. Masses of people will be schooled on higher scale so they will able to apply and to value new services, devices and possibilities. Because of existing of demand the informational market rises to significant size and the communication will become a kind of citizen right. Globalisation will show up strongly because the everyday life will be simpler and cheaper. What will an ordinary man see around his world at future date? Some potential scenarios were contrasted and common points are shown hereinafter:
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o New type input/output devices will come up for the sake of fast data exchange (glasses displaying 3D virtual world, collapsible screens, e-paper, voice and handwriting recognition).[86] o New type semiconductor industry will rise (by means of plastic based chip technology the extremely cheap or throwaway electronic tools will be common; 4G terminals will be available for everyone).[86] o Access to the fourth generation mobile systems will be low-priced (advertisements what could be displayed on the screen of 4G terminals means incoming and users should partake for it).[86] o Amount of users will reach a high level.[86] o There will be a heavy competition between applications and service-providers for users.[86] o Quality of Internet access by wire or wireless will be equal or almost the same (quality of content providing will be excellent using a mobile terminal).[86] o Multimedia will be required to the trivial work (multimedia mean a kind of extra information).[86] o Some economic, social or state groups could maintain own part-networks (virtual private networks will be used well at administration, personal data-managing for example mobile ID and voting a president).[86] o It follows that the mobile networks should be stable and dependable, should be available for 24 hour per day.[86] o Conception of a global telecommunication system becomes real; for example a telephone or data call from a jungle to an advanced mega-city should be trouble free (there are ground-settled wired or radio-based backbone network in well built-up areas and anywhere else are satellite-based backbone telecommunication systems). o Easy interconnection of different communication networks).[86] o This effect that the man is not able to vanish in the Earth, but this man could be found easily anywhere he stays.[86] systems (e.g. GPS, Internet, other
6.18 - Fifth Generation (5G)
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What kind of network will the fifth be? It is a difficult question. In the future the mankind will conquer the Outer Space. Many space station will circle round the Earth as nowadays Alpha (International Space Station) does and there will be a lot of people to research new technologies, to do industrial works or to take a cosmic sightseeing. This people would like to communicate and the communication market will find a good answer for their requirements. The fifth generation mobile system will probably be very important in the inter-planet communication (Figure 6.4).[39]
5th Generation 4th Generation

PAN
DVB T DAB
UMTS
GPRS
Satellite
Broadband W-LAN Bluetooth DECT IR
Satellite/HAPS Broadcasting
DVB-S
UMTS++
Broadban d MBS 60 MBS 40 MWS xMDS
Body LANs
Indoor
Local Area Networks
GSM
Cellular
Quasi-Cellular
Wireless Local Loop
Figure 6.4: Fifth Generation (5G)[84]
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Chapter Seven: Threats, Limitations of 3G & 4G Innovation

In this chapter, we will study the alternative technologies to the third generation mobile networks, the limitations of 3G, the characteristics of the fourth generation and the new capabilities of the 4G services.
7.1 - Introduction
Currently we are using and experiencing mainly 2nd Generation technology. To be accurate, we are at a stage when 2G is giving way to the succeeding generations 2.5G and 3G technologies. While 2.5G has been available for the past couple of years 3G is only just beginning to be rolled out in many countries. It is expected to be fully deployed on a worldwide scale by 2005. Thus by 2010 it will be time to deploy 4G networks and working backwards with the ten years cycle, it is clear that the year 2000 was appropriate to start with visions for 4G. But before we start talking about 4G lets take a look at the lessons that we should learn from America, Europe and Asia in order to deploy the best communication system ever.[53] o America lessons: The fixed Internet community has been heavily focused on America Personal computers took-off more rapidly in the US since fixed line telecommunications was first released to free competitions there. With computer networking evolution the US went directly to the Internet unlike France for example which tried to retain its national Minitel system. Today France is still
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way compared to other similar countries in Europe. Although Minitel was a totally successful service, well liked by all users, operators in France have recognised that it will never compete in the long term with the Internet. In the early adoption of broadband solutions to the fixed Internet, again the US is leading. Clearly the Americans lead in the adoption of the fixed Internet and many valuable lessons can be gained from following the fixed Internet experience in the US. o European Lessons: When looking at mobile telephony the roles and development experiences are reversed. What the US did right in the fixed Internet it did wrong in mobile networks and what Europe did wrong in the fixed Internet it did right in the development and growth of mobile phones, especially in the move to a single digital standard. Europe unlike America adopted a common digital mobile standard; GSM allowing easy roaming of services and pricing of services to generate traffic. Many European countries lead the US by a wide margin in mobile phone revenues. A key differentiator in the adoption and use of mobile services in Europe is the invoicing of calls. In the US, cellular phone users have to pay to receive calls. Therefore they tend to keep their phones in the off position and cellular phone users usually have a pager to let them know who wants to call and the phone user will turn on the phone and make a call. This result in very inconvenient use and strongly diminishes the take up and adoption of wireless services. In Europe for the most cases the phone user does not have to pay for receiving calls with the result that phone users keep their mobile phones switched on at all times, allowing for much easier access and immediate, spontaneous contact. This has created a new phenomenon, called reachability. Reachability has been used to explain some of the dramatic unanticipated growth immobile phone use in Europe, not seen in America. People not only use the phone to place outgoing calls which the user can anticipate wanting to make; they also use the phone to receive calls which the user could not anticipate that someone else wants to complete. o Asian lessons: The Chinese and Japanese have been behind in Internet penetration partly because their written characters have been difficult to implement to standard computers using traditional keyboards. Although current WWW browsers and servers support Asian character sets, the WWW hasnt reached the same popularity in these countries as it has in the West. Mobile phones have had
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Chinese and Japanese interfaces become more common in mobile phones there is no reason why the Far East would not rush to the fixed Internet. The sheer size of the Chinese market, for example is such a potential, that a successful new service there can have a dramatic impact on the whole industry. There is constant talk and discussion currently on the overwhelming success of the i-mode service from NTT DoCoMo in Japan. The service has had phenomenal adoption, penetration usage growth and profit numbers. In two years the service accumulated nearly 20 million subscribers, the majority of who are accessing Internet based services for the first time. There are many reasons why the Japanese market may have been particularly suitable for the i-mode service and perhaps not all aspects of the phenomena will replicate globally, but clear early lessons can be learned.
7.2 - The end users willingness to pay for 3G services

