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CDvvci Ainvcicicc.

VoIume o, umler , Augusfcfoler i,,,


i,,, ly The Wenner-Cren !oundafIon lor AnfhropoIogIcaI Research. AII rIghfs reserved ooii-jzo[,,[oo-oooi$z.o
IelafIng SeIl,
IdenfIfy, and CuIfure
In AnfhropoIogy
1
ly NarfIn So IeleId
ThIs paper expIores reIafIons lefveen ''IdenfIfy and ''seIlcon-
cepfs fhaf fend fo le approached separafeIy In anfhropoIogIcaI
dIscourse. In fhe concepfuaIIzafIon ol fhe seIl, fhe ''Wesfern
seIl, characferIzed as aufonomous and egocenfrIc, Is generaIIy
faIen as a poInf ol deparfure. on-Wesfern concepfs ol] seIves
fhe seIves ol fhe peopIe anfhropoIogy fradIfIonaIIy sfudIesare
deLned ly fhe negafIon ol fhese quaIIfIes. SImIIar fo anfhropoIog-
IcaI concepfuaIIzafIons ol IdenfIfy, fhIs undersfandIng ol non-
Wesfern seIves poInfs excIusIveIy fo eIemenfs shared vIfh ofhers
and nof fo IndIvIduaI leafures. ConsequenfIy, anfhropoIogIcaI dIs-
course dIverfs affenfIon lrom acfuaI IndIvIduaIs and seIves. A dIl-
lerenf approach Is exempIILed ly a case lrom norfhern aIIsfan
In a socIaI seffIng characferIzed ly a pIuraIIfy ol confradIcfory
IdenfIfIes. If Is argued fhaf an anaIysIs ol hov a parfIcuIar IndI-
vIduaI acfs In sIfuafIons InvoIvIng confradIcfory IdenfIfIes re-
quIres a concepf ol a seIl as If emerges lrom fhe acfIons ol IndI-
vIduaIs fhaf Is capalIe managIng fhe respecfIveIy shared
IdenfIfIes. BesIdes any cuIfure-specILc affrIlufes, fhIs seIl Is en-
doved vIfh reLexIvIfy and agency. ThIs concepf ol seIl Is a nec-
essary suppIemenf fo fhe concepf ol cuIfure In anfhropoIogy and
shouId le regarded as a human unIversaI.
mAvii sc xcrcir feaches af fhe InsfIfufe ol SocIaI AnfhropoI-
ogy ol fhe InIversIfy ol Hamlurg hIs address: Kamersfu cIen z8,
zz8, Hamlurg, Cermany jmarfIn.soeIeleId}oIce.nef|]. Born In
i,6, he receIved hIs N.A. lrom fhe InIversIfy ol CoIogne In
i,,o and hIs h.I. lrom fhe InIversIfy ol Tu lIngen In i,,;. He
has done LeIdvorI In CIIgIf, aIIsfan i,,i,z, i,,z,j], and
has pulIIshed n Iobyrnr| von Idenrro ren n Nordo|ron.
Zvc|en Iondberz, Fe|gon und Koc|mrKonh|r Ko In:
Ko ppe, i,,;], '' 'The eopIe Who ReaIIy BeIong fo CIIgIf: Theo-
refIcaI and fhnographIc erspecfIves on IdenfIfy and ConLIcf,
In Tronformoron of Soco| ond conomc Fe|oron| n
Norr|ern Po|ron, edIfed ly Irmfraud SfeIIrechf and Hans-Ceorg
BohIe Ko In: Ko ppe, i,,8], and ''n fhe Concepf 'fhnIc
Croup, In Koro|orumHndu|u|Hmo|oyo. Dynomc of
C|onge, edIfed ly Irmfraud SfeIIrechf Ko In: Ko ppe, In press].
The presenf paper vas sulmIffed iz vii ,8 and accepfed i x ,8,
fhe LnaI versIon reached fhe dIfors olLce zj x ,8.
i. I vouId IIIe fo fhanI KafrIn Crafz, BeafrIx Hauser, and Ceorg
Sfo ler as veII as fhe anonymous relerees lor crIfIcaIIy readIng an
earIIer versIon ol fhe paper. The paper vas much Improved ly fheIr
suggesfIons. !or many dIscussIons ol fhe fopIc I am grafeluI fo
Beafe ReInhoId. The fexf Is an oufcome ol reLecfIon alouf LeId
research In orfhern aIIsfan vhIch vas generousIy lunded ly fhe
Ieufsche !orschungsgemeInschalf.
i;
The concepf ''IdenfIfy has undergone a paradIgmafIc
shIlf In recenf decades. rIgInaIIy, Ifs meanIng vas
''sameness, and In psychoIogy fhIs sameness meanf
''seIlsameness. IdenfIfy vas undersfood as a dIsposI-
fIon ol lasIc personaIIfy leafures acquIred mosfIy dur-
Ing chIIdhood and, once Infegrafed, more or Iess Lxed.
ThIs IdenfIfy made a human leIng a person and an acf-
Ing IndIvIduaI. InconsIsfency ol personaIIfyfhaf Is,
nonsameness ol fhe seIl, nonIdenfIfyvas regarded as
dIsfurlance or even psychIc IIIness. In socIaI anfhropoI-
ogy, fhe concepf ''IdenfIfy vas used mosfIy In fhe con-
fexf ol ''efhnIc IdenfIfy. Here If poInfed nof sImpIy fo
seIlsameness luf fo fhe sameness ol fhe seIl vIfh ofh-
ers, fhaf Is, fo a conscIousness ol sharIng cerfaIn charac-
ferIsfIcs a Ianguage, a cuIfure, efc.] vIfhIn a group. ThIs
conscIousness made up a groups IdenfIfy. These under-
sfandIngs vere compIemenfary rafher fhan confradIc-
fory and Lffed veII fogefher, as fhe group fo vhIch a
person leIonged consfIfufed an Imporfanf parf ol fhe so-
cIaI envIronmenf In vhIch and fhrough vhIch personaI
IdenfIfy vas lormed. rII H. rIIson comlIned fhe fvo:
''The ferm 'IdenfIfy expresses such a mufuaI reIafIon
In fhaf If connofes lofh a persIsfenf sameness vIfhIn
oneseIl seIlsameness] and a persIsfenf sharIng ol some
IInd ol essenfIaI characferIsfIcs vIfh ofhers rIIson
i,8o:io,]. Common fo fhe usage ol fhe ferm ''IdenfIfy
In fhe fvo dIscIpIInes vas fhaf IdenfIfy vas lasIcaIIy
one.
In fhe uropean hIsfory ol Ideas, fhe nofIon ol fhe
sameness ol fhe seIl had had loundafIonaI quaIIfIes
sInce Iescarfess Medrorone. The cognIzIng seIl ego,
I], cerfaIn ol Ifs exIsfence fhrough Ifs ovn acfs ol
cognIfIon, lecame fhe varranfy agaInsf an amlIguous
and decepfIve vorId ol fhIngs. ThIs varranfy vas vaIId
onIy on fhe condIfIon fhaf ego remaIned fhe same,
fhaf Is, IdenfIcaI. The seIl fhus lecame ubjecr In fhe
duaI sense ol leIng sul}ecfed fo fhe condIfIons ol fhe
vorId and, sImuIfaneousIy, leIng fhe agenf ol InovIng
and doIng In fhaf vorId. The leIIel In fhIs sul}ecf le-
came fhe a prIorI lor fhe possIlIIIfy ol InovIng fhe
vorId.
The mefanarrafIve ol fhe IdenfIcaI sul}ecf vas LnaIIy
desfroyed ly posfsfrucfuraIIsf deconsfrucfIon. NIcheI
!oucauIf anaIyzed fhe sul}ecf nof as fhe source and
loundafIon ol InovIedge luf as IfseIl a producf or ellecf
ol nefvorIs ol pover and dIscourse i,;,:j, i,8o:,8].
In confemporary fexfs on IdenfIfy, fhe concepf seems
nof fo exIsf In fhe sInguIar. Whereas If vas once deLned
ly sameness and unIfy, lofh quaIIfIes have gIven vay
fo dIllerence and pIuraIIfy. sychoIogy has furned Ifs af-
fenfIon fo mu|r|e IdenfIfIes Cergen i,,, NeIuccI
i,,;, Rosenlerg i,,;]vhIch, accordIng fo fhe vords
convenfIonaI meanIng, Is a confradIcfIon In ferms. The
confemporary seIl Is depIcfed as lragmenfed }ameson
i,8], essenfIaIIy LuId and many-sIded, as In LIlfons
''profean seIl i,,j], or popuIafed ly muIfIpIIcIfIes, as
In Cergens ''safurafed seIl i,,i]. In fhe socIaI and
cuIfuraI scIences, vhaf vas once caIIed ''IdenfIfy In
fhe sense ol socIaI, shared sameness Is foday olfen dIs-
i8 cDvvci Ainvcicicc. Vo|ume o, Number , AugurOcrober 1,,,
cussed vIfh relerence fo dfference. IIllerence poInfs
fo fhe confrasfIve aspecf ol IdenfIfIes and fherely em-
phasIzes fhe ImpIIcIf condIfIon ol pIuraIIfy. There can
le IdenfIfy onIy Il fhere Is more fhan one IdenfIfy, and
In fhIs sense dIllerence consfIfufes and precedes Iden-
fIfy. I vIII argue fhaf fhe emphasIs on dIllerence caIIs
Info quesfIon anfhropoIogIsfs convenfIonaI assump-
fIon ol shared IdenfIfy and demands affenfIon fo a per-
sonaI or IndIvIduaI IdenfIfy fhaf Is here caIIed fhe e|f.
IIscourses alouf fhe seIl and alouf IdenfIfy In anfhro-
poIogy are aImosf enfIreIy dIsfIncf, I am caIIIng lor fhe
esfalIIshmenf ol a cIoser connecfIon lefveen fhem.
ThIs connecfIon Is In my vIev InevIfalIe lecause In-
creased affenfIon fo fhe socIaI and cuIfuraI confexfs ol
pIuraI IdenfIfIes Ieads fo a revorIIng ol lofh concepfs.
The sIgnILcance ol fhe seIl Is greafIy underesfImafed
In anfhropoIogy. Tvo approaches fo fhe sul}ecf can le
dIsfInguIshed. The Lrsf ImpIIcIfIy maInfaIns fhaf an-
fhropoIogys sul}ecfs have an IdenfIfy shared vIfh ofh-
ers, derIved lrom a cuIfure] nreod of a seIl. The second
anaIyzes fhe seIves ol fhese sul}ecfs ly confrasfIng
fhem vIfh a paradIgmafIc concepfuaIIzafIon ol fhe
''Wesfern seIl fhaf Is, fhe sfIII mosfIy Wesfern anfhro-
poIogIsfs ovn seIl], and lecause If denIes fhe para-
dIgmafIc characferIsfIcs ol fhe Wesfern seIl fo anfhro-
poIogys non-Wesfern sul}ecfs If acfuaIIy denIes fhem
a seIl. AnfhropoIogys freafmenf ol fhe seIl ol Ifs sul-
}ecfs Is an ellecfIve sfrafegy ol or|erngposIfIng a la-
sIc dIllerence lefveen anfhropoIogIsfs and fhose fhey
sfudy.
To counfer lofh approaches I vIII proceed as loIIovs:
Alfer InfroducIng my fhesIs ol anfhropoIogys denIaI ol
ofhers seIves, I vIII presenf a case ol pIuraI and con-
LIcfIng IdenfIfIes In a fovn In fhe mounfaIns ol norfh-
ern aIIsfan. !rom fhIs case I vIII drav fhe concIu-
sIon fhaf If Is ImpossIlIe fo conceIve ol fhe acfIons ol
IndIvIduaIs emlracIng a pIuraIIfy ol IdenfIfIes vIfhouf
relerrIng fo a seIl. Alfer expIorIng meanIngs ol and reIa-
fIons lefveen seIl and IdenfIfy as fhey can le Infer-
prefed lrom my maferIaI, I vIII dIscuss fhe reIafIons le-
fveen anfhropoIogIcaI undersfandIngs ol cuIfure and
seIl.
AnfhropoIogys IenIaI ol fhers SeIves
AnfhropoIogIsfs vrIfe easIIy alouf fhe IdenfIfy ol fhose
fhey sfudy In fhe sense ol somefhIng shared vIfh ofh-
ers, luf fhey have much more dIlLcuIfy In affrIlufIng
a seIl fo fhe peopIe fhey are vrIfIng alouf. The affrIlu-
fIon ol a nonseIl fo fhese ofhers Is expressed In delafe
alouf InfercuIfuraI varIalIIIfy ol concepfs ol] fhe seIl,
In vhIch fhe Wesfern seIl Is opposed fo fhe seIl ol fhe
non-Wesf see SpIro i,,j]. In fhIs delafe fhe Wesfern
seIl Is represenfed as an Insfance ol fhe IndIvIduaIs pro-
vIdIng If vIfh loundedness, reIafIve aufonomy and In-
dependence, reLexIvIfy, and fhe alIIIfy fo pursue Ifs
z. n a reIafed change In dIscourse lrom IdenfIfy fo dIllerence In
lemInIsf sfudIes, see Crosly i,,z].
ovn goaIs. CIIllord Ceerfz has characferIzed fhe Wesf-
ern concepf ol fhe seIl as ''pecuIIar In fhaf If Is ''a
lounded, unIque, more or Iess Infegrafed mofIvafIonaI
and cognIfIve unIverse, a dynamIc cenfer ol avareness,
emofIon, }udgemenf and acfIon organIzed Info a dIsfInc-
fIve vhoIe and sef confrasfIveIy agaInsf ofher such
vhoIes and agaInsf Ifs socIaI and nafuraI lacIground
Ceerfz i,8:iz6]. ThIs seIl Lfs neafIy vIfh fhe sul}ecf
ol Iescarfess Cogro.
AnfhropoIogIcaI characferIzafIons ol ''fhe ofher are
olfen InversIons ol uropean seIl-Images !ardon i,,o:
6]. ThIs cerfaInIy appIIes fo undersfandIngs ol ofhers
seIves. In fhe concepfuaIIzafIon ol non-Wesfern seIves,
fhe Wesfern seIl vas faIen as fhe sfarfIng poInf and fhe
non-Wesfern seIl vas accordIngIy characferIzed as Ifs
opposIfe: unlounded, nof Infegrafed, dependenf, unalIe
fo sef IfseIl reLexIveIy aparf lrom ofhers, unalIe fo dIs-
fInguIsh lefveen fhe IndIvIduaI and a roIe or sfafus fhaf
IndIvIduaI occupIes, unalIe fo pursue Ifs ovn goaIs In-
dependenfIy ol fhe goaIs ol a group or communIfy. l-
lecfIveIy, fhIs characferIzafIon InvoIved fhe negoron ol
aII fhe deLnIfIonaI quaIIfIes ol fhe seIl, fhaf Is, ol fhose
fhaf poInf fo fhe dIllerenfIafIon ol fhe seIl lrom ofhers.
We can concIude, fhen, fhaf ly leIng denIed a Wesfern
seIl, anfhropoIogys ofhers vere denIed a seIl af aII.
Nany or even mosf anfhropoIogIsfs vouId hesIfafe fo
sulscrIle fo fhIs rafher poIemIcaI proposIfIon, luf If
sImpIy carrIes fhe IogIc ol fhIs anfhropoIogIcaI approach
fo Ifs IogIcaI concIusIon. A veII-Inovn Insfance ol fhIs
perspecfIve Is Ceerfzs i,;j] descrIpfIon ol fhe seIl In
BaII. AccordIng fo hIs anaIysIs, fhe BaIInese person Is
exfremeIy concerned nor fo presenf anyfhIng IndIvIduaI
dIsfInguIshIng hIm or her lrom ofhers] In socIaI IIle luf
fo enacf excIusIveIy a cuIfuraIIy prescrIled roIe or
masI. SImIIarIy, In fhe anfhropoIogy ol Soufh AsIa
fhere Is an ongoIng delafe alouf vhefher fhe peopIe ol
fhe sulconfInenf are endoved vIfh anyfhIng compara-
lIe fo a seIl In fhe paradIgmafIc Wesfern mode], fhaf Is,
vhefher fhey can le spoIen ol as ndvduo|.
j. The concepf ol r|e Wesfern seIl requIres a dIscussIon In IfseIl
vhIch cannof le underfaIen here lor vanf ol space. The under-
sfandIng ol fhe Wesfern seIl as aufonomous and Infegrafed Is
mosfIy derIved lrom seIecfed jsee Nurray i,,j|] Wesfern vrIffen
phIIosophIcaI fradIfIons and nof lrom anaIyses ol experIences ol
peopIe In fhe Wesf. Some recenf sfudIes suggesf fhaf fhere are dIl-
lerenf IInds ol Wesfern seIves and fhaf fhe dIllerences lefveen
Wesfern and non-Wesfern seIves may le much Iess fhan Is usuaIIy
assumed e.g., HoIIand and KIpnIs i,,, uroussoll i,,j, Sfephen-
son i,8,]. If seems, fhen, fhaf fhe concepf ol fhe Wesfern seIl fhaf
pervades anfhropoIogIcaI anaIyses ol non-Wesfern seIves Is fhe re-
suIf ol a parfIcuIar IInd ol ccIdenfaIIsm CarrIer i,,z, i,,6o].
. AccordIng fo Iumonf i,6, i,;o, i,8o], lrom fhe Soufh AsIan
cuIfuraI perspecfIve IndIvIduaIs are aIvays eIemenfs ol Iarger so-
cIaI unIfs In vhIch aII vaIue Is vesfed. NarrIoff faIes fhe con-
frasfIng sfance fhaf fhere are no IndIvIduaIs luf onIy ''dIvIduaIs
In IndIa, lecause human leIngs are onIy femporary and consfanfIy
franslormed composIfIons ol eIemenfary coded sulsfance i,;6,
i,8,, NarrIoff and Inden i,;;]. Bofh posIfIons have leen heavIIy
crIfIcIzed lrom dIllerenf perspecfIves see NInes i,88, i,,, NorrIs
i,;8]. NInes i,,], expIorIng lofh pulIIc and prIvafe aspecfs ol
IndIvIduaIIfy In TamII adu, shovs convIncIngIy fhaf IndIvIduaI-
Ify and personaIIfy are IndIspensalIe fo socIaI IIle In Soufh IndIa,
aIfhough fhey are conceIved dIllerenfIy fhan In Wesfern socIefIes.
The same concIusIon Is reached ly NcHugh i,8,] In her anaIysIs
sc xcrcir Se|f, Idenrry, ond Cu|rure i,
In spIfe ol fhe psychoIogIcaI deLnIfIon ol IdenfIfy as
seIlsameness, fhIs denIaI ol a seIl does nof amounf fo a
denIaI fhaf, lor Insfance, IndIans have an denrry In fhe
anfhropoIogIcaI sense. Iumonf and NarrIoff, vho ar-
gue In fheIr ovn vays agaInsf fhe IndIvIduaIIfy ol peo-
pIe In IndIa, vouId hardIy deny fhaf IndIans have IdenfI-
fIes. In fhIs undersfandIng, fhen, IndIans have an
IdenfIfy nreod of a seIl. Confrary fo fhe meanIng ol
''IdenfIfy In psychoIogIcaI usage, IdenfIfy here relers
nof fo an IdIosyncrasy ol fhe IndIvIduaIa lundIe ol
leafures fhaf dIsfInguIsh her or hIm lrom ofhersluf
fo IdenfIfy vIfh ofhers, vIfh ones cuIfuraI[socIaI
group. ThIs Idea pervades Le vy-BruhIs concepfuaIIza-
fIon ol fhe ''prImIfIve souI. We have fo Ieep In mInd
fhaf fhe peopIe vho are ascrIled such an IdenfIfy are
aIvays ofhers and fhe ol}ecfs ol anfhropoIogIcaI dIs-
course. AnfhropoIogIsfs generaIIy do nof appIy fhIs un-
dersfandIng ol IdenfIfy fo fhemseIves and memlers ol
fheIr ovn socIefy. eopIe vho have onIy such an Iden-
fIfy are nof aufonomous, Independenf, and pursuIng
fheIr ovn goaIs, fhey are dependenf on fheIr cuIfuraI[
socIaI group and lehave accordIng fo fhe prescrIpfIons
and Inferesfs ol fhaf group. CuIfuraI and socIaI defer-
mInIsm IurIs lehInd fhIs concepfuaIIzafIon ol non-
Wesfern seIves.
In anfhropoIogIcaI dIscourse, fhe quesfIon ol IdenfIfy
Is aImosf compIefeIy defached lrom fhe prolIem ol fhe
seIl. In fhe vasf lody ol IIferafure alouf efhnIc IdenfIfy
fhe seIl Is rareIy menfIoned, and In vrIfIngs alouf fhe
seIl a reIafIon lefveen fhe seIl and IdenfIfIes Is some-
fImes nofed luf remaIns unexpIored e.g., NorrIs i,,:
i]. Hovever, Il ve IooI af anaIyses ol non-Wesfern con-
cepfs ol fhe seIl, If cannof go unnofIced fhaf fhese con-
cepfs ol fhe seIl as represenfed ly anfhropoIogIsfs] are
modeIed precIseIy on fhe anfhropoIogIcaI undersfand-
Ing ol IdenfIfy: fhey are ococenrrc Nageo i,,, Read
i,6;, Shveder and Bourne 19S4], }usf as IdenfIfIes are
socIaI and shared.
In recenf years, commIffed argumenfs have leen
made lor fhe seIl as a lasIc human condIfIon. The ouf-
sfandIng exampIe here Is Anfhony Cohen i,,], and If
Is sIgnILcanf fhaf hIs looI on seIl-conscIousness Is sul-
fIfIed ''an o|rernorve anfhropoIogy ol IdenfIfy my
IfaIIcs]. Cohen argues fhaf fhe dIsregard lor ofhers
seIves In anfhropoIogIcaI accounfs resuIfs In dIsforfIng
LcfIons, denyIng seIl-conscIousness fo fhe peopIe an-
fhropoIogIsfs sfudy. Nosf lrequenfIy fhIs dIsregard Is
expressed In a premafure sulsumpfIon ol IndIvIduaIs
under fhe groups fo vhIch fhey leIong. He maInfaIns
fhaf fo affend fo fhe seIl In anfhropoIogIcaI InquIry Is
ol IndIvIduaIIfy among fhe Curung ol epaI. Hovever, fhere are
IndIan vrIfers vho argue fhaf fhere are no lounded IndIvIduaIs In
IndIa e.g., VaIdyanafhan i,8,].
. AccordIng fo Le vy-BruhI, fhe memlers ol ''prImIfIve groups
possess nof an ''IndIvIduaI IndIvIduaIIfy luf rafher a ''shared IndI-
vIduaIIfy and a ''quasI-IdenfIfy fo fhe exfenf fhaf fhey are aImosf
InferchangealIe Le vy-BruhI i,6jji,z;|:,,].
6. ThIs undersfandIng ol non-Wesfern ''seIves Is carrIed fo ex-
fremes ly much LcfIon vrIfIng, vhere fhe non-uropean Is sImpIy
an ''afom In a vasf coIIecfIvIfy SaId i,,ji,;8|:zz].
nof fo InduIge In IndIvIduaIIsm luf fo prolIemafIze
vhaf Is ofhervIse faIen lor granfed: fhe reIafIonshIp
lefveen fhe IndIvIduaI and fhe socIaI. Hov does fhe
seIl reIafe fo groups, fo socIefy, or, In fhe presenf con-
fexf, fo shared IdenfIfIes These quesfIons have fo le
asIed, Cohen argues, nof ''fo lefIshIze fhe seIl luf,
rafher, fo IIIumInafe socIefy p. zz]. Cohen vas loI-
Ioved ly Rapporf i,,;], vhose caII lor affenfIon fo seIl
and IndIvIduaIIfy Is even more radIcaI. !or hIm such an
approach Is an onfoIogIcaI necessIfy, lecause ''If Is In
IndIvIduaIIfy fhaf fhe roofs ol fhe socIaI and cuIfuraI
IIe p. z]. Cohens and Rapporfs argumenfs sfIII seem
fo le In fhe mInorIfy. I Infend fo supporf fhIs approach
ly expIorIng fhe reIafIonshIp lefveen fhe seIl and pIu-
raI IdenfIfIes.
Whaf Il fhe peopIe anfhropoIogIsfs sfudy cannof le
cafegorIzed ly shared IdenfIfIes Whaf Il fheIr IdenfIfy
Is nof one luf, as In a pIuraI socIefy, a coIIecfIon ol dIl-
lerences seffIng fhem oll lrom varyIng groups ol ofhers
Il each IndIvIduaI Is characferIzed ly a specILc paffern
ol dIllerences lrom and commonaIIfIes vIfh cerfaIn ofh-
ers Il vhaf Is shared vIfh some conLIcfs vIfh vhaf Is
shared vIfh ofhers The ImpIIcIf paraIIeIIsm ol seIl and
IdenfIfy In anfhropoIogy as somefhIng essenfIaIIy
shared does nof Lf Info fhe concepfuaIIzafIon ol pIuraI
socIefIes. Ny concIusIon lrom fhe loIIovIng case vIII
le fhaf fhere can le no IdenfIfIes vIfhouf seIves. ThIs
case lrom norfhern aIIsfan Is nof alouf a cuIfuraI con-
cepf ol fhe seIl. If Is alouf vhefher ve can dIscern
somefhIng lesIdes fhe changIng IdenfIfIes ol fhe ''em-
pIrIcaI agenf Iumonfs ferm]fhaf Is, vhefher ve
have fo conceIve ol an acfIng seIl n oddron ro Ifs Iden-
fIfIes.
Ny LeId research In fhe muIfI-''efhnIc fovn ol CII-
gIf In fhe orfhern Areas ol aIIsfan, vas on ''efh-
nIcIfy. ducafed anfhropoIogIcaIIy In fhe fradIfIon ol
IurIheImIan and socIaI anfhropoIogIcaI approaches, I
vas defermIned fo locus on groups rafher fhan on acfIng
IndIvIduaIs or seIves. The epIsode reIafed here lorced
me fo acInovIedge fhe Imporfance ol acfIng IndIvIdu-
aIs In a sfudy ol ''efhnIc IdenfIfy. If Is an exampIe ol
fhe sfruggIe fo acf and fo presenf oneseIl as a consIsfenf
seIl In a sIfuafIon ol pIuraI and confradIcfIng IdenfIfIes
reIafed fo Infense socIaI conLIcf.
ConLIcfIng IdenfIfIes and a SeIl In CIIgIf
CIIgIf, a fovn ol alouf o,ooo InhalIfanfs, Is fhe admIn-
IsfrafIve and commercIaI cenfer ol fhe orfhern Areas
ol aIIsfan. The popuIafIon ol fhe area Is hIghIy dIller-
enfIafed ly a numler ol dImensIons ol IdenfIfy. NIgra-
fIon fo fhe urlan area has made fhe composIfIon ol fhe
popuIafIon very compIex. Some Imporfanf dImensIons
ol dIllerence I.e., IdenfIfy] are reIIgIous alLIIafIon, Ian-
guage, regIonaI leIongIng, o m, cIan, and IInshIp
;. The meanIng ol o m Is quIfe lroad and ranges lrom IInshIp-
lased groups fo fhe poIIfIcaI nafIon So IeleId n.d.o]. In fhe presenf
confexf If can le fransIafed as ''quasI-IInshIp group.
zo cDvvci Ainvcicicc. Vo|ume o, Number , AugurOcrober 1,,,
So IeleId i,,;o]. In fhe presenf confexf fvo ol fhese,
reIIgIon and IInshIp, vIII pIay fhe ma}or parf.
!or fvo and a haIl decades fhe fovns popuIafIon has
leen spIIf ly a mIIIfanf conLIcf lefveen ShIIfes and
SunnIs, vIfh perIodIcaIIy erupfIng fensIons lefveen
memlers ol fhe fvo groups. !rom i,; onvard, veap-
ons vere used In fhese encounfers, vhIch reguIarIy re-
suIfed In Iosses ol IIle. When I vas sfayIng In CIIgIf le-
fveen i,,i and i,,j, fhe popuIafIon vas ellecfIveIy
poIarIzed ly fhe experIence ol aImosf zo years ol vIo-
Ience. InfermarrIage lefveen ShIIfes and SunnIs had
ceased vhen fhe conLIcf legan. KInshIp reIafIons
across fhe reIIgIous loundary, vhIch lelore had leen
very common, vere leIng negIecfed Il nof aIfogefher de-
nIed. A consIderalIe reIocafIon ol seffIemenf In CIIgIf
and fhe surroundIng vIIIages had resuIfed In a numler
ol ''pure ShIIfe or SunnI neIghlorhoods vhere mem-
lers ol fhe fvo secfs had earIIer IIved fogefher. Some
parfs ol fhe lazaar couId nov le IdenfILed as leIng eI-
fher ShIIfe or SunnI. CommensaIIfy lefveen ShIIfes
and SunnIs had ceased aImosf fofaIIy. ThIs appIIed espe-
cIaIIy fo meaIs IncIudIng meaf, lecause fhe |oro, fhe
IsIamIc Iav, prescrIled fhaf onIy meaf ol anImaIs
sIaughfered ly NusIIms vas permIffed. The relusaI fo
eaf meaf provIded ly fhe ofher secf amounfed ImpIIc-
IfIy fo fhe }udgmenf fhaf fhe ofhers vere nof reaIIy
NusIIms luf InLdeIs |uffo r]. SeparafIon aIvays
reached Ifs hIghesf pIfch durIng and }usf alfer a perIod
ol fensIon.
The poIarIzafIon ol ShIIfes and SunnIs lound Ifs
sfrongesf expressIon In fhe mufuaI accusafIon fhaf fhe
ofhers vere |uffo r sInguIar |o fr]. Kuffo r are nonleIIev-
ers. They are Impure. NusIIms can have no reaI com-
panIonshIp vIfh fhem. If Is ImpossIlIe fo share a meaI
vIfh fhem, Ief aIone lamIIy fIes. By no means aII ShIIfes
caIIed SunnIs |uffo r and vIce versa, fo accuse someone
ol leIng a |o fr vas so sfrong and dIshonorIng a re-
proach fhaf mosf peopIe hesIfafed fo voIce If pulIIcIy,
and many peopIe vere cerfaInIy nof ol fhe opInIon fhaf
fhe ofhers vere Indeed |uffo r. SfIII, fhe reproach vas
somefImes made In pulIIc, and gralLfI expressIng If
couId somefImes le seen on fhe vaIIs ol fhe fovn.
These IncIdenfs aIvays caused Infense dIsfurlance and
resenfmenf among fhose leIng caIIed |uffo r.
AIfhough fhe dIllerence lefveen ShIIfes and SunnIs
had lecome very sharp, If vas nof devoId ol amlIguIfy
arIsIng lrom fhe lacf fhaf each person emlraced IdenfI-
fIes derIved nof onIy lrom reIIgIous alLIIafIon luf aIso
8. Kupers concepf ol poIarIzafIon Lfs fhe scene In CIIgIf veII: ''o-
IarIsafIon Is conceIved here as InvoIvIng mufuaIIy hosfIIe acfIon.
. . I reserve fhe ferm lor an InfensILcafIon ol conLIcf ly aggressIve
acfIon and reacfIon. oIarIsafIon fhen Is a process ol IncreasIng ag-
gregafIon ol fhe memlers ol fhe socIefy Info excIusIve and mufu-
aIIy hosfIIe groups, enfaIIIng fhe eIImInafIon ol fhe mIddIe ground
and ol medIafIng reIafIonshIps. pIsodes ol conLIcf accumuIafe.
There are correspondIng IdeoIogIes . . . , presenfIng sImpIILed con-
cepfIons ol fhe socIefy as aIready poIarIsed Info fvo anfagonIsfIc
groups vIfh IncompafIlIe and IrreconcIIalIe Inferesfs, renderIng
InevIfalIe fhe resorf fo vIoIence Kuper i,;;:iz8].
lrom ofhers, lor exampIe, fo cIans, IocaIIfIes, or Ian-
guage communIfIes. In spIfe ol fhe reIIgIous poIarIza-
fIon vhIch had pushed fhe reIIgIous IdenfIfy fo fhe lore,
ofher IdenfIfIes confInued fo le reIevanf. The reIIgIous
IdenfIfy mIghf conLIcf vIfh ofher IdenfIfIes ol fhe same
person, and fhIs meanf conLIcf lefveen opposed vaIues
and ol}ecfIves. Af fImes, fhe vaIue ol conlormIng and
leIng IoyaI fo ones secf proved IrreconcIIalIe vIfh fhe
vaIue ol IeepIng ones lamIIy fogefher and carIng lor
ones reIafIves lecause a reIafIve vas regarded as |o fr.
The seIl, fhen, emlraced conLIcfIng IdenfIfIes.
SfIII, peopIe frIed fo reconcIIe fhese vaIues. They pur-
sued varIous and af fImes confradIcfory ol}ecfIves,
somefImes sImuIfaneousIy. Hov dId fhey deveIop a
sense ol a confInuous and consIsfenf seIl In fhIs con-
fexf r dId fhey do vIfhouf one I vanf fo expIore
fhese quesfIons In an epIsode ol LeIdvorI vhIch I expe-
rIenced vIfh AII Hassan, fhe man vho faughf me
much ol vhaf I Iearned alouf cuIfure and socIefy In
CIIgIf.
AII Hassan
AII Hassan vas a ShIIfe, a memler ol fhe Yes Iun o m
and vIfhIn If ol fhe Cafo re cIan. He vas a respecfed eI-
der ol hIs o m and ol fhe fovn as a vhoIe. He possessed
consIderalIe agrIcuIfuraI Iand lofh In fhe parf ol CIIgIf
vhere he IIved and In a more dIsfanf pIace on fhe edge
ol fovn. ThIs perIpheraI area vas cuIfIvafed ly a fenanf,
sInce AII Hassan had sullered a hearf affacI In i,,z.
The fenanf leIonged fo fhe Cu}ur o m and vas a
SunnI. AII Hassan aIso ovned fhree houses and nIne
shops vhIch he renfed ouf, and more shops vere under
consfrucfIon.
AII Hassan had leen hIs lafhers Lrsf son alfer eIghf
marrIages, and ol course hIs lafher had leared IosIng
hIm. Therelore he had leen gIven as a ''mIII son fo a
SunnI Cu}ur lamIIy lrom a neIghlorIng vaIIey, vhere he
had sfayed lor fhree years. Af fhe age ol i he had mar-
rIed a gIrI ol anofher Yes Iun cIan. When I mef hIm, he
vas In hIs sIxfIes and sfIII versafIIe and InnovafIve. Be-
Ing very generous, he heIped hIs reIafIves and ofhers ouf
vIfh Lrevood, produce lrom hIs Iands, and assIsfance
In deaIIng vIfh fhe aufhorIfIes. HIs concepfIon ol ''reIa-
fIves vas very IncIusIve. Il If suIfed hIs purposes, he
couId conceIve ol a reIafIon vIfh aImosf anyone. He
spenf a consIderalIe parf ol hIs IIle affendIng fo reIa-
fIonshIps.
BeIng a very pIous ShIIfe, AII Hassan vIsIfed fhe maIn
mosque every day fo oller fhe mIdday prayer. He vas
compIefeIy convInced fhaf hIs secf vas rIghf In fhe reII-
gIous conLIcf. He aIvays reIferafed fhaf If vas nof ShI-
Ifes vho had legun fhe conLIcf and fhaf fhey vere very
much agaInsf secfarIan vIoIence. In spIfe ol hIs IoyaIfy
,. ersonaI names are pseudonyms.
io. The Cu}ur maInIy pracfIce anImaI huslandry and menIaI Ialor,
and fheIr presfIge Is quIfe Iov.
sc xcrcir Se|f, Idenrry, ond Cu|rure zi
fo fhe ShIIfe cause, he maInfaIned a quIfe Independenf
sfance. ConscIous ol many confradIcfIons lefveen r
vo j IocaI cusfom] and |oro, AII Hassan prelerred
many norms ol fhe lormer, lor exampIe, fhose reguIaf-
Ing Ianded properfy and InherIfance. nIy Il lorced ly
an expIIcIf }udgmenf vouId he have compIIed vIfh fhe
norms ol |oro In fhese maffers.
AIfhough In hIs opInIon fhe conLIcf lefveen ShIIfes
and SunnIs vas fhe SunnIs lauIf, he dId nof condemn
fhem IndIscrImInafeIy. The guIIfy parfIes, fhose vho
sIandered ShIIfes as |uffo r, vere fhe ''nev SunnIs
TalIighi, Wahali, and Ieolandi. In hIs esfImafIon,
fhe reaI, rIghfeous, fradIfIonaI SunnIs, vhom he fermed
BreIvi or Hanali, dIsapproved ol fhe conLIcf as much
as fhe ShIIfes. !urfher, he dIsfInguIshed SunnIs ac-
cordIng fo IInshIp or o m memlershIp. There vere hIs
''ovn, xo ndo n SunnIsfhose vIfh vhom he shared
o m memlershIp or IInshIp or vho vere af Ieasf proper
peopIe ol CIIgIfand fhere vere ofher, ''loreIgn
onesnonreIafIves, peopIe ol ofher o m, and especIaIIy
ImmIgranfs such as ashfu n and Kashmiri. The separa-
fIon esfalIIshed ly dIllerenfIaI reIIgIous alLIIafIon
couId In hIs vIev le af Ieasf parfIaIIy erased ly some
ofher reIafIon. AII fhe reIafIons esfalIIshed ly reIIgIon,
descenf, IInshIp, efc., vere possIlIe lases ol commu-
nIfy. !or exampIe, AII Hassan foId me fhaf he renfed hIs
shops and houses onIy fo ShIIfes and IsmaIIIs lecause
lofh lasIcaIIy leIonged fo one reIIgIon and no dIspufe
vouId arIse vIfh fhem. Hovever, as ve have seen, one
ol hIs fenanfs vas a SunnICu}ur and a reIafIve ol hIs
''mIII lamIIy. n anofher occasIon AII Hassan foId me
fhaf ashfu n vere aIvays pressurIng hIm fo renf fhem
a shop, luf he resIsfed lecause fhey vere loreIgn and
nof xo ndo n, and he emphasIzed fhaf he vas prepared
fo renf a shop fo xo ndo n SunnIs.
WhIIe ve vere faIIIng alouf fhe shops, one ol AII
Hassans alLnes vho vas presenf, anofher YesIun, foId
me fhaf many SunnIs leIonged fo fheIr o m and fhaf a
numler ol hIs sIsfers and lemaIe cousIns vere marrIed
fo SunnIs. Then he added, ''Buf lor us ShIIfes, Yes Iun
reIIgIon Is more Imporfanf fhan o m. ThIs Is very dIller-
ii. TalIighi are fhe loIIovers ol fhe TalIighi }ama f, a Iay mIssIon-
ary movemenf lounded In fhe i,zos In norfhern IndIa fhaf aIms
fo lrIng NusIIms lacI fo fhe rIghf pafh, fhaf Is, fo fhe prescrIled
olservances such as daIIy prayer Ahmad i,,i]. Ieolandi are fhe
loIIovers ol fhe lamous orfh IndIan IsIamIc semInary af Ieo-
land, vhIch propagafes an orfhodox versIon ol SunnI IsIam Nef-
caIl i,8,]. Nosf SunnI uIema In fhe presenf-day orfhern Area le-
Iong fo fhe Ieoland schooI. Wahali are fhe loIIovers ol SaudI
AralIan WahalIyya.
iz. Bre Ivi are fhe loIIovers ol fhe schooI ol BareIIII, fhe rIvaI ol
fhe semInary ol Ieoland, vhIch propagafes a IInd ol loII IsIam
hoIdIng SuLsm and IocaI saInfs In hIgh esfeem NefcaIl i,8,].
Hanali are loIIovers ol fhe Iav schooI f|] ol Alu HanIla. Here
AII Hassans cafegorIzafIon Is Incorrecf, aII fhe fypes ol SunnIs
menfIoned are Hanali. ShIIfes, In confrasf, are }alri, loIIovers ol fhe
f| ol Imam }alar as-Sa dIq.
ij. Xo ndo n Is derIved lrom xo ndo n, ''lamIIy, luf If means nof
onIy leIongIng fo a IInshIp group luf aIso sharIng lasIc fradIfIons
and vaIue orIenfafIons. !or a defaIIed anaIysIs, see So IeleId i,,;o,
i,,8].
enf among S

in. !or fhem, a S

in Is In fhe Lrsf pIace S

in,
nof ShIIfe or SunnI. ThIs Is very good, If shouId le IIIe
fhaf aIso among YesIun!
Af fhe same fIme, AII Hassan and ofher respecfed
Yes Iun lrom CIIgIf and ofher pIaces vere endeavorIng
fo organIze a meefIng ol fheIr o m In order fo overcome
fhe reIIgIous cIeavage vIfhIn fheIr group and fo gaIn
sfrengfh lor fhe YesIun In conlronfIng ofher o m, espe-
cIaIIy fhe S

in. SunnI Yes Iun vere parf ol fhIs ellorf. I


vas olfen foId ly YesIun fhaf If vas onIy fheIr ovn
o m fhaf vas dIvIded and fhus veaIened ly reIIgIous
conLIcf. Some Yes Iun even affrIlufed fhe vhoIe con-
LIcf fo a conspIracy ol S

in agaInsf Yes Iun. !or AII Has-


san, fhe leneLf ol an assemlIy ol Yes Iun vas seIl-evI-
denf. If vas a vaIue In IfseIl fo promofe fhe soIIdarIfy
ol ones o m. He had foId me severaI fImes fhaf he vas
ShIIfe In fhe Lrsf pIace and fhaf reIIgIon vas mosf Im-
porfanf lor hIm, luf In fhe sIfuafIon descrIled here fhIs
vas olvIousIy nof fhe case. The aIm ol fhe vhoIe en-
deavor vas precIseIy fo sulordInafe reIIgIon fo o m.
Io fhen fhese confradIcfory lasIc IdenfIfIeso m,
IInshIp, and reIIgIoncreafe separafe ''comparfmenfs
ol fhe person Io fhey prevenf fhe deveIopmenf ol a
sense ol a consIsfenf and confInuous seIl of quIfe, as
ve shaII Iearn ly accompanyIng AII Hassan fo fhe ved-
dIng ol one ol hIs reIafIves and IIsfenIng fo hIs reLec-
fIons on fhaf vIsIf.
An Ineasy VIsIf af a WeddIng
ne ol AII Hassans eIder sIsfers had marrIed Info a re-
specfalIe SunnI Yes Iun lamIIy af apura, an oId vIIIage
on fhe vesfern edge ol CIIgIf. Years ago fhIs sIsfer had
dIed. Her son NaIII Amman vas ol alouf fhe same age
as AII Hassan. AII Hassan vas quIfe concerned fo le on
good ferms vIfh fhese SunnI reIafIves, and I had accom-
panIed hIm on vIsIfs fo fhem severaI fImes. In }anuary
i,,j NaIII Ammans granddaughfer vas goIng fo
marry a man lrom fhe un}al. AII Hassan dId nof ap-
prove ol fhIs marrIage, luf he InvIfed me fo accompany
hIm fo fhe veddIng. He foId me, ''I am very angry fhaf
she Is fo marry a an}a li, luf NaIII Amman dId nof asI
me. There are pIenfy ol suIfalIe loys In CIIgIf!
The marrIage vas fo faIe pIace on a !rIday. When I
arrIved af AII Hassans house, he foId me fhaf hIs vIles
cousIn Sher Khan vouId come vIfh us. He had lormerIy
leen fhe generaI secrefary ol fhe ShIIfe communIfy as-
socIafIon In CIIgIf luf, alfer receIvIng a personaI fhreaf
In fhe reIIgIous conLIcf, had resIgned lrom fhaf olLce
and Ielf. He had refurned fo CIIgIf onIy a lev days le-
lore. We venf fo hIs pIace and mef hIm vIfh hIs son.
Because Sher Khan Ielf hIs house onIy under fhe profec-
fIon ol arms, lofh hIs son and AII Hassans son, vho
accompanIed us, carrIed KaIashnIIovs.
i. S