The cost structure of wireless systems is quite different from that in the wired
domain. There are reasons to believe that system costs are directly proportional to the total bandwidth provided, as opposed to the flat cost structure of wired systems. More specifically system costs are directly proportional to the number of users times throughput per user. This formula is what has made second-generation cellular technology successful, due the low throughput per user. The infrastructure cost grows linearly with the number of users and the demanded bandwidth. The revenues of the operators, which are proportional to the number of customers, grow roughly at the same rate as the investments are made. That is, the investments made are roughly proportional to the number of users. On the other hand, costs grow linearly with the user bandwidth as well. So with the introduction of third-generation technology this formula flips into a negative spiral. The number of users is approximately the same, but the demand for higher throughputs is expected to rise dramatically. System costs, still proportional to the total throughput, will consequently soar. The consumers of wireless services will expect to receive the same services as he or she receives from a fixed network, but in a wireless fashion. These services will require the substantially larger amount of bandwidth.[93] Thus moving to bandwidth consuming third-generation services would imply much higher system costs, which would have to be reflected in the price that the end users have to pay. Expensive services in combination with consumer reluctance to pay substantially more for bandwidth consuming services will place high importance on
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the pricing models applied. For users to adopt 3G services to large extent, the pricing of new services must be attractive. As we have seen, however, new services are bound to consume an increasing portion of the available resources, and will thus be costly. In this light, underestimating the importance of efficient resource usage would be foolish.[93]
7.3 - Limitations of 3G and drivers for 4G

The first carriers trying to implement 3G have experienced numerous problems and delays, not all directly related to the wireless technology itself. In December, Manx finally switched on its full 3G network, the first in Europe to go live. Also last spring, Japans NTT DoCoMo planned to introduce its next-generation mobile system, based on W-CDMA. However, the company decided to delay commercial activation of the system until 1 October 2001. Meanwhile, NTT DoCoMo had to recall a number of 3G videophones because of a software malfunction. And Vodafone, the worlds biggest wireless carrier, said that recently it might not be able to launch 3G services until 2003. These delays have caused the 3G concept to lose steam in the marketplace recently. A variety of factors will decide whether 3G will succeed as the nextgeneration wireless technology. In a few articles around the world a strong statement for 3G is that the frequent determinants of a technologys success are 60 percent government regulation, 40 percent economics, and the rest, a number of factors appear key to the battle over next-generation wireless technology. technology. In other words, the best technology doesnt always win.
7.3.1 High costs

Various governments in North America, Europe, and parts of Asia have auctioned off licenses to companies that want to use part of the limited 3G spectrum to provide wireless services. Big companies in Europe, such as Deutsche Telekom, France Tlcom, Spains Telefnica, and the UKs Vodafone spent an estimated $125 billion to $150 billion on 3G licenses. Industry observers say the desire to participate in the 3G market, whatever the cost, probably drove telecommunications companies
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to pay very high prices in the German and UK auctions. However, after the excitement from the auctions died down, financial firms began releasing sobering assessments of 3Gs likely financial returns. Soon, credit ratings began falling for some companies that won 3G bids, and this endangered their ability to get loans to pay for the purchases. To recover their costs, some experts say, German and British telecommunications companies may charge consumers high fees for 3G services, which could discourage demand.[19],[20] Market analysts say service providers will probably spend almost as much as they paid for their licenses to buy the necessary equipment and then build their 3Gnetwork infrastructure. One key infrastructure-build-out factor is that 3G uses smaller cells than 2G and thus needs more base stations and transmission towers.[19],[20] Nonetheless, it seems likely that 3G systems will be mainly restricted to urban areas for some years at least, because it will not be economical to install them in large rural areas. Meanwhile, service providers will face another significant challenge in recovering their large license and build-out investments. The global economic decline, particularly in the technology sector, could scare already-nervous investors and stall widespread investment by potential corporate and consumer customers in new wireless technology.[19],[20]
7.3.2 Data problems