in Is fhe ofher Imporfanf IndIgenous o m ol CIIgIf. RIvaIry


lefveen S

in and YesIun Is af fImes quIfe sfrong see So IeleId


i,,].
zz cDvvci Ainvcicicc. Vo|ume o, Number , AugurOcrober 1,,,
If vas sfIII mornIng vhen ve arrIved af fhe home ol
NaIII Amman. We vere veIcomed very cordIaIIy ly a
numler ol lamIIy memlers and Ied Info fhe house.
NaIII Amman vas sIffIng fhere vIfh hIs younger
lrofher SadIq. Alfer fhe cusfomary exchange ol compII-
menfs, he foId us fhaf fhe marrIage ceremony vouId
nof faIe pIace unfII alfernoon. Sher Khan remarIed af
once fhaf he vas unalIe fo sfay so Iong lecause he had
fo affend a meefIng. SadIq and NaIII Amman urgenfIy
affempfed fo persuade hIm fo sfay af Ieasf unfII Iunch,
luf Sher Khan shoved no IncIInafIon fo change hIs
mInd. WhIIe fhe exchange lefveen fhem vas goIng on,
ve vere served sveef fea and drIed lruIf. Alfer a very
shorf fIme Sher Khan foId us fhaf he had fo Ieave. AgaIn
SadIq InsIsfenfIy legged hIm fo sfay vIfhouf success.
Belore ve gof up, SadIq saId a prayer In vhIch he In-
voIed fhe o||e boyr fhe lamIIy ol fhe rophef, IncIud-
Ing hIs son-In-Iav AII]. ThIs InvocafIon Is a ShIIfe prac-
fIce ol vhIch ''orfhodox I.e., Wahali or TalIighi]
SunnIs are very crIfIcaI. !rom fheIr perspecfIve, InvoI-
Ing humans In prayer pIaces fhem cIose fo Cod and vIo-
Iafes fhe lundamenfaI dogma ol monofheIsm. ImmedI-
afeIy alfer fhe prayer, ve saId good-lye and Ielf fhe
house. ne ol NaIII Ammans sons loIIoved us fo fhe
}eep, confInuaIIy pIeadIng vIfh us fo sfay. !InaIIy, he
excIaImed vIfh dIsappoInfmenf In hIs voIce, ''Are ve
confracfors ol a reIIgIon or are ve reIafIves Buf ve gof
Info fhe }eep, Ielf, and refurned fo fhe cenfer ol fovn.
The nexf day I asIed AII Hassan vhaf IInd ol SunnI
NaIII Amman vas, and he responded, ''He Is Hanali.
Buf hIs lrofher SadIq Is TalIighi and sfrIcf Wahali! Be-
cause I had leen dIscussIng commensaIIfy vIfh ofher
Inlormanfs, I fhen asIed hIm, ''Is If frue fhaf ShIIfes
never eaf meaf provIded ly SunnIs
A| Hoon. Yes, fhey do nof share meaIs In our
houses, and fherelore ve do nof eaf In fheIr houses.
I. Was fhIs fhe reason fhaf ve Ielf yesferday le-
lore fhe meaI vas served
A| Hoon. o, ve Ielf lecause fhe marrIage vas
fo faIe pIace onIy In fhe alfernoon and lecause Sher
Khan had fo affend a meefIng.
I. Il ve had sfayed lor Iunch, vhaf vouId you
have eafen
A| Hoon. I vouId have eafen onIy ghI. I vouId
have eafen onIy soup, vIfhouf meaf.
I. Io you reluse fo eaf meaf In fhe houses ol aII
SunnIs or onIy In fhe houses ol Wahali
A| Hoon. h, I vIII never eaf meaf vIfh Wa-
hali. Buf I vIII eaf vIfh Hanali.
I. Buf you foId me fhaf NaIII Amman Is Hanali!
A| Hoon. Yes, luf fhIs TalIighi jNaIII Am-
mans younger lrofher SadIq| vas presenf! And I am
an eIder ol fhe ShIa, and ShIIfes vouId have re-
senfed If very much Il I had eafen fhere.
I. Yesferday, SadIq InvoIed fhe o||e boyr In hIs
prayer . . .
A| Hoon. ThIs he dId onIy lor us.
I. I fhoughf fhaf Hanali SunnIs aIso paId respecf
fo fhe o||e boyr.
A| Hoon. They onIy say fhaf. raIIy fhey do,
luf nof vIfh fhe hearf! And Wahali do nof do If af
aII.
I. Your son RasuI foId me fhaf he had sfopped vIs-
IfIng fheIr house.
A| Hoon. He Is angry vIfh fhem lecause fhey
gave fheIr granddaughfer fo a an}a li. I vas angry,
foo, and I asIed fhem, ''CouIdnf you Lnd some-
lody here So lar avay, fhaf Is lad lor fhe lamIIy.
If Is lad.
AII Hassans dIllerenf IdenfIfIes had lroughf hIm Info
a laIrIy sfraIned sIfuafIon durIng fhe vIsIf, and he had
frIed fo do }usfIce fo lofh hIs reIIgIous and hIs IIn alLI-
IafIon. Nosf peopIe In CIIgIf vouId have chosen an-
ofher soIufIon: They vouId sImpIy have relused fo vIsIf
fheIr SunnI reIafIves on fhe occasIon ol fhe veddIng. In
lacf, lev peopIe sfIII see fheIr reIafIves ol fhe ofher secf
on such occasIons. Buf AII Hassan vas very defermIned
fo faIe fhe olIIgafIons arIsIng lrom IInshIp and o m
memlershIp serIousIy, and fherelore he had gone fo
vIsIf NaIII Amman and hIs lamIIy. Af fhe same fIme,
he vas IoyaI fo hIs secf and had reaIIy leIf unalIe fo af-
fend fhe veddIng, IncIudIng fhe meaI. The prolIem vas
nof fhaf ve sfayed onIy a shorf fIme, onIy a smaII por-
fIon ol fhe veddIng guesfs acfuaIIy affend fhe cere-
mony. Rafher, fhe ceIelrafIon ol a marrIage Is an occa-
sIon fo express and fo renev communIfy and
reIafIonshIp, and fhe mosf Imporfanf Insfrumenf lor
fhIs purpose Is fhe leedIng ol fhe guesfs. I had affended
many veddIngs vIfh AII Hassan, and ve had aIvays af
once leen served a rIch meaI ol meaf, vegefalIes, rIce,
lread, and sveefs. NosfIy ve had Ielf ImmedIafeIy alfer
fhe meaI, luf no one Ieaves a veddIng vr|our havIng
leen served a meaI.
IdenfIfIes and Dffe ronce
AII Hassan emlraced and enacfed a numler ol dIllerenf
IdenfIfIes. In fhe confexf presenfed here, onIy hIs reII-
gIous alLIIafIon, hIs o m, and hIs IIn reIafIons vere sIg-
nILcanf, luf In ofher cIrcumsfances IdenfIfIes derIved
lrom speaIIng ShIna or comIng lrom CIIgIf and lrom a
parfIcuIar neIghlorhood couId have assumed Impor-
fance. These IdenfIfIes are marIers ol dIllerence, luf
fhIs dIllerence Is nof aII-emlracIng. The dIllerences are
nof separafe and do nof comparfmenfaIIze fhe person.
l course, speaIIng a Ianguage Is dIllerenf lrom leIong-
Ing fo a reIIgIon or a IInshIp group, luf fhese IdenfIfIes
are sfIII reIafed. They are reIafed lecause fhey are em-
lraced ly fhe same person[seIl, and fhIs reIafIon Is cru-
cIaI lor fheIr sIgnILcance.
sc xcrcir Se|f, Idenrry, ond Cu|rure zj
WrIfIng alouf posfcoIonIaI and posfmodern IdenfIfIes
on fhe uropean and orfh AmerIcan scene has olfen
adopfed }acques IerrIdas ferm dffe ronce fo concepfu-
aIIze IdenfIfIes and fhe processes fhey engender e.g.,
Brah i,,6, HaII i,,o, RadhaIrIshnan i,8;, RaffansI
i,,]. In hIs Iecfure ''IIlle rance, IerrIda i,8z] re-
pIaces fhe Ieffer ''e ol dffe rence vIfh an ''a fo caII
Info quesfIon fhe lundamenfaI opposIfIon lefveen fhe
sensIlIe and fhe InfeIIIgIlIe and fo expIore hov fhe fvo
are reIafed fo fhe process ol sIgnILcafIon. He dravs on
Saussurean and sfrucfuraIIsf IInguIsfIcs, vhIch poInfs
fo fhe arlIfrarIness ol fhe reIafIon lefveen sIgnILer and
sIgnILed, and maInfaIns fhaf meanIng Is more an ouf-
come ol posIfIon and reIafIonshIpfhaf Is, dIllerence
vr|n Ianguage fhan one ol relerence fo nonIInguIsfIc
ol}ecfs. Il dIllerence Is vhaf maIes meanIng, percep-
fIon, and cognIfIon possIlIe, fhen dffe ronce Is vas
maIes dIllerence possIlIe. If Is somefhIng remofe,
somefhIng lelore, pre-, fhaf cannof le experIenced and
cannof even le saId fo exIsf lecause experIence and ex-
Isfence requIre dIllerence lor exampIe, fhe dIllerence
lefveen fhe exIsfenf and fhe nonexIsfenf]. Buf vhere
dIllerence can le reaIIzed, dffe ronce Is aIready dIs-
soIved. If Is essenfIaIIy voIafIIe. IerrIda emphasIzes
fhaf dffe ronce Is nof even a concepf. Hovever, he pro-
ceeds fo a provIsIonaI semanfIc anaIysIs ol dffe ronce
and poInfs fo fhe conLafIon ol fvo meanIngs In fhe
vord, lofh derIved lrom fhe LafIn verl dfferre. ne
meanIng Is fhe convenfIonaI meanIng ol dIllerence, ''fo
dIller. The ofher Is reIafed fo ''fo deler, fhaf Is, ''fo
cause deIay, ''fo femporIze, ''fo dIsIocafe.
The second meanIng Is lundamenfaI fo fhe process ol
sIgnILcafIon. The sIgn Is puf In fhe pIace ol some enfIfy
lecause fhe enfIfy IfseIl Is nof presenf. The sIgn Is,
fhen, a delerred presence, If Is lofh secondary and provI-
sIonaI. Buf fhe sIgn does nof onIy reler fo a fhIng, If Is
nof onIy represenfafIonaI. If essenfIaIIy poInfs fo ofher
sIgns fhaf surround If. If Is InscrIled In a nefvorI ol
sIgns or concepfs] and sIgnILcafIon, a pIay ol dIller-
ences fhaf consfanfIy reler fo ofher sIgns and concepfs.
Changes ol sIgnILcafIon are spread and reproduced
fhrough fhIs nefvorI, producIng franslormafIons ol dIs-
fanf and seemIngIy unreIafed eIemenfs. ThIs pIay ol dIl-
lerences, dffe ronce, Is fhe precondIfIon lor sIgnILcafIon
and concepfuaIIzafIon. SIgnILcafIon Is possIlIe onIy Il a
presenf eIemenf relers fo anofher, alsenf eIemenf some
aspecfs ol vhIch If fhus faIes In and Il If sImuIfa-
neousIy can IfseIl le faIen In ly a nof yef presenf eIe-
menf. Dffe ronce, fhen, poInfs ouf fhaf meanIng Is neI-
fher afemporaI nor IdenfIcaI, If Is confInuousIy movIng
and changIng.
If Is fhIs Idea fhaf Is approprIafed ly much confempo-
rary vrIfIng on IdenfIfy. IdenfIfIes are sfrucfures ol sIg-
nILcafIon fhaf are sul}ecf fo dffe ronce, fhaf Is, fo fhe
pIay ol dIllerences. The concepf ol dffe ronce Infroduces
a sfrong ImpuIse ol deconsfrucfIon Info concepfuaIIza-
fIons ol IdenfIfy. IdenfIfy, fhen, Is nof loundafIonaI.
The IdenfIfIes emlraced ly a person do nof remaIn fhe
same, IdenfIcaI. TheIr meanIng Is consfanfIy leIng
franslormed lecause fhey reler fo each ofher. They have
fo le concerned vIfh one anofher. ThIs change has no
legInnIng and no end. Avfar Brah i,,6], lor Insfance,
dIscusses fhe reLecfIons on one anofher ol IdenfIfIes
such as, In BrIfaIn, leIng lIacI, ImmIgranf, voman, and
perhaps aIso IeslIan, leIongIng fo a cerfaIn cIass, and
leIng engaged In a sfruggIe fo reaIIze parfIcuIar poIIfIcaI
ol}ecfIves. Brah poInfs fo fhe nrerecrono|ry ol IdenfI-
fIes: fhey are nof dIllerenf fo fhe exfenf ol nof allecfIng
one anofher luf are aII pIayIng a game In fhe same LeId,
le fhIs a person or a sef ol pover reIafIons In a socIefy
fhe fvo, ol course, cannof reaIIy le separafed].
The case ol AII Hassan and, generaIIy, fhe sfrucfure
ol socIefy In CIIgIf shov fhaf such an undersfandIng ol
IdenfIfy Is promIsIng nof }usf lor fhe concepfuaIIzafIon
ol IdenfIfy processes In fhe dIasporIc perIphery ol fhe
posfcoIonIaI mefropoIIs. The IdenfIfIes emlraced ly AII
Hassan are nof }usf dIllerenf luf necessarIIy reIafe fo
one anofher and fherely change In meanIng. oIarIza-
fIon In CIIgIf sfressed fhe Imporfance ol fhe mufuaIIy
excIusIve IdenfIfIes ShIIfe[SunnI and demanded fhe
sulordInafIon and negIecf ol ofher IdenfIfIes. Buf fhe el-
lorf fo organIze an assemlIy ol aII YesIun and fhe Infer-
prefafIon ol fhe reIIgIous dIspufe as a conspIracy ol S

in
agaInsf Yes Iun shov fhaf fhe Impefus fo negIecf o m
IdenfIfy provoIed resIsfance vhIch affrIlufed reneved
Imporfance fo precIseIy fhIs IdenfIfy. of onIy Is fhere
compefIfIon lefveen anfagonIsfIc groups engendered
ly dIllerenf IdenfIfIes ol fhe same dImensIon such as
ShIIfe[SunnI In fhe LeId ol reIIgIon] luf aIso fhere Is
sfrong compefIfIon lefveen IdenfIfIes ol dIllerenf IInds
such as reIIgIous versus o m or IInshIp]. A shared Iden-
fIfy does nof have fhe same meanIng lor everyone vho
emlraces If. !or a ShIIfe vIfh cIose SunnI reIafIves, le-
Ing ShIIfe may engender Inner conLIcf and amlIvaIence
hov fo reconcIIe fhe fvo IdenfIfIes hov fo acf fovard
SunnI reIafIves] fhaf does nof allecf an IndIvIduaI vIfh-
ouf such reIafIons. A person has fo move fhrough fhIs
maze ol compefIng and anfagonIsfIc IdenfIfIes. Infersec-
fIonaIIfy and dffe ronce prevenf fhe person lrom reaIIz-
Ing and enacfIng fhe ''pure sIgnILcafIon ol a cerfaIn
IdenfIfy lecause compefIng sIgnILcafIons musf le
faIen Info accounf. ne IdenfIfy sulverfs fhe ofher. AII
Hassan cannof sImpIy vIsIf hIs reIafIves In apura on
fhe occasIon ol a veddIng lecause he has fo faIe Info
accounf fhaf fhey are nof onIy reIafIves luf aIso SunnIs.
TheIr leIng SunnIs allecfs fheIr IdenfIfy as hIs reIafIves
and o m leIIovs, gIvIng If a nev and nof yef Lxed
meanIng. AII Hassan sfruggIes fhrough fhe vIsIf and
ends up vIfh reIafIves vIfh vhom he cannof share a
meaI. SfIII, fhey are hIs reIafIves, an IdenfIfy vhIch, lor
hIm, Is nof denIed ly fheIr leIng SunnIs.
ThIs dffe ronce ol IdenfIfIes creafes consIderalIe am-
lIguIfy lor fhe acfor. If vorIs agaInsf fhe cIear-cuf de-
IImIfafIon ol cafegorIes ol peopIe fhaf have fradIfIonaIIy
leen consfrucfed ly fhe socIaI scIences. There are aI-
mosf no ''pure SunnIs luf onIy SunnIs fhaf are aIso S

in
or Yes Iun, speaIers ol ShIna or some ofher Ianguage,
resIdenfs ol CIIgIf or anofher pIace, and so on. The pur-
esf SunnIs, fhose vho are nearIy unamlIguousIy ''ofh-
ers, dIllerenf, are fhose vIfh vhom no ofher IInd ol
z cDvvci Ainvcicicc. Vo|ume o, Number , AugurOcrober 1,,,
reIafIon can le lound, such as ImmIgranf ashfu n or
an}a li. Buf dffe ronce does nof sfop here, lor NaIII
Ammans granddaughfer marrIed a an}a li. Thus, nev
reIafIons ImparfIng nev sIgnILcance fo dIllerences are
confInuaIIy leIng creafed.
ThIs amlIguIfy evoIvIng lrom crosscuffIng IdenfIfIes
has fvo aspecfs. n fhe one hand, fhe vIoIafIon ol sup-
posedIy cIear-cuf loundarIes Is vIeved vIfh Infense
suspIcIon. Nuch human acfIon and cognIfIon Is devofed
fo fhe creafIon ol order, and fhaf enfaIIs dIllerence. AII
Hassan, hIs son, and prolalIy mosf memlers ol hIs lam-
IIy resenfed fhe marrIage ol NaIII Ammans grand-
daughfer very much. IIllerence and order crumlIe Il re-
IafIons are luIIf vIfh fhose vho, IIIe an}a lis, are
supposed fo le fofaIIy dIllerenf, fhaf Is, orIgInaIIy unre
|ored. Buf fhese peopIe are compIefeIy dIllerenf onIy
lrom fhe perspecfIve ol fhe ShIIfes ol CIIgIf. !or SunnIs
In CIIgIf IIIe fhe lamIIy ol NaIII Amman, fhey are nof
as dIllerenf lecause fhey af Ieasf share fhe reIIgIous al-
LIIafIon. The movemenf ol dffe ronce, fhe creafIon ol
amlIguIfy cannof le confaIned vIfhouf conscIous el-
lorfs fo reconsfrucf dIllerence vhIch Is vhaf AII Has-
san dId vhen he relused fo share fhe meaI vIfh hIs reIa-
fIves]and even fhen dffe ronce can onIy le delerred,
lor AII Hassan Is nov reIafed, hovever dIsfanfIy, fo
SunnI an}a lis. Af fhe same fIme, amlIguIfy Is nof a
fhreaf luf a greaf resource. Dffe ronce confInuousIy re-
sfrucfures fhe socIaI vorId, creafes nev reIafIons le-
fveen humans, and opens nev opporfunIfIes lor acfIon.
IIllerences do nof enfaII uIfImafe IImIfs, lecause fheIr
meanIng can change and can le changed, pavIng hIfh-
erfo olsfrucfed vays lor human reIafIons. AII Hassan
can vIsIf hIs reIafIves even fhough fhey are SunnIs, and
he can fry fo do If In a vay fhaf pIays vIfh fhe amlIgu-
Ify InvoIved.
SeIl
The cIose IooI af persons emlracIng a pIuraIIfy ol Iden-
fIfIes IndIcafes fhaf If Is IndIspensalIe fo dIsfInguIsh le-
fveen shared] IdenfIfy[IdenfIfIes and seIl. The vay AII
Hassan made hIs vay fhrough fhe vIsIf and expIaIned
If In refrospecf shovs fhaf he vas alIe fo monoge hIs
IdenfIfIes. ThIs alIIIfy fo manage dIllerenf IdenfIfIes
fo manage dIllerenceIs an Imporfanf aspecf ol fhe
seIl. uf fhe ofher vay round, fo conceIve ol a pIuraIIfy
ol IdenfIfIes fhaf can sImuIfaneousIy and[or sulse-
quenfIy le emlraced and enacfed ly fhe ''same person
ve need somefhIng fhaf somehov remaIns fhe
''sameIn spIfe ol fhe varIous dIllerences enfaIIed ly
dIllerenf IdenfIfIes. Whaf remaIns fhe same Is a reLex-
Ive sense ol a lasIc dIsfIncfIon lefveen fhe seIl and ev-
eryfhIng eIse. In vhaf loIIovs I vIII fenfafIveIy freaf fhe
seIl, loIIovIng HaIIoveII i,], nof as an Independenf
and aufonomous enfIfy accordIng fo fhe paradIgm ol
fhe Wesfern seIl] luf as fhaf reLexIve sense fhaf enalIes
fhe person fo dIsfInguIsh seIl-conscIousIy lefveen hIm-
or herseIl and everyfhIng eIse. The seIl creafes fhe lasIc
dIllerence fo vhIch aII ongoIng experIence Is sulordI-
nafed. ThIs reLexIve sense may aIso enfaII a sense ol
consIsfency and confInuIfy sImpIy lecause fhe lasIc
dIllerence persIsfs. The lasIc dIllerence lefveen myseIl
and everyfhIng eIse can le endoved vIfh dIllerIng
meanIngs, fransmIffed cuIfuraIIy or engendered ly fhe
experIences ol fhe IndIvIduaI IIle hIsfory. o maffer
vhefher fhe seIl Is represenfed as a quIfe aufonomous
and Independenf leIng, endoved vIfh agency, or as es-
senfIaIIy dependenf on ofhers, fhe lasIc dIllerence per-
sIsfs. AIfhough fhe meanIngs affrIlufed cuIfuraIIy fo
fhe seIl may fhus vary, lor exampIe, In ferms ol fhe de-
gree ol aufonomy If Is conceded, an ImpIIcIf generaI
meanIng ol fhIs mInImaIIy deLned seIl has fo le faIen
Info accounf: The reLexIve dIsfIncfIon lefveen fhe seIl
and everyfhIng eIse enfaIIs af Ieasf some agency. I un-
dersfand ''agency here as fhe alIIIfy fo acf on ones
ovn accounf aIfhough vIfh relerence fo ofhers], fhaf
Is, In Hannah Arendfs i,8] sense, as fhe capacIfy fo
faIe fhe InIfIafIve, fo maIe legInnIngs. ThIs under-
sfandIng cerfaInIy does nof IncIude fhe proposIfIons
fhaf acfIon Is unconsfraIned, commIffed vIfhouf regard
lor ofhers, and fhaf If Ieads fo fhe Infended oufcomes.
The acfuaIIfy ol fhIs mInImum ol agency may le ex-
pressed onIy negafIveIy In a consfanf concern nof fo
compIy vIfh fhe cuIfuraIIy gIven norm ol nor dIs-
pIayIng agency and IndIvIduaIIfy. Ceerfzs i,;j] exam-
pIe ol fhe sfage lrIghf fhaf pervades persons In BaII le-
cause fhey mur nor le pulIIcIy recognIzalIe as
IndIvIduaI seIves and acfors poInfs precIseIy fo fhe lacf
fhaf agency Is an InfegraI alIIIfy ol human leIngsan
alIIIfy vhIch confInuaIIy fhreafens fhe cuIfuraIIy es-
falIIshed norm ol nonIndIvIduaIIfy.
Whaf Is fhe reIafIon lefveen fhe seIl and Ifs IdenfI-
fIes Il fhe seIl assumes fhe IdenfIfy ol leIongIng fo fhe
ShIamy exampIeIf refaIns fhe sense ol remaInIng
dIsfIncf In fhaf If aIso assumes ofher IdenfIfIes nof
shared ly aII ShIIfes. The lacf ol sharIng IInshIp vIfh
SunnIs reLecfs upon ShIIfe IdenfIfy and franslorms Ifs
meanIng and vIce versa]. Dffe ronce franslormIng fhe
meanIng ol IdenfIfIes vorIs vIfhIn fhe seIl and confrIl-
ufes fo fhe sense ol dIsfIncfIon lefveen fhe seIl and ev-
eryfhIng eIse. nes ongoIng experIences are sul}ecf fo
fhIs sense ol seIl. The seIl, fhen, Is an Insfance superor-
dInafe fo fhough nof defached lrom] fhe pIuraIIfy ol
IdenfIfIes. Whereas fhese IdenfIfIes can le experIenced
as a pIuraIIfy, fhe seIl Is experIenced as one lecause If
Is fhe lrame fhaf guaranfees fhe confInuIfy on vhIch
fhe muIfIpIIcIfy ol IdenfIfIes Is InscrIled. Buf, af fhe
same fIme, Il fhe seIl Is IfseIl parf ol a dIllerence, fhen
If Is aIso sul}ecfed fo dffe ronce, fhaf Is, If Is confInu-
ousIy In mofIon and sul}ecf fo change.
The seIl Is nof passIve. If Is Imporfanf fo nofe fhe
agency dIspIayed ly fhe alIIIfy fo manage IdenfIfIes. AII
Hassan seIecfed cerfaIn modes ol acfIon and re}ecfed
ofhers. He pursued hIs acfIon up fo a cerfaIn poInf and
fhen fooI anofher furn e.g., In endIng fhe vIsIf]. He en-
gaged ofher persons In hIs acfIons. In my undersfandIng,
fhe reLecfIve sense ol fhe seIlol leIng dIsfInguIshed
lrom ofherscannof le separafed lrom fhIs agency. Be-
cause aII acfIon fhaf Is, fhe seIecfIon ol a cerfaIn mode
sc xcrcir Se|f, Idenrry, ond Cu|rure z
ol acfIon lrom a range ol possIlIIIfIes] Is accompanIed
ly a reLexIve monIforIng ol Ifs oufcomes CIddens
i,8], acfIng Is synonymous vIfh reconsfIfufIng fhe re-
LexIve sense ol fhe seIl.
AII Hassans sense ol seIl as exhIlIfed In hIs manage-
menf ol IdenfIfIes Is quIfe sfrong. HIs managemenf ol
IdenfIfIes Is lar-sIghfed and rafher IngenIous. He Is very
conscIous ol fhe dIllerIng and conLIcfIng demands
raIsed ly dIllerenf IdenfIfIes and frIes fo maIe hIs vay
vIfhouf leIng forn aparf ly fhem. I am quIfe sure fhaf
fhe lacf fhaf ve vere accompanIed fo apura ly Sher
Khan vas IfseIl an eIemenf ol AII Hassans IdenfIfy
managemenf. Sher Khan hImseIl had no Inferesf In fhe
vIsIf. HIs reIafIon vIfh NaIII Amman vas dIsfanf and
medIafed ly AII Hassan Sher Khan vas a pafernaI
cousIn ol AII Hassans vIle], and, leIng an Imporfanf
Ieader ol fhe ShIIfe communIfy, he vas much sfrIcfer
In reIafIons vIfh SunnIs fhan AII Hassan. The vIsIf dId
nof conler on hIm any symloIIc capIfaI or ofher gaIn
lecause fhIs veddIng vas nof a very represenfafIve
evenf. Rafher, If posed a physIcaI danger fo hIm, as he
had aIready leen fhreafened, and apura vas a vIIIage
vIfh a ma}orIfy ol SunnIs. !InaIIy, fhe vay he lehaved
durIng fhe vIsIf made hIm no lrIends. I presume fhaf AII
Hassan fooI Sher Khan vIfh hIm sImpIy In order fhaf
fhe lIame lor fhe lrIelness ol fhe meefIng and lor es-
chevIng fhe prescrIled profocoI vouId laII on Sher
Khan and nof on hImseIl. If vas Sher Khan vho aImosf
ImmedIafeIy alfer our arrIvaI sfarfed fo press lor our
quIcI deparfure. In fhe dIscussIon vIfh NaIII Amman
and SadIq alouf vhefher fo sfay or fo Ieave, AII Hassan
remaIned conspIcuousIy sIIenf. Here he prelerred fo ap-
pear nof fo le an agenf luf sImpIy fo le compIyIng vIfh
fhe decIsIon ol Sher Khan. When ve Ielf, he sImpIy loI-
Ioved Sher Khan vIfhouf much commenf. !urfher, AII
Hassan had scheduIed fhe vIsIf In such a vay as fo
evade fhe ImmedIafe quesfIon ol vhefher fo have a
meaI In fhe house ol NaIII Amman or nof. We arrIved
In fhe mornIng, and If vas cIear fhaf fhe meaI vouId
nof yef le ready lecause a veddIng meaI requIres con-
sIderalIe fIme lor Ifs preparafIon. llecfIveIy, AII Has-
san avoIded open conLIcf ly comIng fogefher vIfh Sher
Khan, vho ImmedIafeIy vanfed fo Ieave, and ly com-
Ing earIy enough fo le sure fhaf fhe meaI, so heavIIy
lurdened vIfh symloIIc confenf, couId nof quIcIIy le
served. He vas Inferesfed In fhe vIsIf lecause NaIII
Amman vas a cIose and esfeemed reIafIve, luf he had
fo faIe fhe reIIgIous dIllerence Info accounf.
NaIII Amman and hIs lamIIy aIso frIed fo manage
IdenfIfIes. They vere eager fo pIay dovn fhe reIIgIous
sIgnILcance ol fhe vIsIf. By InvoIIng fhe o||e boyr In
hIs prayer, SadIq even commIffed an acf ol oufrIghf seIl-
denIaI, lor fhaf Is vhaf sayIng such a prayer amounfs
fo lor a sfrIcf Wahali. And NaIII Ammans son, vhen
accompanyIng us fo fhe }eep, expIIcIfIy pIed lor dIsre-
gardIng fhe reIIgIous dIllerence and sImpIy acfIng as reI-
afIves Insfead. lvIousIy, he vas nof convInced ly Sher
Khans asserfIon fhaf ve had fo Ieave onIy lecause he
had fo affend a meefIng.
AII Hassans sfrafegy ol IdenfIfy managemenf en-
alIed hIm fo remaIn fo a cerfaIn exfenf IoyaI fo lofh
confradIcfIng IdenfIfIes. He vas IoyaI fo hIs reIafIves In
fhaf he vIsIfed fhem on fhe occasIon ol fhe veddIng,
and he vas IoyaI fo hIs reIIgIous communIfy In fhaf fhIs
vIsIf vas sfrIcfIy IImIfed and dId nof IncIude commen-
saIIfy across fhe lorders ol fhe secfs. Where veddIng
and hospIfaIIfy efIqueffe vas vIoIafed, If vas nof hIs
lauIf luf Sher Khans.
When ve dIscussed fhe vIsIf fhe nexf day, AII Hassan
enfered a second sfage ol seIl-represenfafIon. Here he
presenfed a consIsfenf seIl ly ellecfIveIy denyng con-
scIous ellorfs and sfrafegIes ol IdenfIfy managemenf.
He frIed fo represenf hImseIl sImpIy as sIncere and nof
as conscIousIy manIpuIafIng IdenfIfIes. AccordIng fo
hIm, ve dId nof Ieave In order fo eschev fhe compro-
mIsIng meaI. He even asserfed fhaf he couId have
sfayed unfII fhe meaI vas served and fhen parfaIen ol
If, sImpIy relusIng fhe meaf and eafIng onIy pIaIn
''soup. ThIs asserfIon Is ol course grofesque. A ved-
dIng meaI vIfhouf meaf Is no veddIng meaI af aII. Hos-
pIfaIIfy, In any case and even more so af a veddIng, re-
quIres fhaf fhe hosf oller hIs guesf fhe lesf pIeces and
pracfIcaIIy lorce fhe guesf fo faIe fhem. If vouId have
leen an InsuIf Il AII Hassan had re}ecfed precIseIy fhe
meaf vhIch NaIII Amman vas expecfed fo puf In espe-
cIaIIy rIch pIeces on hIs pIafe. In fhe confexf ol fhe ShI-
Ife-SunnI conLIcf, vhere everylody Inev vhaf vas af
sfaIe, fhaf re}ecfIon vouId have amounfed fo a pulIIc
reproach ol fhe hosf as a |o fr.
By oufIInIng fo me fhIs hypofhefIcaI sfrafegy ol par-
faIIng In fhe meaI vIfhouf consumIng meaf, AII Has-
san vas denyIng fo me fhaf ve had Ielf NaIII Ammans
house lecause ol reIIgIous consIderafIons. He vas fry-
Ing fo convInce me, as he had frIed fo convInce our
hosfs, fhaf our deparfure vas due onIy fo Sher Khans
olIIgafIons. ThIs vay ol InferprefIng hIs acfIon enalIed
AII Hassan fo presenf hImseIl as nof havIng succumled
fo fhe pIflaIIs ol conLIcfIng IdenfIfIes or fhe pressures
ol fhe conLIcf lefveen ShIIfes and SunnIs. AccordIng
fo hIs seIl-represenfafIon, hIs acfIon vas nof predefer-
mIned ly a LeId ol poIarIzed IdenfIfIes. He vas eager
fo dIspIay hIs agency, fhaf Is, hIs alIIIfy fo acf rafher
IndependenfIy In accordance vIfh hIs ovn vaIues and
mofIvafIons In a socIaI confexf heavIIy lurdened vIfh
consfraInfs on fhe range ol InferacfIon.
In AII Hassans case, fhe consIsfency ol fhe seIl resfs
on fhe alIIIfy fo descrIle ones acfIons and Ideas In a
more or Iess consIsfenf vayeven Il fhIs Is quesfIoned
ly an InferIocufor. Therelore, ve can speaI ol a norro
rve e|f. An Imporfanf eIemenf ol AII Hassans narra-
i. Thaf AII Hassan vas very conscIous ol vhaf had leen af sfaIe
on fhIs occasIon lecame olvIous vhen, a lev veeIs Iafer, fhe ved-
dIng ol one ol hIs ovn sons vas ceIelrafed. n fhaf day he and hIs
sons severaI fImes specuIafed alouf vhefher anyone lrom NaIII
Ammans lamIIy vouId affend fhe evenf. In fhe end no one came
lrom apura, luf NaIII Ammans second lrofher senf a }eep vIfh
a drIver fo fransporf AII Hassans lamIIy fo fhe house ol fhe lrIdes
lamIIy. They pracfIced fheIr ovn managemenf ol IdenfIfIes ly con-
frIlufIng somefhIng Imporfanf and hIghIy vaIued fo fhe ceIelrafIon
vIfhouf comIng foo cIose fo compromIsIng meaIs.
z6 cDvvci Ainvcicicc. Vo|ume o, Number , AugurOcrober 1,,,
fIve sfrafegy ol seIl-represenfafIon vas agency: He de-
cIded hov fo acf, choosIng hIs mode ol acfIon lrom a
numler ol avaIIalIe aIfernafIves. He couId even have
sfayed and parfaIen In fhe meaIeafIng onIy soup. The
narrafIve seIl resuIfs In fhe creafIon ol a personaI Image.
ThIs Image has fo reIafe fo fhe IdenfIfIes emlraced ly
fhe seIl. IdenfIfIes are Indeed connecfed vIfh ''gIven or
''shared Images such as sfereofypes, expecfafIons, and
roIes, luf fhe seIl Is nof exhausfed ly fhem. IdenfIfIes
can le consIdered as luIIdIng lIocIs lor fhe consfruc-
fIon ol an Image ol fhe seIl. These lIocIs are nof sImpIy
IaId as fhey are suppIIed luf are frImmed and gIven
lorms fhaf can le Incorporafed Info a more or Iess Infe-
grafed vhoIe. Thaf Is, IdenfIfIes are Inferprefed ly fhe
acfIng human leIng In specILc vays.
Ny descrIpfIon ol AII Hassans represenfafIon ol a
more or Iess consIsfenf seIl olvIousIy confradIcfs v-
Ings i,,o] depIcfIon ol such seIl-represenfafIons as II-
Iusory. !rom her conversafIons vIfh a young aIIsfanI
voman vho rapIdIy shIlfs fhrough an array ol confra-
dIcfory seIl-represenfafIons vhIIe faIIIng e.g., lrom an
oledIenf daughfer fo a seIl-asserfIve sfudenf] vIng
concIudes fhaf fhe seIl-experIence ol consIsfency Is an
IIIusIon lased on fhe lacf fhaf rupfures and shIlfs ol seIl-
represenfafIon are nof recognIzed ly fhe IndIvIduaI as
Iong as each represenfafIon Lfs approprIafeIy Info Ifs
parfIcuIar dIscursIve confexf. The IIIusory] experIence
ol vhoIeness and consIsfency ol fhe seIl fhen resfs on
a supposed ''sIIcIng ol confexfuaIIy dIllerenf] experI-
ences Info dIsconnecfed segmenfs. InconsIsfency vouId
enfer avareness, accordIng fo vIng, onIy Il fhIs confIn-
uous shIlfIng ol seIl accordIng fo cIrcumsfances vere
hampered or Il a seIl-represenfafIon vere fo conLIcf
vIfh fhe confexf In quesfIon.
Buf fhIs consIsfency-enalIIng sIIcIng ol experIence Is
possIlIe onIy as Iong as a IeveI ol pure dIscourse Is nof
fransgressed. vIngs InferIocufor can execufe her
shIlfs In seIl-represenfafIons vIfhouf lecomIng avare
ol InconsIsfencIes onIy so Iong as she Is speaIIng vIfh
her anfhropoIogIsf InfervIever, dIssocIafed lrom any so-
cIaI confexf ol pracfIcaI reIevance. Il she had perlormed
fhe same shIlfs ol seIl-represenfafIon In lronf ol her par-
enfs, fhey mIghf have sfrongIy remInded her fhaf fhere
Is a confradIcfIon lefveen fhe represenfafIon as oledI-
enf daughfer and fhe one as seIl-asserfIve sfudenf. Whaf
I am caIIIng lor payIng affenfIon fo In anfhropoIogIcaI
anaIysIs Is a represenfafIon ol fhe seIl fhaf emerges onIy
ofrer fhe conscIous experIence ol such conLIcfs In so-
cIaI InferacfIon. In confrasf fo fhe seIl-represenfafIons
vhIch I vouId caII ''IdenfIfIes] ol vIngs InferIocu-
for, AII Hassans seIl cannof avoId fhe conLIcf lefveen
leIng a reIafIve ol NaIII Amman and leIng a memler
ol a dIllerenf secf lecause he has fo deaI pracfIcaIIy vIfh
lofh. He couId do If In pure dIscourseas he dId ly as-
serfIng fhaf he couId have parfaIen In fhe meaI vhIIe
re}ecfIng fhe meafluf he couId nof do If In pracfIce.
Hovever, he vas dIspIayIng a seIl affempfIng fo deaI
precIseIy vIfh such confradIcfIons. Such a seIl couId
prolalIy le dIscovered In vIngs young voman Il she
vere accompanIed fhrough conLIcfuaI rocrco| mo-
menfs ol her IIlefhrough sIfuafIons In vhIch she
vouId perhaps le fryIng fo le an oledIenf daughfer luf
nonefheIess fo pursue hIgher educafIon and fo vorI.
The narrafIve seIl, fhe personaI Image deveIoped and
dIspIayed In such sIfuafIons, cerfaInIy cannof remaIn
fhe same. If Is franslormed as fhe acfor reIafes fo ofher
confexfs and fo ofher co-acfors, InfegrafIng hIm- or her-
seIl Info ofher nefvorIs. AcfIon resfrucfures socIaI reIa-
fIons and resuIfs In a reInferprefafIon ol socIaI confexfs,
and fhus fhe meanIng ol fhe dIsfIncfIon lrom ofhers
fhe reLexIve sense ol seIlchanges. The seIl Is nof dIs-
fInguIshed lrom aII ofhers In fhe same vay. The dIller-
ence IdenfIfy] dIsfInguIshIng AII Hassan lrom SunnIs Is
dIllerenf lrom fhe dIllerence dIsfInguIshIng hIm lrom
S