It is true that 3G can support multimedia Internet type services at improved speeds and quality compared to 2G. The WCDMA based air-interface has been designed to provide improved high capacity for medium bit rate (384kbit/s) and limited coverage at up to 2Mbit/s (in indoor environments). Statistical multiplexing on the air also improves the efficiency of packet mode transmission. However, there are limitations with 3G as follows:[19],[20] o Extension to higher data rates is difficult with CDMA due to excessive interference between services.[19],[20] o It is difficult to provide a full range of multirate services, all with different QoS and performance requirements due to the constrains imposed on the core network by the air interface standard. For example is not a fully integrated system.[19],[20]
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In addition the bandwidth available in the 2GHz bands allocated for 3G will soon become saturated and there are constrains on the combination of frequency and time division duplex modes imposed by regulators to serve different environments efficiently. Also as users move farther from a base station, interference from other cells will weaken the signal and cause channel errors. In addition, a system that works with both voice and data will not get the maximum throughput. Users demand that wireless voice communications offer the same quality as wireline phone technology. Therefore, wireless systems must devote resources to voice communications quality of service under all circumstances, which reduces maximum data performance.[19],[20]
7.3.3 No killer application

3G should have a killer application, but none has yet emerged. Service providers and the needs of the end user will drive the emergence of killer applications. The best answer in my opinion is that there is unlikely to be a single killer application for 3G. The advantage of 3G will be its ability to support a wide variety of different applications, and that there will be the killer characteristic of 3G. Meanwhile, early 3G PDAs will be more expensive than current-generation PDAs, which could limit the new technologys early adoption. One factor will be the higher cost of the application-specific integrated circuits used in 3G devices. Security and privacy will be concerns for 3G, as they are with any networking technology, especially one that has been untested. Other potential problems will be assuring quality of service and congestion control throughout a network that consists of many vendors.[19],[20] Finally, with high build-out costs, carriers will need time to bring service to a large number of areas. However, many users may not adopt 3G until they can use it widely. For example, some industry observers say that 3G wont take off in the US until users can work with it in every major urban area.[19],[20]
7.4 - Other technologies
A key threat to 3Gs success is the possibility that users will decide to get wireless services from other types of technology.
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7.4.1 Wireless LANs

Unlike 3G, WLAN technologies-such as ETSIs HiperLAN (highperformance radio LAN,-provide network services via corporate-type networks. Therefore, 3G is not designed to compete directly against WLANs. WLANs and mobile networks are complementary services, targeted to different device types and different environments. However, some industry observers say that many potential 3G users who have access to WLANs may prefer to get their wireless services via the latter. Although 3G is not designed to compete with WLAN, it will have to do so. WLANs are growing in popularity and thus have a head start defining highperformance wireless data services in the marketplace. Users will become accustomed to WLAN services and wont want to give them up. Also, users will want to receive wireless services from a technology that, like WLANs, will look like Ethernet and acts like a corporate network. And although WLANs are currently private networks, they eventually would become public networks, which would generate more competition for 3G technology. WLANs principal advantage over 3G is that the cost of deployment is low. However, WLAN technology is not suited for wide-area coverage and is better suited for indoor, rather than outdoor, environments.[84] In addition, WLANs use an unlicensed spectrum. If the networks become popular, they will be sharing a very limited frequency range, which could lead to signal interference. However, other spectra may be available for WLANs in the future. Meanwhile, WLANs may have trouble attracting potential 3G users unless vendors develop more mobility-oriented applications, such as programs that locate the nearest restaurants, rather than just wireless versions of desktop software.[84]
7.4.2 (2.5) Generation