in. AccordIngIy, fhe confenfs ol fhe seIlfhe Image


and represenfafIon fhaf are dIspIayeddo nof remaIn
fhe same lor an oufsIde olserver IooIIng af fhe IndIvId-
uaI as he or she moves fhrough changIng confexfs.
To counfer mIsfaIen concIusIons I have fo emphasIze
fhaf If Is nof my InfenfIon fo presenf AII Hassan as a
aufonomousIy acfIng IndIvIduaI, as a voIunfarIsfIc seIl.
ThIs ol course he Is nof. He vas olvIousIy faIIng socIaI
and cuIfuraI consfraInfs Info accounf. The prolIem he
vas fryIng fo soIve vIfh hIs mode ol acfIon vas prees-
falIIshed ly a Iong hIsfory ol pover reIafIons and sfrug-
gIe. He couId nof acf as Il fhere vere no conLIcf le-
fveen ShIIfes and SunnIs, and he couId nof achIeve fhe
aIms ol hIs acfIon compIefeIy undIsfurled. The ofhers
vere acfIng foo, advancIng conLIcfIng aIms, Inferprefa-
fIons, and represenfafIons agaInsf AII Hassans. He
couId nof avoId a cerfaIn conLIcf vIfh hIs reIafIves af
apura fhaf mIghf have produced some esfrangemenf,
and he couId nof dIspeI my doulfs alouf fhe sfory he
foId. AIso, hIs dIspIay ol agency In hIs narrafIve vas cur-
faIIed ly fhese consfraInfs. In lacf, In order nof fo ap-
pear fo have leen defermIned ly reIIgIous anfagonIsm,
he chose fo deIegafe hIs agency fo fhe scheduIe ol Sher
Khan. Buf If Is Imporfanf fo reaIIze fhaf, enfangIed In
such consfraInfs, anfagonIsms, and haIl-reaIIzed aIms,
he dIspIayed a sfrong sense ol seIl, seffIng hImseIl aparf
lrom ofhers and fryIng fo manage fhe IdenfIfIes fhrough
vhIch he reIafed fo ofhers In fhe vay fhaf seemed mosf
leneLcIaI fo hIm.
AII Hassan Is nof represenfafIve ol fhe scene In CIIgIf.
To fhe confrary, hIs mode ol acfIon vas quIfe excep-
fIonaI. !acIng fhe consfraInfs ol a deepIy enfrenched po-
IarIzafIon lefveen ShIIfes and SunnIs, mosf ofher per-
sons In CIIgIf vouId have decIded fo puf one IdenfIfy
prolalIy fhe reIIgIous one] Lrsf and fo acf accord-
IngIyfhaf Is, fhey vouId nof have vIsIfed fheIr IIn ol
fhe ofher secf on a sImIIar occasIon. And, ol course, so-
cIaI IdeoIogy In CIIgIf gIves as much veIghf fo fhe lene-
Lfs ol ones communIfy and as IIffIe Imporfance fo seIl-
Inferesf as In ofher Soufh AsIan socIefIes. Here foo, In-
dIvIduaIs deLne fhemseIves In ferms ol fheIr alLIIa-
fIons. AII fhIs does nof, hovever, render AII Hassans
exampIe vaIueIess. Whaf AII Hassan shovs us Is fhaf
even In a seemIngIy ''anfI-IndIvIduaI socIaI and cuI-
furaI seffIng If Is possIlIe fo deveIop a sfrong sense ol
seIl. He feaches us fhaf recordIng vaIues and IdeoIogIes
sc xcrcir Se|f, Idenrry, ond Cu|rure z;
Is nof sulLcIenf fo arrIve af a laIrIy correcf Image ol so-
cIaI reaIIfy. To anaIyze cuIfuraI concepfIons ol fhe per-
son feIIs us IIffIe alouf vhaf persons fhus conceIved do
and hov fhey fry fo] appear. And AII Hassans acfIon
poInfs ouf fhaf fhe amlIvaIence creafed ly a muIfIpIIc-
Ify ol In each case consfraInIng] IdenfIfIes creafes a
space lor nonpredefermIned acfIons ol fhe IndIvIduaI.
CuIfure and SeIl
ConvenfIonaIIy, psychoIogIcaI anfhropoIogIsfs speaI
nof alouf fhe seIl as an acfuaI reLexIve cenfer ol fhe
person luf onIy alouf cu|ruro| concer ol such a cen-
fer. ThIs dIsfIncfIon Is crucIaI, as If reIIeves anfhropoIo-
gIsfs lrom gIvIng Imporfance fo ''acfuaI seIves and
lrom reconcepfuaIIzIng fhe reIafIonshIp lefveen cuI-
fure and seIl. SomefImes If seems fo le assumed fhaf,
cuIfuraI norms and concepfs asIde, persons ol course
leeI, acf, and are experIenced ly ofhers as IndIvIduaI
seIves. Buf fhIs does nof appIy fo aII cases. In fhe dIs-
course alouf non-Wesfern seIves, fhe sIgnILed and fhe
sIgnILer are nof aIvays Iepf aparf. Ceerfz, lor exampIe,
vrofe alouf fhe acfuaI seIl-represenfafIon ol fhe person
and nof alouf some cuIfuraI concepfIon, as SpIro i,,j]
emphasIzes. SImIIarIIy, Iumonf i,;o] conLafes fhe
cuIfuraI norm ol nonIndIvIduaIIfy In IndIa vIfh socIaI
reaIIfy. CIven fhe Imporfance ol fhe concepf ol cuIfure
In anfhropoIogy and Ifs convenfIonaI meanIng, If Is
cIear fhaf a dIsfIncfIon lefveen a cuIfuraI concepfIon
ol fhe seIl or person and fhe ''acfuaI seIl or person can-
nof le sfrIcfIy maInfaIned. CuIfure Is undersfood nof as
somefhIng ephemeraI luf, accordIng fo a domInanf
vIev, as a ''pover consfIfufed ly sysfems ol shared
meanIng fhaf Is ellecfIve In shapIng socIaI reaIIfy. CuI-
fure, Ceerfz i,66] feIIs us, Is nof onIy a mode| of luf
aIso a mode| for. AccordIngIy, Shveder and Bourne
i,8] compare expIIcIfIy cuIfuraI concepfs ol fhe per-
son and nof ''empIrIcaI agenfs, as Iumonf vouId say,
luf fhey end up descrIlIng hov a parfIcuIar concepf
goes fogefher vIfh a cerfaIn sfyIe ol socIaIIzafIon ol fhe
person. The concepf maIes Ifs marI on fhe ''acfuaI
person. The fvo cannof reaIIy le separafed.
An InferesfIng exampIe ol fhe anaIysIs ol cuIfuraI
concepfs Is NarIIyn Sfrafherns i,,o] comparafIve
sfudy ol NeIanesIan cuIfure. She re}ecfs a numler ol
loundafIonaI cafegorIes ol anfhropoIogIcaI and socIoIog-
IcaI dIscourse lor her anaIysIs lecause fhey do nof Lf
Info fhe concepfuaI[cuIfuraI vorId ol NeIanesIans.
Among ofher fhIngs, NeIanesIans do nof recognIze any
prolIemafIcaI reIafIonshIp and opposIfIon lefveen In-
dIvIduaI and socIefy, fhey do nof even have concepfs ol
fhese enfIfIes deemed lasIc In mosf Wesfern dIscourse.
Sfrafhern consfrues fhe NeIanesIan concepfs ol seIl[
person[agenf[IndIvIduaI In sharp confrasf and opposI-
fIon fo Wesfern concepfs. The overaII dIsfIncfIon le-
fveen fhe fvo fypes ol cuIfure Is provIded ly fhe mefa-
phor ol gIlf socIefy NeIanesIa] versus commodIfy
socIefy ''fhe Wesf]. In a commodIfy socIefy, fhe seIl
Is ImagIned as fhe aufhor and cause ol acfIons vhIch,
aIong vIfh fheIr producfs, leIong fo If. AIIenafIon ol an
ofhers producfs fherelore pofenfIaIIy allecfs fhe ofhers
seIl. There Is no such possessIve and pofenfIaIIy expIoIf-
afIve reIafIonshIp lefveen seIves In NeIanesIa, ac-
cordIng fo Sfrafhern. Here, a seIl[agenf Is nof fhe aufhor
ol Ifs acfIon lecause If aIvays acfs ''on lehaIl ol an
ofher. AcfIon aIms af fhe franslormafIon ol a reIafIon
lefveen persons and af fhe same fIme Is caused ly fhIs
reIafIonshIp. Because persons are consfrucfs ol reIa-
fIons, acfIon resuIfs In fhe franslormafIon ol persons.
ThIs case ol sfrIcf socIocenfrIsm raIses a numler ol
quesfIons. Sfephen i,,:iz] poInfs ouf fhaf fhe anaIy-
sIs hardIy Ieaves a pIace lor a conscIous seIl In fhe sense
ol a person avare ol leIng an agenf. Indeed, acfIon and
agency seem fo le reduced In Sfrafherns descrIpfIon fo
re-acfIon and ''re-agency, as fhe agenf never confaIns
Ifs cause vIfhIn IfseIl. The approprIafeness ol fhe
Wesfern] concepfs ol agency and acfIon fo fhIs case,
fhen, remaIns delafalIe. !urfher, doulfs remaIn
vhefher NeIanesIans are ''reaIIy as dIllerenf as fhey
are porfrayed. CarrIer i,,6b] argues fhaf fhe generaI de-
scrIpfIon ol NeIanesIan socIefy as a gIlf socIefy ImpIIes
fhe exfensIon ol exchange reIafIons perfaInIng specIL-
caIIy fo fhe rIfuaI sphere fo fhe vhoIe ol socIaI IIle. ThIs
laIIs fo faIe Info accounf fhaf fhe peopIe ol evCuInea
and ofher IsIands are ol course Infegrafed Info a marIef
economy and fherelore parfaIe ol commodIfy reIafIons
as veII. Whaf Is mIssIng, accordIngIy, Is fhe specILca-
fIon ol fhe parfIcuIar cIrcumsfances under vhIch peopIe
In NeIanesIa undersfand and represenf fhemseIves In
fhe manner porfrayed ly Sfrafhern. In my undersfand-
Ing Sfrafherns approach Is aIso quesfIonalIe lecause If
consfrucfs a rafher lIased modeI ol Wesfern concepfs ol
agency and fhe seIl. She emphasIzes fhe sInguIarIfy and
possessIveness ol reIafIons lefveen agenfs and fheIr
acfs or producfs In fhe Wesf, In vhIch any InfervenfIon
ly ofhers Is regarded as an InfrusIon Sfrafhern i,,o:
i8]. She faIes as a generaI modeI lor fhe concepf ol
human acfIvIfy In fhe Wesf vhaf accordIng fo Arendf
i,8] Is luf one modaIIfy ol fhe human vro ocrvo.
vorI. Confrary fo vorI, acfIon In a specILc sense Is
characferIzed nof ly fhe possessIve sInguIarIfy ol a reIa-
fIon lefveen fhe agenf, vho does fhe vorI, and hIs
producf luf ly fhe lundamenfaI pIuraIIfy ol human
agenfs and fheIr mufuaI reIafIonshIps. AcfIng aIvays re-
Iafes fo ofher human leIngs and faIes fhese ofhers Info
accounf, much as, accordIng fo Sfrafhern, acfIng In NeI-
anesIa Is aIvays acfIng ''on lehaIl ol someone eIse. l
course, Sfrafhern Is vrIfIng onIy alouf cuIfuraI con-
cepfs, nof alouf acfuaI seIves or IndIvIduaIs In NeI-
anesIa. Such acfuaI seIvespeopIe faIIIng and doIng
many dIllerenf fhIngsare conspIcuousIy alsenf lrom
her looI. The quesfIon remaIns vhefher Sfrafherns
synfhesIs ol NeIanesIan concepfs Is possIlIe precIseIy
lecause ol fhIs alsence.
In addIfIon fo fhe dIsfIncfIon lefveen concepfs and
acfuaI seIves, fhere are ofher dIsfIncfIons fhaf are dIlL-
cuIf fo maInfaIn. Nany vrIfers have nofed fhaf fhe re-
Iafed concepfs ''IndIvIduaI, ''person, and ''seIl gef
mIxed up In fhe delafe, causIng mIsundersfandIngs and
z8 cDvvci Ainvcicicc. Vo|ume o, Number , AugurOcrober 1,,,
renderIng comparIson dIlLcuIf. ConsequenfIy, HarrIs
i,8,] caIIs lor IeepIng fhem sfrIcfIy aparf and proposes
deLnIfIons Infended fo lacIIIfafe an ordered dIscourse.
I doulf vhefher fhIs Is reaIIy leasIlIe. IngoId i,,i]
sfrongIy chaIIenges fhe separafIon ol fhe lIoIogIcaI or-
ganIsm fhe IndIvIduaI, In HarrIss ferms] lrom fhe per-
son and seIl, arguIng fhaf fhe process ol lecomIng ol fhe
human organIsm and ol fhe human person[seIl Is In lacf
one. !urfher, HarrIss demand lor a separafIon ol con-
cepfs succumls fo a IogIcaI laIIacy fhaf Is very common
In anfhropoIogIcaI approaches fo InfercuIfuraI comparI-
son. She faIes anaIyfIc ferms fo eIIcIf emIc undersfand-
Ings, fhaf Is, she uses unIversaIIsf fooIs lor reIafIvIsf
purposes. The fhree cafegorIes are derIved lrom ''Wesf-
ern dIscourse aIfhough fhey are nof aIvays consIs-
fenfIy dIsfInguIshed vIfhIn fhIs dIscourse], luf fhey are
approprIafed as unIversaI pIgeonhoIes lor InfercuIfuraI
purposes. Hovever, Il ve assume fhaf concepfs ol fhe
seIl vary cross-cuIfuraIIy, hov can ve suppose fhaf a
dIsfIncfIon lefveen seIl, person, and IndIvIduaI Is In aII
cuIfures maInfaIned consIsfenfIy accordIng fo our ana-
IyfIc undersfandIngor even fhaf If Is maInfaIned af
aII These ferms are nof reaIIy Iepf separafe In Wesfern
cuIfuraI undersfandIng and dIscourse, hov, fhen, can
ve expecf fhaf fhey are dIsfInguIshed In ofher cuIfures
dIscourse ven Il ve anaIyfIcaIIy dIsfInguIsh fhese
fhree aspecfs ol fhe human leIng, ve have fo assume
fhaf fhey heavIIy InLuence one anofher and reLecf
upon one anofher and fhaf IeepIng fhem separafe Is
more a useluI LcfIon fhan a cogenf represenfafIon ol hu-
man IIle.
Bofh cognIfIve and InferprefIve anfhropoIogy have
caused anfhropoIogIsfs fo gIve more Imporfance fo hov
peopIe fhInI and vhaf fhey say fhan fo hov fhey acf.
AccordIngIy, cuIfuraI concepfs ol fhe seIl have leen an-
aIyzed much more fhoroughIy fhan fhe vay seIves ap-
pear In fhe acfIons ol humans. ThIs prIvIIegIng ol con-
cepfs carrIes consIderalIe danger, lecause If rareIy asIs
vho acfuaIIy hoIds vhIch concepfs alouf vhom. The
onfoIogIcaI sfafus ol ''cuIfuraI concepfs depends on a
parfIcuIar undersfandIng ol cuIfure and echoes Iur-
IheIms concepf ol ''coIIecfIve represenfafIons, vhIch
BrIfIsh luncfIonaIIsfs made synonymous vIfh socIaI
and cuIfuraI defermInIsm see KuIIIcI i,,i:izo]. ThIs
Idea vas faIen as }usfILcafIon lor fhe lacf fhaf socIaI
anfhropoIogy gave IIffIe affenfIon fo fhe IndIvIduaI, re-
gardIng fhe socIaI as Ifs onIy ol}ecf. NaIInovsII argued,
accordIngIy, ''As socIoIogIsfs, ve are nof Inferesfed In
i6. In HarrIss undersfandIng, ''IndIvIduaI relers fo fhe lIoIogIcaI
aspecfs ol fhe human leIng, vhereas ''person reler fo Ifs socIaI
and ''seIl fo Ifs psychoIogIcaI aspecfs.
i;. !or exampIe, La !onfaIne i,8] argues fhaf fhe CahuIu-Cama
ol apua ev CuInea do nof recognIze fhIs dIsfIncfIon.
i8. NorrIs foo argued lor a sImIIar dIsfIncfIon lefveen concepfs
''human sul}ecf. ''person, and ''seIl, In hIs case], luf fhen,
InovIng fhaf fhIs dIsfIncfIon cannof pracfIcaIIy le maInfaIned
consIsfenfIy, excused hImseIl lor nof doIng so, frusfIng ''fhaf fhIs
IacI ol precIsIon In fhe use ol ferms vIII nof dIsfurl fhe reader
i,,:i6]. Inder fhe generaI fIfIe ''AnfhropoIogy ol fhe SeIl he
fhen dIscussed ''concepfIons ol fhe person chaps. 6. and ;].
vhaf A or B may leeI uo IndIvIduaIs . . . onIy In vhaf
fhey leeI uo memlers ol a gIven communIfy i,zz:
zj]. In fhIs IIne ol fhoughf, fhe anaIysIs ol cuIfuraI
concepfs ol fhe seIl ol fhe person, efc.] onIy apparenfIy
gIves affenfIon fo fhe IndIvIduaI human leIng In sfudy-
Ing Ifs ''coIIecfIve represenfafIons.
The concepfuaIIzafIon ol fhe reIafIon lefveen IndI-
vIduaI and socIefy has sInce leen reshaped, movIng
avay lrom lofh socIaI defermInIsm and mefhodoIogIcaI
IndIvIduaIIsm fovard a more dIaIecfIcaI undersfand-
Ing In vhIch IndIvIduaI and socIefy are reIafed ly
mufuaI consfIfufIon or ''sfrucfurafIon, In CIddenss
ji,8| ferms]. ConsequenfIaIIy, vhaf A and B leeI do,
say . . . ] as IndIvIduaIs and as memlers ol socIefy
cannof le separafed, lecause as IndIvIduaIs fhey are aI-
vays memlers ol socIefy, engaged In an ongoIng pro-
cess ol mufuaI sfrucfurafIon and franslormafIon.
ThIs relormuIafIon has fo le faIen Info accounf In
fhe anfhropoIogIcaI dIscussIon ol ''cuIfuraI concepfs.
veryone vIII agree, I suppose, fhaf concepfs are heId
and expressed nof ly cuIfures luf ly human leIngs.
Who, concrefeIy, voIces a concepf fhaf Is accorded fhe
sfafus ol a ''cuIfuraI one AsIed dIllerenfIy, vhIch
peopIe do anfhropoIogIsfs asI In order fo eIIcIf a cu|
ruro| concepf Can ve assume fhaf fhe IndIvIduaIs vho
are supposed fo leIong fo ''a cuIfure share fhe respec-
fIve concepfs r do ve have fo faIe dIllerIng under-
sfandIngs reIafed fo dIllerenfIaI Inferesfs, sul}ecf] posI-
fIons, and IndIvIduaI exegesIs Info accounf
If Is somefImes argued fhaf concepfs ol fhe seIl or, lor
fhaf maffer, fhe person or fhe IndIvIduaI are cuIfuraIIy
varIalIe lecause aII peopIe are nof aIvays conceded fo
le persons everyvhere. SIaves In ancIenf Creece vere
nof consIdered persons lecause fhey dId nof possess fhe
rIghfs ol a lree CreeI, and If Is argued fhaf prIsoners In
azI concenfrafIon camps vere ellecfIveIy denIed per-
sonhood ly fhe lrufaI sysfem ol repressIon HarrIs
i,8,]. Buf vhaf Is af sfaIe here Is Iess concepfs ol fhe
person fhan sfrafegIes ol domInafIon and exfreme op-
pressIon vhIch may aIso Lnd fheIr expressIon In parfIc-
uIar concepfs and fheIr appIIcafIon ro or|er. Hovever,
ve shouId nof le confenf vIfh recordIng fhaf CreeI
sIaves vere nof persons lecause fheIr masfers dId nof
regard fhem as such or fhaf In concenfrafIon camps
i,. Among fhe loundIng lafhers ol anfhropoIogy, Boas granfed fhe
IndIvIduaI more Imporfance, aIIovIng If nof onIy fo le defermIned
ly socIefy luf In furn aIso fo change socIefy. He crIfIcIzed anfhro-
poIogy lor nof payIng enough affenfIon fo fhe vays In vhIch fhe
acfIvIfIes ol IndIvIduaIs allecf fheIr cuIfure i,8z:z68]. Inlorfu-
nafeIy, fhIs vas nof sulLcIenf fo gIve AmerIcan anfhropoIogy a sIg-
nILcanfIy dIllerenf perspecfIve In fhIs regard. Kroelers i,i;] con-
cepfuaIIzafIon ol cuIfure as fhe ''superorganIc removed If
compIefeIy lrom fhe reach ol IndIvIduaIs, and BenedIcf i,,] re-
duced fhe IndIvIduaI fo a cuIfure-learer sul}ecf fo cuIfuraI defer-
mInIsm.
zo. SpIro i,,j], lor Insfance, argued fhaf fhe persons lrom vhom
Shveder and Bourne eIIcIfed fheIr ''Wesfern concepf ol fhe seIl
mIghf have InLuenced fhe confenfs ol fhIs concepf lecause fhey
IncIuded a numler ol psychoIogIsfs vho vere prolessIonaIIy en-
gaged In fhe exegesIs ol fhe seIl.
sc xcrcir Se|f, Idenrry, ond Cu|rure z,
fhere vas a sysfemafIc affempf fo desfroy fhe per-
sonhood ol prIsoners. We have fo go on fo asI vhefher
sIaves or prIsoners compIIed vIfh fhe verdIcf ol fheIr
masfers and oppressors or vhefher fhey had fheIr ovn
sulversIve sfrafegIes ol maInfaInIng and reconsfrucfIng
personhood and seIl even under very unlavoralIe cIr-
cumsfances. In fhe azI concenfrafIon camps such
sfrafegIes vere exfremeIy rIsIy. Il fhey vere dIscovered
ly fhe guards, prIsoners vere sul}ecfed fo exfreme pun-
Ishmenf, IncIudIng, very olfen, execufIon. Buf vhaf
sfrIIes me Is fhaf even lacIng deafh many prIsoners
vere nof ready fo surrender fheIr ovn and fheIr leIIov
prIsoners personhood. We may arrIve, fhen, af fhe
concIusIon fhaf fo le or nof fo le a person Is Iess a ques-
fIon ol cuIfuraI concepfs fhan ol parfIcuIar vays ol In-
feracfIon lefveen IndIvIduaIs posIfIoned In a compIex
sysfem ol pover reIafIonshIps vho sfruggIe fo maInfaIn
or fo Improve fheIr posIfIon vIfh regard fo ofhers. Con-
sequenfIy, affenfIon fo acfuaI IndIvIduaIs Is requIred. Il
ve fhus drav a connecfIon lefveen reIafIons ol pover
and fhe appIIcafIon ol concepfs ol fhe seIl[person fo
ofhers, ve aIso have fo asI lromvhaf posIfIon ol repre-
senfafIonaI] pover anfhropoIogy Is alIe fo deny or fo
pIay dovn fhe seIl or IndIvIduaIIfy ol Ifs ofhers.
In much recenf anfhropoIogIcaI dIscourse, cuIfure,
fhe lasIc concepf ol fhe dIscIpIIne, has dIssoIved Info a
sfream ol cuIfuraI processes vIfh uncerfaIn pIaces and
loundarIes. o Ionger a Lxed lody ol fradIfIons, mean-
Ing, or ofher eIemenfs, cuIfure has lecome somefhIng
consfanfIy ''In fhe maIIngan ever-changIng ouf-
come ol socIaI processes and sfruggIes !ox i,8, cl.
Barfh i,8,, i,,j]. The more fhe concepf ol cuIfure vas
approprIafed ly poIIfIcaI dIscourse lor fhe saIe ol ol}ec-
fIlyIng dIllerence e.g., SfoIcIe i,,], fhe Iess Lxed and
correspondIng fo an ol}ecf ''cuIfure lecame In anfhro-
poIogIcaI vrIfIng. WIcIer, lor Insfance, deLnes cuIfure
sImpIy as ''fhe alIIIfy fo produce recIprocaI symloIIc re-
IafIons and fo lorm meanIng fhrough InferacfIon
i,,;:j,o]. Buf Il cuIfure no Ionger exIsfs In fhe sense
ol o cuIfure, shared ly fhe memlers ol a socIefy, vhaf
Is Ielf lor non-Wesfern peopIefhose vIfhouf a seIl
vho are supposed fo have a cuIfuraI IdenfIfy Insfead
fo derIve fheIr IdenfIfy lrom And Il peopIe emlrace nof
onIy one IdenfIfy luf a muIfIpIIcIfy ol IdenfIfIes reIafed
fo changIng confexfs, vhaf Is fhere In fhem fhaf feIIs
fhem vhen and hov fo change lrom one IdenfIfy fo an-
ofher and fo v|c| ofher]
In fhe oIder, reILed undersfandIng, cuIfure and Iden-
zi. A numler ol very movIng accounfs ol survIvors ol AuschvIfz
fhaf can le read In fhIs vay are coIIecfed In AdIer, LangleIn, and
LIngens-ReIner i,,]. In one fesfImony, }o zel SfemIer descrIles
hov one ol hIs leIIovs vas frampIed fo deafh ly an SS olLcer vhIIe
fhey vere dIggIng frenches oufsIde fhe camp. A oIIsh prIesf vho
had vIfnessed fhe scene Ielf hIs pIace, crepf fo fhe assassInafed
one, cIeaned hIs lace ol lIood, and cIosed hIs eyes, InovIng fhaf Il
hIs acfIon vas dIscovered ly fhe SS he vouId suller fhe same lafe.
Here fhe prIsoner vas nof ready fo gIve up fhe personhood ol hIs
murdered companIon and fooI fhe rIsI ol accordIng hIm af Ieasf
rudImenfarIIy decenf freafmenf alfer deafh SfemIer i,,:zz].
fIfy seemed fo le concepfuaI fvIns, LrmIy lound fo one
anofher. CuIfure vas somefhIng shared fhaf characfer-
Ized a group coIIecfIveIy, }usf IIIe IdenfIfy. ThIs
''sharedness pracfIcaIIy amounfed fo a premIse dIverf-
Ing affenfIon lrom fhe IndIvIduaIIfy ol fhe peopIe an-
fhropoIogy vas sfudyIng. o maffer vhefher fhese peo-
pIe possessed IndIvIduaIIfy or nof, anfhropoIogy vas
Inferesfed nof In vhaf dIsfInguIshed fhem IndIvIduaIIy
luf onIy In common, shared eIemenfs.
The evoIufIon vhIch fhe concepfs ol cuIfure and
IdenfIfy has undergone has franslormed fhem In reIafed
and quIfe sImIIar vays, luf fhIs franslormafIon has
made If dIlLcuIf fo conceIve ol a reIafIon lefveen fhem
vIfhouf laIIIng lacI Info fhe frap ol reILcafIon, fhaf Is,
vIfhouf momenfarIIy reIlyIng af Ieasf one ol fhem. Il
IdenfIfIes are LoafIng IIIe cuIfures or Il cuIfures are nof
even ''somefhIng LoafIng luf fhe Lux IfseIl], ve have
fo IooI lor a reIafIveIy sfalIe poInf lrom vhIch fo ol-
serve fhe Lux. Il cuIfure Is fhe oufcome ol a sfruggIe as
!ox ji,8| maInfaIns], ve have fo IooI lor fhose vho
are sfruggIIng. uf dIllerenfIy, Il cuIfures and IdenfIfIes
are nof sImpIy shared, fhose vho do nof sImpIy share
and vho can no Ionger le sulsumed under fhese con-
cepfs gaIn reneved Imporfance.
I am here expIorIng fhe possIlIIIfy ol conceIvIng ol
fhe seIl used here as a generIc ferm IncIudIng ''IndIvId-
uaI, ''IndIvIduaIIfy, ''person, efc.] as fhIs reIafIveIy
sfalIe poInf. CerfaInIy, ve have fo le careluI nof sImpIy
fo sulscrIle fo fhe ol}ecfILcafIon and unIversaIIzafIon
ol fhe Wesfern seIl. I am nof advocafIng an undersfand-
Ing fhaf In every cuIfuraI confexf fhe seIl emlodIes fhe
hIghesf vaIues. Cohen i,,] varns us nof fo conluse
IndIvIduaIIfy vIfh IndIvIduaIIsm. Rafher, I am arguIng
fhaf fhe seIl shouId le faIen as a unIversaI IIIe cuIfure,
vIfhouf fherely predIcafIng much alouf fhe confenfs
ol fhe seIl or ol cuIfure]. of foo Iong ago If vas ly no
means superLuous fo dIscuss vhefher aII humans ''pos-
sessed cuIfure. AnfhropoIogy has pIayed an Imporfanf
roIe In esfalIIshIng fhe nov generaIIy accepfed vIev
fhaf cuIfure Is a deLnIfIonaI characferIsfIc ol fhe hu-
man leIng. SImIIarIy, I vouId IIIe fo see anfhropoIogy
maIIng fhe same ellorf fo deveIop fhe undersfandIng
fhaf fhere Is no human leIng vIfhouf a seIl and fhaf If
Is IndIspensalIe fo anfhropoIogIcaI pracfIce fo le affen-
fIve fo fhese acfuaI seIves. These ellorfs do nof neces-
sarIIy have fo le lased on a shared undersfandIng ol fhe
seIl. Thaf fhe meanIng or deLnIfIon ol ''cuIfure Is In
dIspufe Is quIfe Independenf ol fhe lacf fhaf cuIfure as
a lasIc quaIIfy ol humanIfy remaIns unconfesfed. And
}usf as anfhropoIogIsfs dIscuss fhe sIgnILcance and
luncfIon ol cuIfure lor human acfIon and socIefy In gen-
eraI, defached lrom specILc cuIfuraI meanIngs and con-
fenfs, I vanf fo argue fhaf ve shouId aIso dIrecf our af-
fenfIon fovard fhe Imporfance ol fhe seIl, defached
lrom parfIcuIar cuIfuraI concepfIons ol fhe seIl. In my
vIev, cuIfure and seIl are compIemenfary concepfs fhaf
zz. See, lor exampIe, LeVInes i,8] descrIpfIon ol cuIfure as con-
sensus.
jo cDvvci Ainvcicicc. Vo|ume o, Number , AugurOcrober 1,,,
have fo le undersfood In reIafIon fo one anofher In or-
der fo avoId fhe reILcafIon ol one or fhe ofher. If Is nof
sulLcIenf fo IImIf fhe sfudy ol seIl In anfhropoIogy fo
fhe sfudy ol cuIfuraI concepfs ol fhe seIl, lecause fhIs
approach ImpIIcIfIy or overfIy accords prImacy and de-
fermInIng pover fhaf Is, uIfImafeIy, ogency] onIy fo
cuIfure. SocIaI psychoIogy Is lrequenfIy and rIghfIy rep-
rImanded lor nof faIIng cuIfure Info accounf. The oppo-
sIfe charge can sureIy le IeveIed agaInsf anfhropoIogy:
fhaf If Is one-sIded In gIvIng Imporfance onIy fo cuIfure,
reducIng fhe seIl fo a producf ol cuIfure and olfen re-
maInIng lIInd fo IndIvIduaI mofIvafIons, aIms, and
sfruggIes.
l course, fhe charge may easIIy le raIsed agaInsf
such an approach fhaf If Is vrongIy ImposIng a ''Wesf-
ern undersfandIng on ofher cuIfures alfer aII, so many
anfhropoIogIsfs have leen defermIned fo shov fhaf
fhere Is no unIversaIIy shared undersfandIng[concepf ol
fhe seIl]. Buf fhe same appIIes fo fhe concepf ''cuIfure:
If foo Is Imposed on ofhers. The Imposed, aImosf hege-
monIc usage ol ''cuIfure Is nof even compIemenfed ly
a dIscussIon alouf cuIfure-specILc meanIngs and con-
cepfs ol ''cuIfure as In fhe case ol fhe seIl], and I have
never heard If saId fhaf a group IacIIng an approprIafe
IndIgenous concepf lor fhe Wesfern nofIon ol ''cuIfure
sImpIy possessed no cuIfure.
ConcIusIon
The purpose ol fhIs paper Is more fo raIse a numler ol
crIfIcaI quesfIons fhan fo provIde ready ansvers. I do,
hovever, vanf fo suggesf hov fhe seIl mIghf le envIs-
aged ly anfhropoIogy as a unIversaI vhIch, IIIe cuIfure,
Is a deLnIfIonaI aspecf ol humanness. Such a concepfu-
aIIzafIon ol fhe seIl has fo avoId lofh fhe ScyIIa ol voI-
unfarIsm as IaId dovn In fhe Wesfern seIl as conven-
fIonaIIy undersfood] and fhe CharyldIs ol cuIfuraI
defermInIsm as emlodIed In fhe non-Wesfern nonseIl].
In my vIev, fhIs concepfuaIIzafIon ol fhe seIl has fo le
deveIoped lrom heIghfened affenfIon fo fhe human ca-
pacIfy and necessIfy lor acfIon. An InevIfalIe premIse
Is fhaf aII humans are alIe and requIred fo acf, vhIch
means fhaf fhere Is no cuIfure or IdenfIfy] acfIng lor
fhem or unconfradIcfalIy prescrIlIng vhIch mode ol
lehavIor musf le chosen In any sIfuafIon. ThIs le-
comes ufferIy cIear In sIfuafIons ol pIuraI IdenfIfIes,
vhere IndIvIduaIs are olvIousIy nof lound fo a cuIfuraI
consensus luf exposed fo a pIuraIIfy ol conLIcfIng per-
specfIves and Inferesfs and musf, IIIe AII Hassan In hIs
uneasy veddIng vIsIf, maIe fheIr vay fhrough a maze
ol dIllerenf IdenfIfIes. AffenfIon fo seIves accordIngIy
demands ''efhnographIes ol fhe parfIcuIar Alu-
zj. !or exampIe, In confrasf fo her re}ecfIon ol Wesfern concepfs ol
''socIefy and ''IndIvIduaI lor fhe dIscussIon ol NeIanesIa lecause
fhese concepfs are nof heId ly NeIanesIans, Sfrafhern neIfher re-
}ecfs fhe concepf ol cuIfure lor her anaIysIs lor fhe same reason nor
argues fhaf Ifs use Is }usfILed lecause If leIongs fo fhe concepfuaI
unIverse ol NeIanesIans foo.
Lughod i,,i] fhaf examIne vhaf peopIe acfuaIIy do In
fhe specILc cIrcumsfances ol fheIr daIIy IIves.
AcfIon requIres a seIl fhaf reLexIveIy monIfors fhe
condIfIons, course, and oufcome ol acfIon. ThIs reLex-
IvIfy IncIudes fhe conscIousness ol fhe lasIc dIllerence
lefveen fhe seIl and everyfhIng eIse vhIch I have pro-
posed alove. Ny argumenf fhaf agency Is characferIsfIc
ol fhe seIl and fhe seIl Is a precondIfIon lor acfIon may
seem cIrcuIar, luf In lacf fhe fvo or, leffer, fhe fhree
aspecfs cannof le separafed: agency, reLexIvIfy, and fhe
seIl go hand In hand, each requIrIng lofh fhe ofhers.
IravIng such a cIose connecfIon lefveen fhe seIl and
agency avoIds fhe danger ol voIunfarIsm, lecause fhe
seIl-reLexIve monIforIng ol acfIon aIso IncIudes fhe rec-
ognIfIon ol condIfIons lor and consfraInfs on acfIon,
fhaf Is, fhe IImIfs ol agency.
In fhe dIchofomous concepfuaIIzafIon ol Wesfern and
non-Wesfern seIves so promInenf In anfhropoIogy, fhe
mosf saIIenf quaIIfy ol fhe Lrsf Is saId fo le egocen-
frIsm, vhereas fhe second Is faIen fo le characferIzed
ly Ifs socIocenfrIsm. I suppose Insfead fhaf egocenfrIsm
and socIocenfrIsm are InfegraI aspecfs ol every seIl.
Agency requIres lofh reLexIve monIforIng ol fhe seIl
and monIforIng ol fhe seIls reIafIonshIps vIfh ofhers.
AccordIngIy, AII Hassan, In hIs veddIng vIsIf, acfed
lofh ego- and socIocenfrIcaIIy: He veIghed hIs confra-
dIcfory memlershIps and decIded on a mode ol acfIon
fhaf seemed mosf leneLcIaI fo hIm lecause If severed
neIfher ol fhem. SeIves are ol course nof unIlorm, and
fherelore fhe promInence ol eIfher ol fhese aspecfs may
vary lrom case fo case, as may fhe consIsfency ol seIl-
represenfafIons. WhIch ol fhese aspecfs Is represenfed
as mosf saIIenf Is aIso a quesfIon ol fhe perspecfIve and
fhe Inferesfs ol fhe olserver.
If Is somevhaf IronIc fhaf some anfhropoIogIsfs are
legInnIng fo argue lor fhe Imporfance ol fhe seIl ol fheIr
non-Wesfern sul}ecfs ol sfudy onIy nov fhaf fhe seIl
and sul}ecf In fhe Wesf IncIudIng fhe Wesfern anfhro-
poIogIsfs ovn seIves] have leen serIousIy chaIIenged.
Here, fhe aufonomous, egocenfrIc Wesfern seIl Is re-
duced fo a ''sul}ecf ellecf see SpIvaI i,88:izij], and
agency Is seen as an ''ellecf ol heferogeneous nefvorIs
Lav i,,]. The sul}ecf, or seIl, and Ifs agency are un-
dersfood as a producf ol dIscourse and socIaI[hIsforIcaI
condIfIons. ThIs deconsfrucfIon ol fhe Wesfern seIl
sfrIps oll Ifs hyperfrophy ol aufonomy and seIl-defermI-
nafIon and fherelore maIes possIlIe a more modesf
concepfuaIIzafIon, luf deconsfrucfIon shouId nof le
faIen foo lar. SocIaI consfrucfIvIsm foo carrIes fhe rIsI
ol reducfIonIsm and defermInIsm CaIhoun i,,]. NI-
cheI !oucauIf, one ol fhe prIme movers ol fhIs decon-
sfrucfIon aIfhough he foo, In fhe Ianguage ol fhe move-
menf, Is onIy an ellecf], vas In hIs Iafer vrIfIngs quIfe
anxIous nof fo desfroy fhe sul}ecf ly deconsfrucfIng If
!oucauIf i,8z]. Alfer aII, fhe quesfIon ol vhefher
somefhIng fhe seIl, agency, fhe sul}ecf] Is a cause ol
somefhIng or an ellecf ol somefhIng eIse Is a quesfIon
ol fIme and perspecfIve. If can le eIfher, dependIng on
fhe olservers emphasIs.
Ny paper Infends fo lIur dIchofomous loundarIes
sc xcrcir Se|f, Idenrry, ond Cu|rure ji
and nof fo consfrucf nev ones. I do nof vanf fo argue
fhaf fhe seIves ol aII peopIe ol fhe vorId are aImosf fhe
same or essenfIaIIy sImIIar. I am nof ol fhe opInIon fhaf
''ofhers are ''reaIIy fhaf Is, anfhropoIogIcaI ofherIng
aparf] IIIe fhe ''seIlor, fo repeaf, fhaf fhe ofhers
seIves ''reaIIy approxImafe ''our ''Wesfern] modeI. I
vanf fo endorse fhe vIev, hovever, fhaf our seIves and
fheIr seIves are nof necessarIIy as dIllerenf as many an-
fhropoIogIcaI fexfs, empIoyIng fhe dIchofomy ol fhe
seIl and fhe ofher as an a prIorI ol efhnography, porfray
fhem. Alfer many decades In vhIch dIllerence vas fhe
paradIgm lor conceIvIng ol fhe ofhers seIves, If mIghf
le useluI fo fry a paradIgm ol more sImIIarIfy. To aIIov
lor such sImIIarIfy demands an Imporfanf mefhodoIogI-
caI reorIenfafIon. If requIres gIvIng reaI Imporfance fo
fhe acfuaI IndIvIduaIs ve vorI vIfh vhIIe sfudyIng
''cuIfure. ThIs presupposes nof quIcIIy and fhoughf-
IessIy sulsumIng fhem under some socIaI or cuIfuraI
cafegory luf represenfIng fhem, even In fhe efhno-
graphIc fexf, as IndIvIduaIs. If Is fhey vhom ve sfudy,
nof some superIndIvIduaI enfIfy. ThIs enfIfycuI-
fureIs onIy our consfrucfIon lrom counfIess encoun-
fers, dIaIogues, and InferacfIons vIfh acfuaI seIves or
IndIvIduaIs.
Commenfs
m. AzAm cnADrnAv.
Deorrmenr of Anr|roo|ogy, (uodIAzom
Inverry, I|omobod, Po|ron /ju |orzon
|ormo|.com). i iii ,,
ThIs arfIcIe may le dIvIded Info fvo parfs. In fhe Lrsf
parf So IeleId crIfIcIses fhe fradIfIonaI anfhropoIogIcaI
approach ol denyIng anfhropoIogIcaI sul}ecfs Indepen-
denf seIves. He consIders fhIs denIaI a resuIf ol fhe al-
sence ol Wesfern affrIlufes ol fhe seIl among fhe non-
Wesfern sul}ecfs and fhe assIgnmenf fo fhem ol an
IdenfIfya shared seIlInsfead ol IndIvIduaI seIves.
He Is ol fhe opInIon fhaf fhe concepf ol seIl has emerged
as an Imporfanf eIemenf ol cuIfure and IdenfIfy In fhe
posf-sfrucfuraIIsf deconsfrucfIon phase, In vhIch Iden-
fIfy Is no Ionger shared luf pIuraI. To undersfand fhe
acfIons ol IndIvIduaIs vIfh a pIuraIIfy ol IdenfIfIes ve
have fo undersfand fhe seIl. He lurfher dIllerenfIafes
fhIs concern lrom fhe sfudy ol seIl In socIaI psychoIogy:
''SocIaI psychoIogy Is lrequenfIy and rIghfIy reprI-
manded lor nof faIIng cuIfure Info accounf. He Is aIso
ol fhe opInIon fhaf ''If Is nof sulLcIenf fo IImIf fhe
sfudy ol seIl In anfhropoIogy fo fhe sfudy ol cuIfuraI
concepfs ol seIl. In shorf, he argues fhaf ''fhere Is no
human leIng vIfhouf a seIl and . . . If Is IndIspensalIe fo
anfhropoIogIcaI pracfIce fo le affenfIve fo fhese acfuaI
seIves. In fhIs regard hIs arfIcIe Is an Imporfanf confrI-
lufIon In fhaf If poInfs fo a Iacuna In anfhropoIogIcaI
InovIedge and fhus lrIngs a nev perspecfIve and vIsIon
fo anfhropoIogy.
The second parf ol fhe arfIcIe consIsfs ol a case sfudy
ol AII Hassan, an InhalIfanf ol CIIgIf, a smaII fovn In
fhe orfhern Areas ol aIIsfan, shovIng muIfIpIe, con-
fradIcfory, aImosf mufuaIIy excIusIve IdenfIfIes. CIIgIf
Is an excepfIonaIIy compIex case vIfh respecf fo fhe
quesfIon ol IdenfIfIes lecause ol Ifs hIsforIcaI lacI-
ground and regIonaIIy sfrafegIc economIc and poIIfIcaI]
IocafIon. ThIs compIexIfy Is evIdenf lrom fhe presence
ol dIllerenf reIIgIous secfs and reIafIveIy Iarge groups ol
dIllerenf regIonaI, IInguIsfIc, and efhnIc lacIgrounds
ShIa, SunnI, WahalI, IsmaeeII, oor BaIhshI, afhans,
un}alIs, BaIfI, ChIfraII, HunzaIuds, ShIn, YashIun,
KamIn, Ihom, and ofhers] In a fovn ol some o,ooo.
ne ol So IeleIds concIusIons Is fhaf ''fhere can le no
IdenfIfIes vIfhouf seIves. ThIs ImpIIes fhaf Il ve vanf
fo sfudy IdenfIfIes ve musf sfudy fhe seIl. He deLnes
fhe seIl as ''fhaf reLexIve sense fhaf enalIes fhe person
fo dIsfInguIsh seIl-conscIousIy lefveen hIm- or herseIl
and everyfhIng eIse, and fhe quesfIon lecomes hov ve
are fo sfudy If. The compIex and confradIcfory IdenfIfy
alLIIafIons ol AII Hassan are excepfIonaI even vIfhIn
CIIgIf:
AII Hassan Is nof represenfafIve ol fhe scene In CII-
gIf. To fhe confrary, hIs mode ol acfIon vas quIfe
excepfIonaI . . . mosf ofher persons In CIIgIf vouId
have decIded fo puf one IdenfIfy . . . Lrsf. . . socIaI
IdeoIogy In CIIgIf gIves as much veIghf fo fhe lene-
Lfs ol ones communIfy and as IIffIe Imporfance fo
seIl-Inferesf as In ofher Soufh AsIan socIefIes. Here
foo, IndIvIduaIs deLne fhemseIves In ferms ol fheIr
alLIIafIons.
AccordIng fo So IeleId fhe exampIe ol AII Hassan
shovs fhe ''sfruggIe fo acf and fo presenf oneseIl as a
consIsfenf seIl In a sIfuafIon ol pIuraI and confradIcfIng
IdenfIfIes. The seIl ol such an IndIvIduaI prolalIy can
le Iocafed as he suggesfs, luf fhe quesfIon remaIns hov
ve can sfudy non-Wesfern seIves In efhnIcaIIy and reII-
gIousIy homogeneous seffIngs or In heferogeneous ones
In vhIch as In CIIgIf] mosf peopIe have pIuraI luf nof
confradIcfory IdenfIfIes. ThIs arfIcIe does nof ansver
fhIs quesfIon. In raIsIng fhe quesfIon ol fhe reIafIonshIp
lefveen IdenfIfy and seIl fhIs arfIcIe opens nev dIrec-
fIons In anfhropoIogIcaI fhInIIng, luf fhe quesfIon ol
fhe mefhodoIogy lor expIorIng fhIs reIafIonshIp In dIl-
lerenf fypes ol efhnographIc seffIngs remaIns open.
ncx rvi cssc
Inrrure for Cu|ruro| Anr|roo|ogy, Inverry of
Njmegen, Porbu ,1o, 6,oo H Njmegen, T|e
Ner|er|ond. z ii ,,
So IeleId IucIdIy addresses quesfIons alouf changIng no-
fIons and senses ol seIl In InferacfIon vIfh socIaI IdenfI-
LcafIons and cuIfuraI resources. !or fhe pasf fvo de-
cades, such quesfIons have cIrcuIafed vIdeIy fhrough
deparfmenfs, }ournaIs, conlerences, and courses nof
onIy In cuIfuraI anfhropoIogy luf aIso In reIafed dIscI-
jz cDvvci Ainvcicicc. Vo|ume o, Number , AugurOcrober 1,,,
pIInes. Noreover, fhe medIa and poIIfIcs have raIsed
sImIIar Issues, mosfIy In essenfIaIIsf IdIoms.
Af fhe same fIme, delafes alouf represenfafIon In
efhnography have resuIfed In a shIlf avay lrom cross-
secfIon peopIe perlormIng roIes, perceIved as passIve
vehIcIes ol cuIfuraI IdenfIfIes, fovards acfIve, seIl-
conscIous IndIvIduaIs managIng composIfe and LuId
IdenfIfIes and manIpuIafIng cuIfuraI resources. The
vIdespread revIvaI ol fhe IIle hIsfory Is parf ol fhIs para-
dIgm shIlf.
There Is nov a lurgeonIng IIferafure on ''IdenfIfy, fo
fhe poInf fhaf any schoIarand So IeleId Is no excep-
fIonvrIfIng alouf fhIs lroad fheme runs fhe rIsI ol
overIooIIng reIevanf IIferafure. Noreover, ''IdenfIfy
has lecome a shIlloIefh, foo lrequenfIy parf ol an aca-
demIc IIfany fhaf presenfs If as reIafIonaI, shIlfIng,
mIxed, consfrucfed, re-]Invenfed, negofIafed, pro-
cessuaI, and con}uncfuraI. The repefIfIon ol such quaII-
LcafIons has lecome parf ol an academIc IdenfILcafIon
rIfuaI. So IeleId, hovever, manages fo dIsfance hImseIl
lrom fhe rIfuaIIsfIc use ol IdenfIfy and crIfIcaIIy re-
fhInIs receIved Ideas alouf seIl, IdenfIfy, and cuIfure.
uropean nofIons ol IndIvIduaIIsm fhe seIl as a
lounded, sfalIe, cohesIve enfIfy] and coIIecfIvIsm fhe
laceIess seIl defermIned ly socIefy] have deepIy InLu-
enced anfhropoIogIcaI fhInIIng alouf IdenfIfy. So IeleId
parfIcuIarIy underIInes fhe Impacf ol fhe CarfesIan no-
fIon ol fhe sameness ol fhe seIl. Hovever, fhe prolIem
vIfh hIs lrIel excursIon Info fhe hIsfory ol ''Wesfern
Ideas Is fhaf he fofaIIzes compIex nofIons and negIecfs
fheIr counferpoInfs lor Insfance, Iefzsches Idea ol
fhe sul}ecfs muIfIpIIcIfy or nofIons ol seIl In peasanf
socIefy]. Nany anfhropoIogIsfs vorIIng alroad fend fo
deveIop a lIas fovards fhe oraI and margInaI, luf vhen
fhey maIe sfafemenfs alouf ''home fhey reverse fhIs
dIsforfIon ly relerrIng onIy fo domInanf lormaI IdeoIo-
gIes.
ne ol fhe overIooIed relerences Is fhe useluI IIffIe
looI ly RIchard }enIIns i,,6], a socIoIogIsf ol sym-
loIIc InferacfIonIsf persuasIon vho fransgresses dIscI-
pIInary lorders lefveen socIoIogy and anfhropoIogy.
}enIIns concenfrafes on fhe pragmafIcs ol IdenfIfy lor-
mafIon. He maInfaIns fhaf fhe sImIIarIfy-dIllerence and
InfernaI-exfernaI dIaIecfIcs ol IdenfILcafIon consfIfufe
fhe process vherely aII IdenfIfIes, vhefher IndIvIduaI
or coIIecfIve, are lormed. Re}ecfIng fhe IdenfIfy lIfs-
and-pIeces modeI, he emlraces a unIfary modeI vIevIng
fhe seIl as a rIch reposIfory ol cuIfuraI resources. Buf
vhereas }enIIns Ieaves asIde fhe IInIs lefveen seIl and
cuIfure, So IeleId Is more cuIfure-sensIfIve and faIes
seIl-cuIfure InferacfIon Info consIderafIon. HIs LeId-
vorI In aIIsfan ollers an InsfrucfIve case sfudy ol
IdenfIfy managemenf In fhe perlormances ol AII Has-
san. ThIs poverluI pafrons prolIemafIc vIsIf fo a ved-
dIng Is dIagnosfIc ol fhe dIversIfy ol IdenfIfIes pIayed
ouf. AIfhough such crosscuffIng IdenfIfIes marI dIller-
ences, fhey do nof comparfmenfaIIze AII Hassans per-
son. HIs seIl acfs and reLecfs on muIfIpIe IdenfIfIes and
Is experIenced as unIfary.
So IeleId dravs lar-reachIng concIusIons lrom fhe ac-