Companies and standards organisations have developed several so-called 2.5G systems as upgrades to existing 2G technologies. Numerous wireless service providers offer 2.5G services in such places as Australia, China, Europe, Japan, New Zealand, and North America. Like 3G, 2.5G is always on, provides simultaneous voice and data, and delivers more speed than todays circuit-switched data connections. 2.5G offers more bandwidth than 2G but less than 3G. Service providers can implement 2.5G much less expensively than 3G because the former uses existing 2G spectra and
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doesnt require a new network infrastructure, although some system upgrades are necessary. Some providers see 2.5G as a stepping stone or introduction to 3G. For others, its an adequate alternative that may let them skip 3G altogether. One problem, is that 2.5G technologies were not designed to optimally handle voice and data communications simultaneously and can also experience latency problems. Also, because 3G is capable of offering greater bandwidth than 2.5G, the quality of video will be considerably greater. The most prominent 2.5G technologies are, GPRS, and EDGE. GPRS systems are under development in many areas. However, some carriers have experienced the build-out delays and cost increases that have plagued 3G rollouts. In addition, GPRS doesnt work with most existing GSM phones because the handsets dont have the necessary capabilities yet, although this is starting to change. This change could be problematic, though, because existing GSM phones dont have the packet-data capabilities necessary to work with GPRS and the GSM industry has had a hard time developing this stuff.
7.4.3 Bluetooth
Bluetooth is the key to enabling wireless personal area networks (WPAN) that connect devices in close proximity or short-range radio devices. WPAN is being standardised by the IEEE 805.15 working group and is largely based in the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG) specifications. Bluetooth encompasses both a standard communications interface and a low-cost computer chip. Bluetooth operates in the globally available 2.45 GHz ISM 'free band' and provides low-cost, low power, robust, secure, efficient, high capacity, ad hoc voice and data networking of up to 1 Mb/sec, in a range of 10 meters. It does not require line of site allowing devices to communicate with each other from pockets, bags and around corners. Bluetooth has been seen to have great potential but as yet that is all it is - potential. The early challenges of cost and interoperability are being tackled and all the signs are that they are being met. Bluetooth is poised to deliver on its core promise. Bluetooth supports a wide range of applications, some more likely to see success than others. The benefits of simply becoming wireless are likely to be seen to be considerable whilst Bluetooths support for voice applications is likely to be a major advantage that is often overlooked. Bluetooth is set to be well integrated with WAN (3G, GSM) and LAN (802.11b, 802.11a, HiperLan/2) technologies with many
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of the providers of both seeing Bluetooth as highly complementary. It also has widespread support at application platform level (operating systems, Java and WAP). Bluetooth is by its nature not designed to carry heavy traffic loads. It is not suitable as a replacement to LAN-, WAN- and Backbone cables. Nor is it, by its nature, suitable in server-based applications. The emphasis in Bluetooth is on mobile, re-configurable computerised units that need sporadic contact with each other.
7.5 - WAP vs. i-mode

For long now, there is a debate, about the existence of i-mode or WAP as a technology. The version of WAP (Version 1.1) has not been widely taken up by consumers; despite wide spread support from (Particularly European) hardware manufactures, which includes telephone companies. In contrast to this the i-mode mobile Internet system, introduced by NTT DoCoMo in Japan, has been a huge success, with over 20 million users. The i-mode standard is much more an adaptation of existing Internet standards than is WAP. The factors for initial take off in Japan, were partly cultural and partly due to low levels of conventional Internet uses. However the superiority and openness of the Japanese technology was also clearly a factor. I-mode uses a version of the worldwide webs display language HTML called c-HTML. This contains a few modifications to make it work better on mobile devices, but is essentially the same language. If the browser attempts to look at a web page that has not been specifically designed for i-mode, the browser shows something that is usually legible, and the transformation of the content onto a wireless enabled environment takes only a few changes.[21],[47] It is becoming steadily clearer that version 1.1 of WAP is going to be replaced with a version 2, which uses something close to standard Internet Protocols. At this point, I believe WAP and i-mode will essentially merge. The merged outcome will be very similar to i-mode, even if it is called WAP. The existing WAP approach gives phone companies control over the gateway, and control over what content and applications can and cannot use the network. This also reduces the ability of users to design new content and applications. Maybe the future will be another protocol such as SIP but for now WAP and i-mode the winner is definitely i-mode.[21],[47]
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7.6 - Services should be personalised