fIons and reLecfIons ol one person. He maInfaIns fhaf,
aIfhough fhe seIl Is cIofhed In cuIfure-specILc affrI-
lufes, If Is unIversaIIy endoved vIfh reLexIvIfy and
agency. In ofher vords, Wesfern and aIIsfanI seIves
are nof as dIllerenf as suggesfed ly fhe paradIgm ol dIl-
lerence vhIch Is paramounf In efhnography. Insfead, he
maIes a pIea lor a modeI ol ''more sImIIarIfy.
!Ive lrIel remarIs are In order. !Irsf, AII Hassan
sfands ouf as a pafron[lroIer, a specIaIIsf In IdenfIfy
managemenf and In fhIs leafure a preemInenf reLecfor
on and narrafor ol seIl, prolalIy more so fhan many ofh-
ers In hIs socIaI envIronmenf. Second, AII Hassans seIl
Is more compIex fhan Is reveaIed ly So IeleId In hIs ren-
derIng ol fhe veddIng vIsIf. rImary IdenfILcafIons
such as gender and age are Ielf ouf ol fhe pIcfure. ThIrd,
So IeleIds ''seIl-cenfred anaIysIs deaIs vIfh fhe case ol
one profagonIsf In a rafher lounded LeId ol InferacfIon.
Hov are ve fo proceed In more compIex socIaI Lgura-
fIons In vhIch many dIllerenf peopIe are InvoIved A
prosopographIc approach fhaf addresses fhe InfernaI-ex-
fernaI dIaIecfIc ol IdenfIfy lormafIon olvIousIy InvoIves
more fhan presenfafIons ol fhe narrafed seIves ol promI-
nenf Lgures. !ourfh, vhaf Is a modeI ol ''more sImIIar-
Ify Il dIllerence and sImIIarIfy are InevIfalIy SIamese
fvIns Such a modeI requIres an expIIcIf comparafIve
approach and nof fhe ImpIIcIf ve-fhem }uxfaposIfIons
olfen lound In anfhropoIogIcaI vorI. The seIl ol AII
Hassan Is dIscussed In Ifs parfIcuIar shapes, vhereas fhe
Wesfern seIl Is sfereofyped. !Ilfh, So IeleId argues lor a
seIl-cenfred efhnography luf avoIds fhe lurnIng ques-
fIon hov If shouId le grounded In poIIfIcaI economy. In
sum, he Is sfrong In hIs efhnographIc affenfIon fo a
non-Wesfern] seIl, luf, as aIvays, a Iof ol hard vorI re-
maIns fo le done on hov seIl-] IdenfIfIes emerge, en-
dure, and change In socIaI InferacfIon and vhaf pover
resources and cuIfuraI Lovs are fapped In fhIs process.
xAincvi c ivAii cwi c
Deorrmenr of Cu|ruro| Anr|roo|ogy, Du|e
Inverry, Dur|om, N.C. z;;o8oo,1, I.S.A.
/|evngocub.du|e.edu). i6 iii ,,
I very much agree vIfh So IeleIds caII lor fhe InvesfIga-
fIon ol fhe reIafIonshIp lefveen socIaI IdenfIfIes and
fhe ''seIl. ThIs IIne ol InvesfIgafIon Is crucIaI lofh lor
undersfandIng hov IndIvIduaIs and socIefIes negofIafe
rapId socIaI and cuIfuraI change and lor franscendIng a
schoIarIy and poIIfIcaI guIl lefveen vhaf has olfen
leen characferIzed as ''maInsfream anfhropoIogy and
psychoIogIcaI anfhropoIogy. Hovever, So IeleId does
nof cIearIy locus on fhIs Issue, casfIng hIs argumenf In-
sfead In ferms ol an ellorf fo dIsrupf vhaf he sees as
anfhropoIogys prevaIIIng fendency fo see fhe ''seIl In
ferms ol fhe IndIvIduaI[communaI Wesf[resf dIchof-
omy. Buf fhIs Is a poInf fhaf has leen made lelore, even
ly some ol fhe very peopIe he suggesfs are guIIfy ol such
dIchofomIzIng.
An ellecfIve freafmenf ol fhe reIafIonshIp lefveen
socIaI[poIIfIcaI IdenfIfIes and fhe seIl vouId requIre a
sc xcrcir Se|f, Idenrry, ond Cu|rure jj
cIear fheorIzafIon ol each cafegory, ol fhe reIafIonshIps
lefveen fhem, and ol fhe IInd ol evIdence fhaf vouId
le needed fo demonsfrafe fhese reIafIonshIps. In con-
sfrucfIng modeIs ol fhe ''seIl, lor Insfance, If Is Impor-
fanf fo consIder fhe IInd ol dafa fhaf couId convInc-
IngIy serve as evIdence lor one sorf ol seIl organIzafIon
or anofher. The case ol AII Hassan and hIs ''uneasy
vIsIf ollers an InferesfIng Insfance ol fhe sIIIIluI nego-
fIafIon ol vhaf I vouId agree vIfh So IeleId In caIIIng
conLIcfIng IdenfIfIes, luf fhough So IeleId suggesfs
fhaf hIs evIdence confradIcfs my concIusIons] If does
nof IIIusfrafe any ol fhe IInd ol shIlfs In seIl-experIence
fhaf I have consIdered In my ovn vorI on aIIsfanI
vomen. If Is a dIllerenf IeveI ol anaIysIs. So IeleId pro-
vIdes evIdence fhaf AII Hassan vas acfIveIy sfrafegIzIng
and very much In confroI ol fhe sIfuafIon, carryIng
fhrough a pIan fhaf he had apparenfIy vorIed ouf In ad-
vance. If Is cIear fhaf leIng a sIIIIluI InfermedIary or
negofIafor Is a promInenf seIl-represenfafIon lor AII
Hassan. !ev anfhropoIogIsfs foday, regardIess ol fheo-
refIcaI approach, vouId deny fhe efhnographIc sul}ecf
fhIs sIIII af sfrafegIzIng, negofIafIng, and seIl-reLex-
IveIy commenfIng on fhese sIIIIs. Buf ve are sImpIy
nof gIven any evIdence fhaf mIghf suggesf fhaf AII Has-
san does or does nof have ofher seIl-represenfafIons or
vhefher such represenfafIons ol seIl and ofher dId or dId
nof shIlf durIng fhe epIsode or af any ofher fIme. Such
evIdence vouId IncIude defaIIed reporfs ol conversafIon
and InferacfIon fhaf couId le anaIyzed lor ImpIIcIf and
expIIcIf represenfafIons and posIfIonIng ol seIl and
ofher see, e.g., Lalov and !ansheI i,;;, vIng i,8;,
i,,i]. LacIIng such evIdence, I am nof convInced ly So -
IeleIds argumenf lor a sIngIe underIyIng seIl, sInce fhe
epIsode Is nof presenfed In sulLcIenf defaII fo reveaI
shIlfs ol posIfIonIng or IacI fhereol] fhaf mIghf le seen
In ofher sIfuafIons and perhaps even defecfed In fhIs
one. !urfhermore, evIdence ol seIl-reLexIvIfy In AII
Hassans memorIes ol fhe evenf Is nof fhe same as evI-
dence lor a sIngIe cohesIve seIl, a poInf fhaf So IeleId
seems fo le arguIng. I doulf fhaf AII Hassan Is seIl-
reLexIveIy avare ol every seIl-posIfIonIng he faIes,
fhough So IeleIds argumenf lor a confInuous and con-
sIsfenf seIl vouId requIre fhIs.
everfheIess, I leIIeve ve share a Iey concern, vhIch
Is fo deveIop useluI modeIs lor expIaInIng hov peopIe
negofIafe muIfIpIe, olfen conLIcfIng IdenfIfIes.
mAvii rDcns
Su doenInrrur der Inverro r Hede|berg,
D6,1zo Hede|berg, Cermony. z8 iii ,,
So IeleIds reevaIuafIon ol ''seIl and ''IdenfIfy poInfs
fo a Iarger pro}ecf Infended fo reInvIgorafe fhe Idea ol
sul}ecfIvIfy and agency In anfhropoIogIcaI dIscourse.
ThIs pro}ecf deveIoped In response fo and parfIy lrom
fhe same grounds as fhe ''anfIhumanIsf pro}ecf vhIch
lor some fIme had caughf fhe affenfIon ol fhe humanI-
fIes. The fvo pro}ecfs are nof exacfIy In opposIfIon fo
each ofher. Rafher, fhe Inferesf In Issues ol agency and
sul}ecfIvIfy can le seen as an affempf fo franscend fhe
sfaIe dIchofomy ol sul}ecfIvIsm and defermInIsfIc]
anfIsul}ecfIvIsm. Whaf Is shared ly fhe fvo pro}ecfs Is
fhe recognIfIon ol confIngency In socIaI and cuIfuraI
maffers, luf fhey deaI dIllerenfIy vIfh fhe lacf ol dIs-
cursIvIfy.
The realLrmafIon ol fhe seIl as socIaI cafegory deveI-
ops ouf ol fhe crIfIque ol represenfafIon, ol ofherIng, luf
If aIso underIInes fhe necessIfy fo re]furn fo ''sulsfan-
fIve Issues ol socIaI and cuIfuraI fheoryfheory ol ac-
fIon and fheory ol cuIfure. AIfhoughor, rafher, le-
causecuIfure and socIefy socIaI sfrucfure] vas af fhe
cenfre ol fhe efhnoIogIcaI approach lor so Iong, fhe
quesfIon ol fhe sul}ecfIvIfy ol memlers ol ''a cuIfure
or socIefy has confInued fo haunf fhe anfhropoIogIcaI
enferprIse. So IeleId emphasIzes fvo poInfs: i] a sfrong
procIIvIfy In anfhropoIogy fo deny fhe exIsfence ol
seIves In non-Wesfern or nonmodern cuIfures or, aIfer-
nafIveIy, fo suggesf fhaf, oufsIde modern Wesfern cuI-
fure, coIIecfIve or ''shared IdenfIfIes faIe fhe pIace ol
fhe seIl vhIIe assumIng fhaf fhe nofIon ol a lounded,
aufonomous seIl Is veII IngraIned In ''fhe Wesf, and z]
a sfrong IdeafIonaI lIas ol much ol cuIfuraI] anfhropoI-
ogy vhIch Ieads fo a conLafIon ol fhe concepfuaI IeveI
and vhaf So IeleId caIIs ''socIaI reaIIfyol fhe cuI-
fure-specILc] concepfs ol person or seIl and fhe ''acfuaI
seIves mef vIfh In socIaI InferacfIon. In ol}ecfIng fo
fhese posIfIons, vhaf So IeleId lrIngs ouf cIearIy Is fhe
need fo locus on fhe |n|oge lefveen cuIfuraI sche-
mafa, or dIscourses, and socIaI acforsfo affend fo fhe
processes ol droncng and re|orng. If Is a dynamIc, In-
feracfIonaI vIev ol seIl and IdenfIfy fhaf So IeleId has
In mInd, one fhaf aIIovs us fo refurn agency fo socIaI
sul}ecfs vhIIe af fhe same fIme avoIdIng a nofIon ol
sul}ecfIvIfy as somefhIng prIor, or presocIaI.
Buf some quesfIons remaIn. In vhaf sense are IdenfI-
fIes shared even Il onIy In parf]vhaf does ''shared
mean In fhIs confexf Ioes If reler fo IndIvIduaI decI-
sIons fo compIy vIfh an IdenfIfy on oller, fo an acfIve
choIcefo faIe on an IdenfIfy or puf one asIdeor Is
such an IdenfIfy passIveIy shared, In fhe sense ol some-
fhIng preconceIved fo vhIch a memler ol a cerfaIn
group has fo conlorm or even sulmIf vIIIy-nIIIy So Ie-
leId suggesfs fhaf an IdenfIfy compIex Is a gIven luf can
le ol dIllerenf sIgnILcance lor dIllerenf acfors, luf
vouId fhIs nof mean fhaf an IdenfIfy Is Inferprefed and
approprIafed In dIverse vaysfhaf, even Il consIdered
as ''LoafIng, If Is leIng relormuIafed and revorIed and
does nof remaIn ''fhe same And, lurfhermore, hov
are ve fo conceIve fhe InferacfIon vIfh ofher seIves
vIfh vhom fhe IndIvIduaI seIl Is supposed fo share
somefhIng Hov Is commonaIIfy re]produced, perhaps
promofed or enlorced and prolalIy dIllerenfIy vIfh re-
specf fo reIIgIous leIIels and pracfIces and vIfh respecf
fo IInshIp The seIl, lor fhaf maffer, cannof le consId-
ered as somehov aIool, a sfage manager ol dIllerences
vhIch are sulordInafe. of onIy, as So IeleId concedes,
can fhe seIl nof le seen as defached lrom fhe IdenfIfIes
If reIafes fo luf If has fo le seen, In a quaIILed vay, as
consfIfufed ly fhem. ThIs Is nof meanf, ol course, fo
j cDvvci Ainvcicicc. Vo|ume o, Number , AugurOcrober 1,,,
reInfroduce any nofIon ol defermInIsm luf rafher hInfs
af an InferacfIve, reLexIve, and confInuous process ol
socIaIIzafIon. A seIl, on fhe IInes ol C. H. Nead, consfI-
fufes IfseIl In a represenfafIonaI process ol synfhesIs ol
expecfafIons and pro}ecfIons vhIch anfIcIpafe fhe po-
fenfIaI re]acfIons ol ofhers and Iead fo recIprocaI ad}usf-
menfs ol lehavIour. ThIs reLexIve ''synfhesIs ol repre-
senfafIons and counferrepresenfafIons Is confInuousIy
In need ol renevaI, ol resfrucfurafIon fhe seIl In fhIs
process fhus nof leIng IdenfIcaI ''vIfh IfseIl, as So Ie-
leId foo remarIs]. The seIl Is nof a predefermIned cenfer
ol Infer]acfIon luf nrerubjecrve|y consfIfufed In fhe
confInous process ol deveIopIng Ifs agency and maIIng
IfseIl.
If shouId, fhen, le olvIous fhaf fhe dIllerenf vays In
vhIch peopIe In dIvergenf cuIfuraI confexfs reIafe fo
concepfs ol] fhe seIl shouId nof le Iumped fogefher un-
der one headIng, as Il fhey vouId share fhe same dIs-
fIncfIons lrom fhe sfreamIIned ''Wesfern concepf ol
seIl. Buf fhere Is a deeper efhnocenfrIsm InvoIved.
Whereas fhe memlers ol a cuIfure vhIch Is saId fo IacI
a concepf ol seIl are supposed fo le vIfhouf seIves, fhe
concepf ol ''cuIfure Is, as So IeleId remarIs, Imposed
on ofhers vhefher fhe cuIfure has a concepf ol ''cuI-
fure or nof fhIs vouId nof maIe If a noncuIfure].
''CuIfure Is freafed as a mefa-ferm ol gIolaI dIllerenfI-
afIon] vhIch seems unallecfed ly fhe crIfIque ol repre-
senfafIon aIfhoughor perhaps lecausesocIaI acfors
fhe vorId over meanvhIIe have Infegrafed fhIs ferm, In
parfIcuIar vays, Info fheIr seIl-represenfafIons]. So Ie-
leId, foo, accepfs ''cuIfure as a ''unIversaI and vanfs
fo gIve fhe same sfafus fo fhe ''seIl.
If seems fhaf So IeleId conlronfs us vIfh fhree prIncI-
paI opfIons:
i. !oIIov fhIs Iasf suggesfIon and faIe cuIfure, seIl,
and perhaps ofher cafegorIes as unIversaIsas lunda-
menfaI InferprefIve lrames. We vouId fhen have fo nav-
Igafe fhe vafers ol unIversaIIsfIc socIaI fheory, vhIch
vIfh lev excepfIons faIes Ifs ImpuIse lrom modern
Wesfern Ideas, olfen aIready defached lrom any specILc
experIenfIaI confexf. The cIaIms lor unIversaIIfy and
onfoIogIcaI prImacy ol fhese eIemenfary cafegorIes can
le doulfed, as can any ofher unIversaIIsfIc schema, In
epIsfemoIogIcaI as veII as In poIIfIcaI respecfs as lorms
ol a cuIfuraI hegemony]. Whaf one fhen mIghf fhInI ol,
af lesf, Is a resfraIned, perspecfIvIsfIc, and possIlIIIsfIc
unIversaIIsm conlronfed ly ofher posIfIons vIfh unI-
versaIIsfIc cIaIms.
z. RemaIn on fhe concepfuaI IeveI. ''SeIl or any ofher
Idea ol personhood, IndIvIduaIIfy, or sul}ecfhood one
chooses fo faIe vouId appear fo le a cuIfure-lound
and reIafIvIsfIc nofIon and shouId le conlronfed vIfh
cuIfure-specILc Ideas ol ''cuIfure or ol Infer- and frans-
IndIvIduaI IInIages. The prolIem vIfh fhIs approach
vouId nof onIy le fhaf If usuaIIy assumes a dIs-
crefeness, or loundedness, ol fhe enfIfy concerned and
a more or Iess homogeneous socIaI vhoIe luf aIso fhaf
If lavours concepfs, expressIy lormuIafed Ideas, and
usuaIIy does nof address socIaI praxIsfhe quesfIon, In
parfIcuIar, ol hov Ideas ol seIl, lor exampIe] are frans-
Iafed Info acfIon, hov fhey Inlorm acfIon, hov fhey are
deaIf vIfh In acfIon a prolIem on fhe agenda sInce fhe
days ol Nax Weler]. AssumpfIons alouf socIaIIfy,
agency, InferprefafIon, and fheIr reIafIonshIp, necessar-
IIy ImpIIed In any depIcfIon ol socIaI processes, fhus re-
maIn facIf. Nany seem confenf fo assume fhaf a dIller-
ence ol concepf maIes a dIllerence In socIaI IIle, luf fo
vhaf exfenf and vIfh vhaf ellecf olfen remaIns unex-
pIored.
j. LooI lor modaIIfIes ol seIl and ol coIIecfIve IdenfIfy
managemenf] and cuIfure operafIon ol symloIs] ''on
fhe ground, on fhe ''empIrIcaI IeveI, In socIaI praxIs.
ThIs vouId mean arguIng lor a ''narrafIve efhnography
ol fhe parfIcuIar, fhaf Is, fhe descrIpfIon ol specILc In-
feracfIons and conrexruo| concepfuaIIzafIons and ol In-
dIvIduaI or parfIcuIar modes ol negofIafIng ones vay.
CuIfuraI meanIngs on fhIs IeveI are nof necessarIIy dIs-
cursIveIy expressed luf ImpIIcafed In socIaI praxIs. If
vouId fherelore le ImperafIve fo eIalorafe on fhe ana-
IyfIcaI ground lrom vhIch one operafeson fhe no-
fIons ol acfor, person, Infer- and franssul}ecfIvIfy, or
sIgnILcafIon empIoyed. These musf nof le lased on
Wesfern socIo-phIIosophIcaI fradIfIons aIone see, e.g.,
affempfs fo fheorIze alouf cases ol ''compIex agency
such as Sfrafherns ji,,o| suggesfIon ol dyadIc sfruc-
fures In confradIsfIncfIon fo coIIecfIve acfors lor NeI-
anesIa]. Some vay or ofher fhe sfudy ol fhe parfIcuIar
vouId le IInIed fo generaIIsf luf nof necessarIIy unI-
versaI prospecfs unIess one chooses fo Ieave fhose gen-
eraIIfIes ImpIIcIf or fo fhe dIscrefIon ol fhe fexfs
readers].
of onIy fhe Lrsf opfIon luf fhe ofhers foo presenf a
dIIemma. The onIy ''soIufIon one can fhInI ol Is fo
Ieep fhe Issue In suspense, In a vay vhIch frIes fo re-
Lecf fhese dIlLcuIfIes and confInousIy quesfIons vhaf
seems esfalIIshed. Thaf Is, ve cannof do vIfhouf cer-
faIn anaIyfIcaI] assumpfIons ol agency, person, Infer-
sul}ecfIvIfy, symloIIzafIon, efc., and Il ve vere fo
cIaIm fo do so ve vouId onIy Infroduce fhem fhrough
fhe lacI door, as undIscussed nofIons. specIaIIy, ve
cannof dIsregard fhe efhIcaI ImpIIcafIons ol our cafegor-
IaI choIces vhIch may or may nof recognIze fhe ''ofh-
ers and fheIr cIaIms]. Buf fhaf means fhaf ve have fo
Ieep In mInd fhe fenfafIve, provIsIonaI characfer ol
such fheorefIcaI assumpfIons, fhe lacf fhaf fhey are
onIy suggesfIonsa specILc nrervenron vhIch re-
maIns open lor crIfIque, alove aII lrom ofher sysfems
ol InovIedge. Any cIaIm lor unIversaIIfy vouId fhus
have fo acInovIedge Ifs ovn specILc confIngency. And,
secondIy, concepfs can le fhoughf ol as unIversaI onIy
Insolar as fhey are underdefermIned. Thaf Is, fhe mo-
menf one speaIs ol seIl or cuIfure or any ofher socIo-
cuIfuraI ''unIversaI] one Is aIready speaIIng ol a spe-
cILc, sIfuafed seIl or cuIfure. There Is no seIl or cuIfure
''as such, much Iess any generaI modaIIfy ol seIl-cuI-
fure-IdenfIfy reIafIonshIp. Il seIl and cuIfure are consfI-
fufIveIy InferIInIed, as argued here, fhey cannof le }ux-
faposed In an alsfracf manner. veryly deLnIfIon
parfIcuIarIzed, sIfuafed efhnography has fo Ieep In vIev
fhe luII poIysemIc characfer and amlIvaIence ol a con-
sc xcrcir Se|f, Idenrry, ond Cu|rure j
sfeIIafIon, fhe counfervaIIIng fendencIes, and fhe lacf ol
unreaIIzed possIlIIIfIes Iafenf In a sIfuafIon as lor So -
IeleIds exampIe: AII Hassan seems fo le never luIIy
presenf In a specILc sIfuafIon, never IdenfIcaI vIfh hIm-
seIl or vIfh fhe dIllerenf sIdes fo hIs ''seIl]. ThIs vouId
aIso aIIov IooIIng lor rupfures and anfagonIsms In fhe
reIafIonshIp ol seIves fo fheIr Inner and oufer represen-
fafIons, dIscourses, or ''IdenfIfIes as veII as rupfures
and amlIvaIences vIfhIn fhe seIl fhe lacf fhaf fhe
synfhesIzafIon ol fhe seIl does nof aIvays succeed].
Whaf So IeleId caIIs ''IdenfIfIes can aIso le, In parf,
negafIve or Imposed.
So IeleIds sfImuIafIng paper poInfs fo fhe need lor a
comprehensIve dIscussIon ol an nrerocrve approach fo
cuIfure, vhIch, on fhe one hand, has fo lreaI up fhIs
unIfary concepf Info Ifs componenfs, among fhem per-
lormafIve modes, dIscourses, socIaI represenfafIons,
schemafa, and perhaps IdenfIfIes, and, on fhe ofher, fo
vorI ouf fhe dIllerenf aspecfs ol InferacfIon, ol IInIage
and InferreIafIonshIplofh fheIr InferprefIve sIde and
fhe consfIfufIve Infersul}ecfIvIfy ol sul}ecfs or seIves.
rAvir . cciicv
rune| Inverry, Ixbrdge, Mdd|eex I8 PH,
I.K. zz iii ,,
There Is much fo reLecf on In So IeleIds amlIfIous and
sfImuIafIng arfIcIe. He faIes us on a lreafhfaIIng gaIIop
fhrough recenf phIIosophIcaIIy IncIIned anfhropoIogy,
as veII as some oIder fheorefIcaI pIeces, and concIudes
fhaf anfhropoIogy vouId do veII fo gIve as much affen-
fIon fo seIves as If does fo cuIfure.
He deIIlerafeIy sIdesfeps dIscussIons ol fhe emer-
gence ol fhe Wesfern concepfIon ol fhe person CarrIfh-
ers, CoIIIns, and LuIes i,8]. ThIs does, hovever, Iead
hIm fo overIooI fhe exfenf fo vhIch argumenfs such as
fhaf ol Iumonf i,8o] are essenfIaIIy }urIdIcaI: vhaf Is
alsenf lrom fradIfIonaI IndIa, supposedIy, Is fhe IegaIIy
aufonomous IndIvIduaI. !urfhermore, NarrIoff can
hardIy le crIfIcIzed lor laIIIng fo specIly vhaf he fhInIs
IndIans have Insfead ol fhIs concepf. Indeed, as has leen
percepfIveIy poInfed ouf ly arry i,,:ii], lor fhe
efhnographer fryIng fo descrIle IndIan seIves fhe sfruc-
furaIIsf accounf ol Iumonf and fhe efhnosocIoIogIcaI
accounf ol NarrIoff, lar lrom leIng IncompafIlIe aIfer-
nafIves, acfuaIIy ImpIy each ofher: If Is lecause IndIans
vIev fhemseIves as permealIe memlranes, much as
NarrIoff descrIles, fhaf fhey need fhe ruIes alouf purIfy
and poIIufIon vhIch Iumonf sefs ouf fo anaIyse.
So IeleIds cenfraI argumenffhaf anfhropoIogy has
fended fo concenfrafe on IdenfIfy In fhe sense ol group
or efhnIc IdenfIfy and has eIfher Ielf fhe dIscussIon ol
personaI IdenfIfy fo psychoIogIsfs or assumed fhaf
group IdenfIfy sulsumed personaI IdenfIfyIs veII