The personal attribute for a service makes it feel to the user that it is genuinely unique to that person. If one is a tennis player, then services about tennis, or advertisements, discounts, maps to tennis courses, tennis weather etc can be of use. But if the person does not care about football, then similar news, advertising and content about football is irrelevant. It is very important to build services for the particular interest of the user, and to try to focus the users interests very precisely. Many degrees of this personalisation can occur. For example if the person likes fashion, then probably fashion news and advertising is welcome. If the person likes Italian shoes and handbags, and the fashion content is filtered so that not even French shoes or Italian scarves are included, the more personal it becomes and thus more relevant. What is important to recognise at the start of the data services revolution we are entering is that although everyone has their own specific and individual needs, in effect their own personal profile, the capabilities of the network and the operators organisation and processes is evolving. Personalisation will start with new segments around lifestyles such as sports, business, music and games and evolve into more targeted and personalised offers. This will be made easier as the networks become more technologically sophisticated, the content delivery platforms become more flexible and the mobile terminals have new features.
7.7 - 4G vision
4G (4th Generation Communication Systems) represents the future of mobile communications in the longer term. 4G is an attempt to evolve, integrate and amalgamate the current 2G, the soon to be released, broadcast, WLAN, short-range and fixed wire systems into a single, fully functional, seamless internetwork. 4G is NOT a complete overhaul of all old technology. It involves a mix of current concepts and technologies in the making. Some of these are derived from 3G and hence are evolutionary, while others are totally new concepts and can be thought of as revolutionary.[37] 4G will feature a scalable, flexible, efficient, autonomous, secure and featurerich backbone to support a multitude of existing and new services and to interface
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with many different types of networks. It will offer fully converged services (voice, data, and multimedia) at data rates of up to 100 Mbps and ubiquitous mobile access to a vast array of user devices autonomous networks.[37]
7.8 - Characteristics of 4G
o Fully Converged Services: A wide range of services will be available to the mobile user conveniently and securely via the 4G Core Network. Personal communications, information systems and entertainment will seem to be merged into a seamless pool of content.[50] o Ubiquitous Mobile Access: 4G aims to provide access to multimedia services anytime anywhere. Devices will not simply rely on cellular reception. Improved radio access technology as well as integration of all types of communication networks allows for virtually constant connectivity to the 4G core backbone. Mobile handsets will be intelligent and software-reconfigurable on the fly to allow them to interface with different types of networks on the move. Also, there will be full cross compatibility on a world-wide scale since each type of network has a gateway to the IP backbone.[50] o Software Dependency: Advanced software systems are employed for all purposes - network operation, service provision, interfacing and integration, etc. Not only the Core Network but also the mobile devices will be highly intelligent as well as re-configurable via software.[50] o Diverse User Devices: A defining feature of 4G will be the proliferation of a vast array of devices that are capable of accessing the 4G backbone. Wireless capabilities will be embedded into devices that we wouldn't even consider today. Not only personal devices like phones, PDAs, laptops, etc. but also sensors, embedded controllers and other specialised equipment. The point behind this is to allow them to autonomously communicate with each other. By building in sophisticated software, they will be able to automatically initiate timely actions. Autonomous Networks: While user devices are highly intelligent, the core network will also be very sophisticated. It will be capable of managing itself and dynamically adapting to changing network conditions and user preferences for seamless communication. Apart from evolved mobility management, connection
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control, hand-over mechanisms, etc, dynamic bandwidth allocation will make far more efficient use of the available radio spectrum.[50]
7.9 - 4G Services
4G data rates will between a few Mbps and 100 Mbps, hence the level of service that can be offered is quite tremendous. Apart from 3G services like World Wide Web, Email, and wireless E-commerce this data rate is quite adequate to support the high QoS levels required for high-resolution multimedia traffic. Broadcast services will most likely become on-demand infotainment services. Videoconferencing services will be of high quality and almost as good as meeting in person. Ad Hoc networking (dynamic formation of wireless networks between wireless devices without any central infrastructure or administration) will allow for Personal Area Networks, in-house networks and the like, which allow wireless devices to perform various activities autonomously. Alarm notification, sensor data acquisition and remote control of home appliances are some of the possibilities. It is more than likely that mobile services that have not even been envisaged will exist in 4G.[50] By the year 2010, one of the key enabling technology developments will be embedded radio. Embedded radio will eventually become as common as embedded microprocessors are today, with perhaps 50 such devices in the typical home, the user being mostly unaware of their presence. As they interact, in response to the user arriving home for example, they will form a Home Area Network (HAN). Similarly, such devices will be present in large numbers in vehicles (the Vehicular Area Network or VAN), in personal belongings (the Personal Area Network or PAN), in the public environment etc. Such chips will serve as a means of short range communication between objects and devices, offering capabilities for monitoring and control, in most cases without the knowledge or intervention of the user. As a person moves between these environments such short-range links will allow their personal profiles and preferences to move with them, with the hotel room automatically configuring itself to their personal preferred temperatures, TV channels/interests, lighting etc. However the integration of such links with wide area mobile access will enable far more powerful service concepts, as mobile agents access this pervasive network of sensors and access information on the users behalf to perform and even pre-empt their needs and wishes.[50]
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In the 1G to 2G transition, as well as a transition from analogue to digital we saw a mono-service to multiservice transition. From 2G to 3G, as well as a monomedia to multimedia transition we are also seeing a transition from personto-person to person-to-machine interactions, with users accessing video, Internet/intranet and database feeds. The 3G to 4G transition, supported by such technologies, will see a transition towards a predominance of automated and autonomously initiated machineto-machine interactions.[50]
7.10 - Economic Implications

Apart from the technological challenges there are a number of economic and political challenges that will also come into play. It is not just a case of best technology prevails. The situation in a decades time could be such that strict adherence to standards is not practised despite years of effort for a streamlined unified standard. In fact, it may not be practical for a single unified standard to operate. Instead, quick and easy software solutions are found for continued interoperability. This is a very open situation where developments occur freely and uncontrolled. This can only be fuelled by the availability of software solutions and high user demand and support in all sectors. Alternately, it could be the case that tight regulation is needed in light of personal integrity and security issues. Central bodies may have to place the technology developers and distributors under tight scrutiny to make sure they conform to the rules. This, and higher complexity of systems resulting from the lack of an open environment, may push prices up too. Assuming that widely accessible and affordable systems are in place within the next decade 4G systems will have a major effect on the economy and the way business is carried out. Higher levels of efficiency will be facilitated by the superior communications systems. For example, video Telephony will eliminate or reduce the need for 'face-to-face' meetings and the information and transaction services will be availability on the move.
7.11 - Conclusion
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A key to any future wireless technologys success will be whether users can access interesting or important content with it. In fact, systems could succeed or fail not because of the technology but because of the lack of desirable content. The issue is whether content providers will be able to offer compelling material and whether users will want to bother accessing it over wireless, rather than traditional wireline, networks.
Chapter Eight: Conclusion

8.1 - Conclusion
The mobile phone has become part of everybodys personal outfit, taken everywhere and kept close at all times. This connectedness has brought about a new immediacy and the ability to always communicate. The services that will be delivered by UMTS will greatly enhance this customer experience creating a richer communication environment. In the world where multiple connectedness has become the normal it is even more important to be able to network or to build personal network and manage those relationships in new and efficient ways. When the Industrial Age was turning into the Information Age, information was collected and processed, but not delivered for further handling, controlling information was power. In the late Middle Ages the cardinals and other religious leaders were the epitome of this type of structure as they were the only ones able to read Latin and thus controlled information flow. The last vestiges of those who still believe in hoarding and controlling information are now being totally destroyed. The Information Age is now changing into the Connected Age; the age of the converged UMTS Mobile Internet. In the Connected Age sharing information is power. It is the latest evolution of the information Age, the Computer Age, the Networked Computer Age, the Mobile Age, and the Converged Age. Where we stand now there is the traditional fixed Internet and the new UMTS Mobile Internet. These two overlap, but eventually there will be more connected devices in the UMTS mobile world than on the fixed Internet. Mobile communication services are the fastest growing market segment in telecommunications technological evolution and global standardisation. Mobile
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multimedia services will change the world we live in. Highly attractive applications and the convergence of networks, technologies and services will be the key to a seamless mobility for the user and thus opening mass markets for mobile communications. An increased focus on the customer interaction is now considered to be one of the keys to competitive success. Customer-centric business processes, however, must be based on dealing with people on their own terms using verbal, visual and text-based sales channels supported by multimedia systems. For suppliers of personalisation technology it has the potential to increase revenues and bring about the Holy Grail of user stickiness and persistence sought by Internet service providers and on-line businesses. But creating successful wireless applications is not only about the technologies involved. Many other things need to come together, and we must not assign a low priority to the business aspects. Understanding the different players of the mobile Internet and how to work with them is one of the key success factors. But of course we dont stop here people and industry should look Beyond 3G to find everything that the 3G will not deliver. This Beyond 3G vision should exploit two complementary approaches: one based on evolution through a network-centric view and the other based on the recently introduced user-centric view. The person-to-person communication concept needs to be enhanced to include person-to-machine networking for ubiquitous connectivity to Internet services. Interworking between access networks implementing enhanced versions of current technologies for broadcast, cellular and short range communications should provide a good first solution for Beyond 3G services. This technologies map can be extended to include access technologies for transmission at more than 50 Mbit/s for fast moving users as well as ultra wide band system for wide area coverage. However it is always dangerous to predict too far ahead in a fast moving field such as mobile communications. Almost by definition the eventual 2010 scene will not match exactly that depicted in the 4G vision described in chapter 6. Although, I feel that the key elements-fully converged services, ubiquitous mobile access, diverse user devices, autonomous networks, flexibility, adaptability and interworking for up seamless service provision across several access systems up to very high data rates for hot spot applications and software dependency- will persist. My 4G vision has been
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based on migration from 3G, on drivers and deficiencies of the latter system, and on perceived user trends. By sharing my knowledge about 3G and 4G with you, I hope to spur your imagination and lead you to many creative ideas. Hopefully, closing this dissertation means that your imagination is opened for many new and exciting things. Good luck!
Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations

1st Generation 2nd Generation 2.5 Generation 3rd Generation 3rd Generation Partnership Project 3rd Generation Partnership Project 2 4th Generation Access Control Amplitude Modulation Advance Mobile Phone System Application Programming Interface Average Revenue Per User Automatic Repetition Request American Standard Code for Information Interchange Asynchronous Transfer Mode Authentication Centre Broadband ISDN Bit Error Rate Base Station Controller Base Station Subsystem Base Transceiver Station Customised Application for Mobile Enhanced Logic Call Control International Consultative committee on Radio International Consultative committee for Telephony and Telegraphy Code Division Multiple Access Call Forwarding Mobile busy Call Forwarding No Reply Call Forwarding 123
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1G 2G 2.5G 3G 3GPP 3GPP2 4G AC AM AMPS API ARPU ARQ ASCII ATM AuC B-ISDN BER BSC BSS BTS CAMEL CC CCIR CCITT CDMA CFB CFNRy CF
CHOLD CNIP CNIR CNOP CNOR CS CT CTIA CW DCS DECT DM DPCM DPSK DSP DTMF DWDM DWOS EDGE EIR EU ETSI FCC FDD FDM FDMA FM FH FPLMTS FSK FDMA GERAN GGSN GMSC GMSK GPRS GSM GSNs HLR HPLMN HSCSD
Call Holding Calling number identification presentation Calling Number Identification Restriction Connected Number Identification Presentation Connected Number Identification Restriction Capability Set Cordless Telephony Cellular Telecommunication industry Association Call Waiting Digital Cellular System Digital European Cordless Telecommunications Delta Modulation Differential PCM Differential PSK Digital Signal Processing Dual-tone multi-frequency Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing Digital Wireless Office Systems Enhanced Data-rate for GSM Evolution Equipment Identity Register European Union European Telecommunications Standards Institute Federal Communications Commission Frequency Division Duplex Frequency Division Multiplexing Frequency Division Multiple Access Frequency Modulation Frequency hopping Future Public Land Mobile Telecommunications Systems Frequency Shift Keying Frequency-Division Multiple Access GSM/EDGE Radio Access Network Gateway GPRS Support Node Gateway Mobile Services Switching Centre Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying General Packet Radio Service Global System for Mobile Communications GPRS Support Nodes Home Location Register Home Public Land Mobile Network High Speed Circuit Switched Data 124
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http IEC IETF IM IMEI IMS IMSI IN INAP IP IPv6 IS-95 ISDN ITU IWF LA LAN MAC MAP ME MBS MS MSC N-ISDN OFDM OSA OSI OSS PAN PCM PCN PCS PDM PDP PIM PIN PLMN PSTN QoS QPSK RAN
Hypertext Transfer Protocol International electro-technical commission Internet Engineering Task Force Instant Messaging International Mobile Station Equipment Identity Internet Multimedia Subsystem International Mobile Subscriber Identity Intelligent Network IN application part IP Internet protocol Internet protocol IP version 6 CDMA cellular system standard USA Integrated Services Digital Network International Telecommunications Union Interworking Function Location area Local Area Network Medium Access Control Mobile Application Part Mobile Equipment Mobile Broadband Systems Mobile Station Mobile Switching Centre Narrowband ISDN Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing Open System Architecture Open Systems Interconnect Operational Subsystem Personal Area Network Pulse Code Modulation Personal Communication Network Personal Communication Service Packet Division Multiplexed Packet Data protocol Personal Information Management Personal Identification Number Public Land Mobile Network Public Switched Telephone Network Quality of Service Quadrature Phase Shift Keying Radio Access Network 125
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RNC SAP SAR SCE SCP SDP SSF SGSN SIM SIP SMS SNR SSP: SS7 TACS TCP TDD TDM TDMA UE UIM Um UMTS UTRA UTRAN VHE VLR VoIP VPN WAL WAPs WAP WIN WINE WLAN WML WWRF
Radio Network Controller Service Access Point Segmentation And Reassembly Service Creation Environment Service Control Point Service Date Point Service Switching Function Service GPRS Support Node Subscriber Identity Module Session Initiation Protocol Short Message Service Signal to Noise Ratio Service Switching Point Signalling system No 7 Total Access Communications System Transmission Control Protocol Time Division Duplex Time Division Multiplexing Time Division Multiple Access User Equipment Universal Identity Module Air interface to the mobile user Universal Mobile Telecommunications System UMTS Terrestrial Radio Interface Universal Terrestrial Radio Access Network Virtual Home Environment Visitor Location Register Voice over IP Virtual Private Network Wireless Application Layer Wireless Access Points Wireless Access Protocol Wireless Intelligent Networks Wireless Internet Network Wireless LAN Wireless Markup Language Wireless World Research Forum
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References
[1] Kaaranen, Heikki Ahtiainen, Ari Laitinen, Lauri Naghian, Siamak Valtteri, Nieme: UMTS Networks, Architecture, Mobility and Services (John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, UK, 2001) [2] Castro, Jonathan: The UMTS Network and Radio Access Technology, Air Interface Techniques for future Mobile Systems (John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, UK, 2001) [3] Wilkinson, Neill: Next Generation Network Services, Technologies & Strategies (John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, UK, 2002) [4] Gralla, Preston: How Wireless Works (Que Corporation, USA, 2002) [5] Andersson, Christoffer: GPRS and 3G Wireless Applications ( John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, USA, 2001) [6] Schneiderman, Ron: Wireless Personal Communications, The Future of Talk (IEEE Press, USA, 1994) [7] ETSI TS 101285 V7.2.0, Digital cellular telecommunications system (Phase2+); CAMEL; Service definition; (Release 1998), (available from: http://www.etsi.org) [8] ETSI TS 123107 V3.7.0, Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS); Quality of Service (QoS) concept and architecture; (Release 1999), (available from: http://www.etsi.org) [9] Ericsson Review No. 3, 1999, Nilsson, Mats: Third-generation radio access standards, (available from: http://www.ericsson.com/about/publications/review/1999_03/files/1999031.pdf) [10] Wireless World, CDMA Technology, TDMA to CDMA2000 White Paper: (available from: http://www.cdg.org/tech/shosteck/overview.asp) [11] Ericsson Australia: Introduction, What is 3G, The Evolution to 3G, (available from: http://www.ericsson.com.au/technologies/3G/3g_evolution.shtml) [12] BT Technol. J Volume 14, No3, July 1996, Fenton, C.J. Johnston W. Gilliland J.D.: Mobile data services. (available from: http://www.sc-server1.bt.com/bttj/archive.htm)
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[13] National Wireless Engineering Conference: Global System for Mobile Communication, (available from: http://www.iec.org/online/tutorials/gsm/) [14] Tektronix: Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) Protocols and Protocol Testing, (available from: http://www.iec.org/online/tutorials/umts/) [15] International Engineering Consortium: Cellular Communications, (available from: http://www.iec.org/online/tutorials/cell_comm/) [16] Web Page, Dugenie, Pasca - Munro, Alistair Jackson, David Edwards: QoS Issues in UMTS, (available from: http://www.een.bris.ac.uk/UMPTIDUMPTI/data/deliverables/d31/d31.html) [17] Federal Communication Commission (FCC),: Third Generation Wireless (3G), (available from: http://www.fcc.gov/3G/) [18] UMTSWorld:3G and UMTS Frequently http://www.umtsworld.com/umts/faq.htm) Asked Questions, (available from:
[19] ZDNet UK News:3G: We're off to see the future! Technical adventures on the yellow brick road to the third generation of handhelds and phones, (available from: http://news.zdnet.co.uk/story/0,,s2080980,00.html) [20] ZDNet UK News:3G: What's the payoff? Soaring licensing costs leave observers wondering how wireless providers will ever make their money back, (available from: http://news.zdnet.co.uk/story/0,,t269-s2080984,00.html) [21] i-mode versus WAP, (available from: http://www.netlight.se/imodevswap.html) [22] GSM / GPRS / EDGE / UMTS, (available from: http://www.netlight.se/gsm.html) [23] BT Technol. J Volume 19, No1, January 1999, Lobley, N.C.:GSM to UMTS - evolution to support multimedia, (available from: http://www.sc-server1.bt.com/bttj/archive.htm) [24] BT Technol. J Volume 14 No 3 July 1996,Goetz, I.: Mobile network transmission quality, (available from: http://www.sc-server1.bt.com/bttj/archive.htm) [25] Ericsson Review 2001:If the medium is the message, what does the SMS say, (available from:http://www.ericsson.com.au/about/media_centre/white_papers/articles/release_2001062 9_sms.shtml) [26] NOKIA White Paper: Nokia s vision of providing end-to-end Quality of Service in 3G, (available from: http://www.nokia.com/networks/systems_and_solutions/files/white_papers/ Nokia s_vision_of_providing_end_to_end_quality_of_service_in_3G.pdf) [27] Ericsson White Paper: Multi Service switching: The foundation of next-generation networks, (available from: http://www.ericsson.com/datacom/emedia/multiservice switching.doc)
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'Evolution of Services and Architectures Throughout Mobile Generations''

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University College London

Department of Electronic and Electrical

Master of Science in Telecommunications

Evolution of Services and Architectures Throughout Mobile Generations

Author: Konstantinos Rigas

Supervisor: Dr Lionel Sacks Industrial Supervisor: Mr. Mehdi Khorasani

Evolution of Services and Architectures Throughout Mobile Generations

Konstantinos Rigas UCL August 2002

Evolution of Services and Architectures Throughout Mobile Generations

Chapter Two: Cellular Concept.................................................................................... 5

Chapter Three: 2G Architectures & Services ............................................................ 12

Chapter Four: 2.5G Architectures & Services ........................................................... 27

Evolution of Services and Architectures Throughout Mobile Generations

4.9 - Moving towards 2.5 Generation ....................................................................................43

Chapter Five: 3G Architecture & Services ................................................................ 44

Chapter Six: 4G Architectures & Services ................................................................. 76

Chapter Seven: Threats, Limitations of 3G & 4G Innovation................................. 108

Evolution of Services and Architectures Throughout Mobile Generations

Chapter Eight: Conclusion........................................................................................ 121

Evolution of Services and Architectures Throughout Mobile Generations

Evolution of Services and Architectures Throughout Mobile Generations

Chapter One: Introduction

Evolution of Services and Architectures Throughout Mobile Generations

1.2 - Project Aims

1.3 - Overview of the dissertation

Evolution of Services and Architectures Throughout Mobile Generations

Evolution of Services and Architectures Throughout Mobile Generations

Chapter Two: Cellular Concept

2.1 - The Evolution of Mobile Telephone Systems

Evolution of Services and Architectures Throughout Mobile Generations

Evolution of Services and Architectures Throughout Mobile Generations

Digital trunked radio TETRA

Mobile data network Mobile IP,Wireless LAN Bluetooth

Private Mobile Radio

Analog Cellular Systems

Analog cordless phones

Satellite systems Inmarsat

Figure 2.1: Development of mobile telephone systems.[1]

Evolution of Services and Architectures Throughout Mobile Generations

2.2 - Cellular Concept

Evolution of Services and Architectures Throughout Mobile Generations

Figure 2.2: Cellular layout[15] MSc in Telecommunications

Evolution of Services and Architectures Throughout Mobile Generations

Figure 2.3: A "real" cellular layout[

2.3 - Circuit-switched and Packet-switched networks

Evolution of Services and Architectures Throughout Mobile Generations

Evolution of Services and Architectures Throughout Mobile Generations

Chapter Three: 2G Architectures & Services

3.1 - Introduction to GSM

Evolution of Services and Architectures Throughout Mobile Generations

3.2 - GSM Network Architecture

3.2.1 Mobile Station

3.2.2 Base Station Subsystem

3.2.3 Network Subsystem

Evolution of Services and Architectures Throughout Mobile Generations

Figure 3.1: GSM Network Architecture[62]

3.3 - GSM Radio-Link aspects

Evolution of Services and Architectures Throughout Mobile Generations

3.3.1 GSM Speech Coding

3.4 - North American standards:

Evolution of Services and Architectures Throughout Mobile Generations

3.4.1 CDMA-based Digital Cellular System IS-95