made. If Is sureIy frue fhaf anfhropoIogIsfs have foo ol-
fen presenfed IndIvIduaIs as IIIusfrafIons ol cuIfuraI
pafferns. Yef fhe excepfIons fo fhIs are many. The very
lesf efhnographIes lofh descrIle In luII fhe cuIfuraI and
sfrucfuraI consfraInfs fhaf peopIe lace and presenf IndI-
vIduaI cases In enough depfh lor fhe reader fo have a
sense ol hov fhey maIe choIces and cope vIfh, sfruggIe
agaInsf, and somefImes furn fo fheIr advanfage fhe sIfu-
afIons In vhIch fhey Lnd fhemseIves. !rom many possI-
lIe exampIes, Ief me cIfe }ohn NIddIefons Iugboro Fe
|gon i,6o], Lynn Benneffs Dongerou Wve ond
Socred Srer i,8j], and Sherry rfners Hg| Fe|gon
i,8], vhIch Is sImuIfaneousIy a sophIsfIcafed fheoref-
IcaI sfafemenf alouf sfrucfure and agency.
The efhnography fhaf So IeleId presenfs Is very sug-
gesfIve and Is meanf fo shov fhaf fhe amlIguIfIes ol so-
cIaI IIle are ''nof a fhreaf luf a greaf resource. He cer-
faInIy demonsfrafes fhaf socIefy In CIIgIf Is hIghIy
compIex, vIfh numerous crosscuffIng and Incommen-
suralIe ''dImensIons ol IdenfIfy. The lacf fhaf socIaI
IIle In many pIaces does Indeed have fhIs IInd ol com-
pIexIfy does nof, hovever, mean fhaf aII choIces are
equaIIy vIalIe, fhaf aII acfors have an equaI alIIIfy fo
allecf oufcomes, or fhaf fhere Is nof some IInd ol hIer-
archy ol accepfalIIIfy and vIalIIIfy among fhe varIous
crIferIa ol IdenfIfy vhIch may confexfuaIIy le made use
ol. As Baumann i,,6] has shovn In an Imporfanf re-
cenf anaIysIs ol SoufhaII, a muIfIefhnIc Wesf London
sulurl vIfh a ma}orIfy ol IndIan descenf, fhe poIIfIcaI
confexf Is cenfraI. In SoufhaII and much fhe same ap-
pIIes eIsevhere] fhere Is an olLcIaI dIscourse vhIch rec-
ognIzes fhe exIsfence ol a Lxed numler ol ''communI-
fIes lor SoufhaII, Lve], and fhere Is a demofIc
dIscourse In vhIch peopIe recognIze luII veII fhaf fhere
are aII IInds ol crosscuffIng IInIs and lorms ol IdenfIfy
vhIch undermIne or negafe fhe lormaIIy recognIzed
communIfIes. Yef fhe olLcIaI dIscourse LourIshes le-
cause If Is fhe onIy vay In vhIch IocaI poIIfIcs can le
carrIed on.
If Is nofIcealIe fhaf poIIfIcs and economIcs do nof
pIay a sIgnILcanf parf In So IeleIds anaIysIs ol hIs case
sfudy. He menfIons fhe lacf fhaf AII Hassan Is a rIch
man vhose pafronage Is desIred, luf fhIs does nof come
up as sIgnILcanf Iafer on. ofhIng Is saId ol fhe Iarger
confexfs ol aIIsfan or fhe NusIIm vorId, fhough
cIearIy fhe changes he relers fo cannof le undersfood In
IsoIafIon. In fhe lramevorI So IeleId has aIIoved hIm-
seIl fhere Is no space fo enIarge on such maffers, luf
fhey may le unavoIdalIe, as he recognIzes fovards fhe
end ol hIs argumenf vhen he legIns fo consIder fhe
quesfIon ol pover and fhe denIaI ol personhood fo ofh-
ers. ThIs Is ol course somefhIng fhaf has leen ol specIaI
concern fo lemInIsf anfhropoIogIsfs, a recenf exampIe
Is fhe essay ly Ies Chene i,,8], vhIch examInes fhe
lafe ol a daughfer-In-Iav vhose sfruggIe vIfh fhe con-
sfraInfs she laced vas uIfImafeIy unsuccessluI or suc-
cessluI onIy af greaf cosf.
Thus my crIfIcIsms are essenfIaIIy fhree and are
hardIy dIsalIIng]: i] So IeleId does nof gIve credIf fo fhe
many honouralIe excepfIons fo hIs sfrIcfures alouf an
anfhropoIogy fhaf Ignores fhe seIl. z] He couId perhaps
have made more ol fhe poInf fhaf a sense ol seIl Is
lound up vIfh a sense ol vorfh and fhaf fhIs may vary
vIfh pover. CouId If le fhaf fhe rIch and poverluI are
parfIcuIarIy prone fo le economIsfIc caIcuIafIng max-
j6 cDvvci Ainvcicicc. Vo|ume o, Number , AugurOcrober 1,,,
ImIzers, as AII Hassan appears fo le In any case, fhere
are veII-Inovn ol}ecfIons fo fhe assumpfIon fhaf aII
IndIvIduaIs can le modeIIed as economIsfs vouId vIsh.
j] So IeleIds LnaI senfence appears fo go veII leyond
arguIng fhaf ''seIves shouId le IncIuded as a ''suppIe-
menf fo cuIfure and seems fo suggesf fhaf fhey are es-
senfIaIIy aII fhere Is. Hovever, fo say fhaf cuIfure ''Is
onIy our janfhropoIogIsfs| consfrucfIon Is fo Ignore
fhe exfenf fo vhIch acfors are consfraIned ly If: AII
Hassan, despIfe hIs IngenuIfy, vas consfraIned ly fhe
cuIfuraI deLnIfIon ol a veddIng leasf as one fhaf con-
faIned meaf and ly hIs co-reIIgIonIsfs lan on sharIng
meaf vIfh SunnIs.
IespIfe fhese cavIIs, I luIIy agree vIfh So IeleId In hIs
prIncIpaI concIusIon. fhnographIc vrIfIng shouId Lnd
a pIace lor IndIvIduaIs and fheIr acfIons, fo excIude
fhem or fo InsIsf fhaf fhey are IrreIevanf Is lofh mefh-
odoIogIcaIIy dIsIngenuous and fheorefIcaIIy Laved. I
fhInI If vouId le mIsguIded fo go leyond fhaf, hov-
ever, and suggesf fhaf person-cenfred efhnography Is
fhe onIy IInd ve vanf: If vouId le anaIogous fo arguIng
fhaf fhe onIy hIsfory vorfh vrIfIng Is lIography.
rvi A r. nAic.
Inverry of Co|forno Inrrure for Mexco ond r|e
Inred Srore, Inverryvde Heoduorrer,
Fverde, Co|f. ,z,z1, I.S.A. /bron.|o|eyucr.edu).
i iii ,,
So IeleId maIes expIIcIf a reIafIonshIp lefveen IdenfIfy
and seIl fhaf, I fhInI, many sfudenfs ol IdenfIfy have
leen gravIfafIng fovardssome perhaps unvIffIngIy
In recenf years. HIs seIl as a manager ol IdenfIfIes ollers
a possIlIe ansver fo fhe quesfIon vho or vhaf Is con-
sfrucfIng or negofIafIng IdenfIfIes, InvenfIng aII fhose
fradIfIons, ImagInIng so many communIfIes, maIIng
efhnIc choIces, and experIencIng hylrIdIfy. !undamen-
faIIy, So IeleIds unIversaI seIl suggesfs a Iocus ol
agency. Cranfed, many sfudenfs ol IdenfIfy have leen
acInovIedgIng fhe agency ol IndIvIduaI acfors lor some
fIme, gIvIng me a smaII urge fo quIllIe vIfh So IeleIds
poIarIzafIon ol anfhropoIogIsfs freafmenf ol Wesfern
versus non-Wesfern seIves. Buf fhen, sfudyIng IdenfIfy
In CaIIlornIa I do nof conlronf an anfhropoIogIcaI fradI-
fIon ol fhe socIocenfrIc IndIvIduaI comparalIe fo vhaf
So IeleId laces vorIIng In Soufh AsIa. Indeed, fhe pres-
ence ol fhIs fradIfIon gIves hIm ampIe reason fo provIde
us sImuIfaneousIy vIfh anofher useluI crIfIque ol an-
fhropoIogIcaI or|erng.
So IeleIds premIse Is correcf: anfhropoIogIsfs seIdom
expIIcIfIy pIace fhe IndIvIduaI vIfhIn fheorefIcaI dIs-
cussIons ol IdenfIfy, choosIng Insfead fo vIev IdenfIfy
roufIneIy as a shared group characferIsfIc. In some gen-
eraI overvIevs ol efhnIc and nafIonaI IdenfIfy fhe IndI-
vIduaI or seIl goes vIrfuaIIy unmenfIoned. The lev
modeIs descrIlIng fhe reIafIonshIp lefveen IdenfIfy
and seIl olfen cannof easIIy accommodafe conLIcfIng or
crosscuffIng muIfIpIe IdenfIfIes fhaf IndIvIduaIs musf
manage or fhe IdenfIfy changes fhaf peopIe may em-
lrace Iafe In IIle. A comparIson vIfh one especIaIIy du-
ralIe and InLuenfIaI vIev ol fhe reIafIonshIp ol seIl and
IdenfIfy IeVos and RomanuccI-Ross i,,: j666,]
IIIusfrafes some pofenfIaI advanfages ol So IeleIds
modeI.
!or IeVos and RomanuccI-Ross, ''a sense ol IdenfIfy
Is, ly deLnIfIon and ly ImpIIcafIon, a conscIous parf ol
fhe seIl. fhnIc IdenfIfy, IIIe a Lrsf Ianguage, Is Insepa-
ralIe lrom a ''personaIIfy sfrucfure jfhaf| has rIgIdILed
Info fhe consIsfenf paffern ol an aduIf. IndIvIduaIs,
fhus, have onIy one ''sul}ecfIveIy genuIne or ''nafuraI
efhnIc IdenfIfy, unIess muIfIpIe IdenfIfIes are arranged
In a hIerarchIcaI segmenfary] order fhaf precIudes a
''crIsIs In consIsfency vhIch couId aIfer lehavIor and
Iead fo a nev IdenfIfy. Hovever, AII Hassans compef-
Ing olIIgafIons and IdenfIfIes ol reIIgIon, IIn, and com-
munIfy coexIsf af fhe same IeveI In pracfIce and are
equaIIy ''nafuraI fo hIm. IIllerence arIses nof }usf In
a fransIfIon fo a nev IdenfIfy luf as hIs muIfIpIe IdenfI-
fIes maIe compefIng cIaIms and musf le sorfed ouf. AII
Hassan negofIafes hIs vay fhrough fhIs crIsIs and
achIeves much ol hIs seIl-consIsfency fhrough narrafIve
alfer fhe lacf. NodeIs IIIe IeVos and RomanuccI-Rosss
do nof permIf muIfIpIe ''nafuraI IdenfIfIes ol a sIngIe
IndIvIduaI In a sIngIe seffIng, and perhaps fhey vouId
nof vIev each ol AII Hassans varIous group IdenfIfIes
as ''efhnIc and fhus equaIIy addressed ly fheIr modeI.
So IeleIds seIl as manager ol muIfIpIe and sIfuafIonaIIy
conLIcfIng IdenfIfIes eIeganfIy does permIf fhese sorfs
ol phenomena fhaf are prolIemafIc In ofher concepfuaI-
IzafIons.
By escapIng fhe frap ol reILed cuIfure, So IeleId
aIIovs lor such pafferns as fradIfIons and IdenfIfIes In-
venfed or adopfed Iafer In IIle luf experIenced af some
IeveI as more ''aufhenfIc and ''nafuraI fhan fhose
fhey have repIaced HandIer and LInneIIn i,8, see,
e.g., HaIey and WIIcoxon i,,;]. An encounfer vIfh df
fe ronce mIghf InIfIafe fhe lormuIafIon ol a nev IdenfIfy
lor fhe seIl fo manage, one fhaf can coexIsf vIfh some
oId vays yef Is aIso experIenced sooner or Iafer as ''sul-
}ecfIveIy genuIne. Il ve puf a fhInIIng seIl af fhe cen-
fer ol acfIon, confInuousIy renegofIafIng Ifs posIfIon
vIs-a` -vIs nev experIences ol dIllerence[dffe ronce
fhrough fhe socIaIIy consfIfufIng medIum ol IdenfIfy,
fhen ve may puzzIe Iess over hov IdenfIfIes can change
or exIsf In muIfIpIIcIfy or hov ''aufhenfIcIfy IfseIl
changes. The degree ol anaIyfIcaI dIsfance lefveen seIl
and IdenfIfy Infer}ecfed ly So IeleId lrees our fhInIIng
lrom fhe hegemony ol ''ol}ecfIve cuIfure Inherenf In
IeVos and RomanuccI-Rosss nafuraInesscuIfures
IdenfIfy alLIIafIon Is aIvays sul}ecf fo reInvenfIon any-
vayvIfhouf denyIng Ifs InLuence.
I cannof pass up fhe chance fo nofe fhe deIIcIous
Irony ol a pofenfIaI human unIversaInovadays olfen
fhe concern ol socIolIoIogIsfs and evoIufIonary psy-
choIogIsfsoperafIng accordIng fo a prIncIpIe ol df
fe ronce deLned ly IerrIda, fhaf Icon ol deconsfrucfIon-
Ism. An InfrIguIng aspecf ol So IeleIds modeI Is Ifs
pofenfIaI fo luIId a IInI lefveen fhe more psychoIogI-
caI- and evoIufIon-orIenfed approaches see, e.g., LevIne
sc xcrcir Se|f, Idenrry, ond Cu|rure j;
and CampleII i,;z, ReynoIds, !aIger, and VIne i,8;]
and fhe domInanf socIocuIfuraI and consfrucfIvIsf ones.
NIghf hIs redeLnIfIon ol fhe reIafIonshIp lefveen Iden-
fIfy and seIl suggesf fhe necessary Inferdependency ol
nafure and nurfure Is fhIs a research area In vhIch
fhese fvo olfen seemIngIy IrreconcIIalIe approaches In
anfhropoIogy can some day coexIsf In a mufuaIIy re-
specfluI and leneLcIaI manner Though my ovn vorI
and lIases IIe on fhe socIocuIfuraI and consfrucfIvIsf
sIde, I nurse a IerneI ol hope lor fhaf possIlIIIfy.
) cAciic mAccc
Deorrmenr of Anr|roo|ogy, Wo|ngron Srore
Inverry, Pu||mon, Wo|. ,,16,1o, I.S.A.
/jmogeomo|.vu.edu). z ii ,,
So IeleId argues fhaf fhe seIves ol fhe peopIe anfhropoI-
ogy fradIfIonaIIy sfudIes are deLned ly fhe negafIon ol
fhe Wesfern seIl, fhaf Is, as IacIIng reLexIvIfy and
agency. ThIs vay ol seeIng ofhers, lurfhermore, ''acfu-
aIIy denIes fhem a seIl. There Is a IogIcaI prolIem here.
To faII alouf dIllerence Is nof necessarIIy fo faII reduc-
fIveIy alouf peopIe In ofher cuIfures.
I vanf fo dIsfInguIsh fhree fypes ol dIllerence: nega-
fIve, gradafed, and symmefrIcaI. i] IIllerence can le
consfrucfed IIIe a phofographIc negafIve, fhen one sees
ofhers onIy In ferms ol vhaf fhey are nof. In VIcforIan
cuIfure, lor exampIe, vomen and non-Wesferners vere
deLned ly a pufafIve IacI ol cerfaIn quaIIfIes Wesfern
men had, mosf sIgnILcanf among fhem hIgher lorms ol
reason NcCIInfocI i,,]. z] IIllerence can aIso le
consfrucfed as gradafed, fhen one sees ofhers as sharIng
cerfaIn quaIIfIes vIfh oneseIl or ones ovn cuIfure fo a
greafer or Iesser degree. rIor fo fhe mId-i8fh cenfury,
vomen vere undersfood In urope as exhIlIfIng a gra-
dafed dIllerence lrom men. TheIr genIfaIs vere named
as Inverfed versIons ol maIe genIfaIs, Inverfed lecause
fhey had Iess ol fhe vIfaI heaf necessary fo push fhem
ouf Laqueur i,,o]. j] When one sees dIllerence sym-
mefrIcaIIy, hovever, ofhers are regarded as In many re-
specfs paraIIeI yef dIsfIncf, peopIe appear fo le ad-
dressIng sImIIar prolIems and LndIng unIque luf
comparalIe soIufIons.
If Is frue fhaf fhe anfhropoIogy ol an earIIer age some-
fImes assumed a negafIve or gradafed sfance fovards
seIves In ofher cuIfures. Nead i,z], lor exampIe, caIIs
fhe BaIInese ''schIzophrenIc lecause fhey preler acfIng
a socIaI roIe fo expressIng fheIr Inner fhoughfs and leeI-
Ings. Confemporary psychoIogIcaI anfhropoIogIsfs,
hovever, are dedIcafed fo a crIfIque ol negafIve and gra-
dafed consfrucfIons ol cuIfuraI dIllerence. Shveder and
i. Cradafed dIllerences are aIso exempIILed ly evoIufIonIsf per-
specfIves on fhe coIonIaI ofhers see Chaffer}ee i,,j].
z. Lafour i,,j] argues lor symmefrIcaI expIanafory prIncIpIes In
cuIfuraI anaIysIs.
j. Neads acfuaI porfrayaI ol fhe BaIInese surpasses fhe }udgmenfs
In vhIch If Is encased, many ol her ofher vorIs eschev fhe }udg-
menf ol dIllerence ly a Wesfern sfandard see, lor exampIe, Nead
i,6i].
LevInes i,8] voIume IncIudes fhe vorI ol many psy-
choIogIcaI anfhropoIogIsfs vho crIfIque psychoIogIsfs
fendencIes fo maIe Wesfern consfrucfIons ol fhe per-
son a unIversaI sfandard. So do Lufz i,88] and vIng
i,,o]. leyeseIere i,,o] crIfIques fhe fendency ol
psychoanaIysfs fo maIe Wesfern undersfandIngs ol
conscIousness and sanIfy a unIversaI sfandard. Traces
ol pre}udIcIaI consfrucfIons ol cuIfuraI dIllerence are ev-
Idenf In fhIs lody ol vorI, luf none ol fhese schoIars
see peopIe In ofher cuIfures as IacIIng agency or reLec-
fIvIfy.
Why does So IeleId mIsconsfrue ofher schoIars In fhIs
vay Because he IdenfILes agency and reLexIvIfy vIfh
fhe seIl as consIsfenf, confInuous, and dIsfIncf lrom
ofhers a cIassIc Wesfern vIev] and nof vIfh fhe seIl as
confexfuaIIy cued ''IdenfIfIes. As many psychoIogIcaI
anfhropoIogIsfs affrIlufe socIaIIy orIenfed, confexfu-
aIIy cued IdenfIfIes fo peopIe In fhe socIefIes fhey sfudy,
''If loIIovs, So IeleId asserfs, fhaf fhey deny agency
and reLexIvIfy fo ''fhe non-Wesf. Buf vhy does he
IdenfIly fhese quInfessenfIaI aspecfs ol seIlhood vIfh
fhe seIl as dIsfIncf and confInuous So IeleId shovs fhaf
hIs aIIsfanI Inlormanf has muIfIpIe IdenfIfIes luf,
puIIed fhIs vay and fhaf ly hIs IIle experIences, a dIs-
fIncf-confInuous seIl fhaf Is nof acfIveIy cuIfIvafed
vIfhIn hIs cuIfure emerges and has fo le reconcIIed
vIfh hIs confexfuaIIzed IdenfIfIes. So IeleId sees fhIs
emergence as a reaIIzafIon ol reLexIvIfy and agency and
fherelore equafes fhe fvo, luf fhere Is anofher possI-
lIIIfy.
I have argued i,,, i,,8] fhaf fhe sul}ecfIve dImen-
sIons ol experIence assocIafed vIfh IndIvIduaIIfy ond
fhe socIaI dImensIons assocIafed vIfh fhe lorm ol seIl-
hood fhaf So IeleId caIIs ''IdenfIfIes are presenf In peo-
pIe everyvhere. In cuIfure, one ol fhese dImensIons Is
ro o degree IInguIsfIcaIIy and concepfuaIIy prIvIIeged
and exIsfs In dynamIc fensIon vIfh fhe ofher, Iess prIvI-
Ieged dImensIon. eopIe respond fo fhIs fensIon ly pro-
ducIng a serIes ol dIscourses on fhe seIl In vhIch fhe
more olscure dImensIon graduaIIy emerges. ThIs emer-
gence Is fanfamounf fo a reaIIzafIon ol agency and re-
LexIvIfy, }usf as In AII Hassans case. Ny dIllerences
lrom So IeleId are fvo. i] So IeleId sees dIscourse as un-
marIed ly fhe excIusIon ol a dIslavored dImensIon ol
experIence. z] I fhInI AII Hassan lecomes IncreasIngIy
agenfIc and reLexIve fhrough fhe emergence ol a sense
ol seIl as dIsfIncf-confInuous becoue fhIs Is a lacI-
grounded dImensIon ol experIence In hIs socIefy, nor
becoue agency and reLexIvIfy are ly-producfs ol IndI-
vIduaIIfy In confradIsfIncfIon fo socIaIIy orIenfed lorms
ol seIlhood. In socIefIes vhere a dIsfIncf-confInuous
sense ol seIl Is prIvIIeged, reLexIvIfy and agency are ac-
fuaIIzed fhrough fhe emergence ol underprIvIIeged so-
cIaI experIences, vhIch lrIngs vIfh If a reaIIzafIon fhaf
dIsfIncf-confInuous seIlhood foo Is a cuIfuraI consfruc-
fIonfhaf ve are nof reaIIy consIsfenf luf change lrom
sIfuafIon fo sIfuafIon, fhaf ve are ellecfIve onIy Inas-
much as ve acf In concerf vIfh ofhers, and so lorfh.
ThIs emergence Is Iey lor sfudIes ol fhe seIl, luf ve
need a symmefrIcaI expIanafory prIncIpIe fo accounf lor
j8 cDvvci Ainvcicicc. Vo|ume o, Number , AugurOcrober 1,,,
If, nof one fhaf vaIorIzes a fradIfIonaI Wesfern modeI ol
fhe seIl.
mAiii sc mi cs
Deorrmenr of Anr|roo|ogy, Inverry of
Co|forno, Sonro orboro, Co|f. ,1o6, I.S.A.
/mnecf.ucb.edu). iz iii ,,
ThIs arfIcIe frIggers such a lroad hosf ol reacfIons fhaf
If Is hard fo Inov vhere fo sfarf, Ief me legIn, fhere-
lore, ly sfafIng vhaf I Lnd compeIIIng In If. !Irsf, fhe
IndIvIduaI and IndIvIduaIIfy need fo le Incorporafed
Info anaIyses ol socIefy and cuIfure Il ve are fo advance
our undersfandIng ol fhem and our reIafIonshIp as IndI-
vIduaIs fo fhem. Second, some sorf ol seIl Is unIversaI
and Is requIsIfe fo fhe fhInIIng, pIannIng, acfIon-InIfIaf-
Ing IndIvIduaI If Is, as NIchaeI CarrIfhers poInfs ouf,
aIso essenfIaI fo human hIsfory]. So IeleId, fhen, Is no
ToIsfoyan. ThIrd and fo some exfenf I Inler fhIs], a
sense ol seIl Is emledded In socIaI reIafIonshIps, vhIch
are allecfed ly pover dIllerences, and requIres consfanf
managemenf, veIghIng ol cIrcumsfance and pofenfIaI
consequences ol acfIon, argumenf, and seIl-presenfa-
fIon. If Is aIso a producf ol experIence and reLecfIon.
!ourfh, acfIons are InLuenced ly cuIfure and socIefy,
fhe IndIvIduaI Is nof an aufonomous acfor.
The vay I read So IeleId, fherelore, Is fhaf he Is ar-
guIng lor anfhropoIogIsfs fo change sIgnILcanfIy fhe
manner In vhIch fhey do LeIdvorI, concepfuaIIze socI-
efy and cuIfure, and anaIyze hIsfory: fhe Iey Is an efh-
nography ol fhe seIl and ol IdenfIfy. We musf preserve
fhe IndIvIduaIIfy ol our Inlormanfsundersfand IndI-
vIduaI mofIvafIon and reasons lor acfIon and preserve
hov our Inlormanfs engage In socIaI reIafIons, hov fhey
narrafe fheIr reIafIonshIps fo ofhers, and hov fhey
maIe choIces alouf hov fo acf, fherely producIng fhe
processes ol socIefy, cuIfure, and, I add, hIsfory. ThIs
arfIcIe, fhen, Is good sfull, luII ol Ideas and, I leIIeve,
luII ol suggesfIons alouf hov fo furn anfhropoIogys af-
fenfIon fo fhe reaIIfy ol fangIlIe IIves and acfuaI peopIe.
ThIs furns much zofh-cenfury anfhropoIogy, vhIch has
olscured or dIsmIssed any socIaI sIgnILcance lor fhe In-
dIvIduaI, experIence, and mofIvafIon. There Is much In
fhIs arfIcIe, fherelore, fhaf Is excIfIng.
There Is, hovever, aIso much cenfraI fo fhe arfIcIe
fhaf Is conlused and IndefermInafe and musf le ad-
dressed Il anfhropoIogy Is fo reorIenf IfseIl In fhe man-
ner So IeleId recommends. Nosf Imporfanf, So IeleId as-
serfs fhaf ''fhe seIl shouId le faIen as an unIversaI IIIe
cuIfure and fhese fvo fhIngs shouId le undersfood as
compIemenfary. Whaf does he mean CerfaInIy nof
much, Il vhaf he Is sayIng Is fhaf as aII socIefIes have
cuIfure, aII IndIvIduaIs have a seIlcuIfure and seIl le-
Ing ''undersfood In reIafIon fo one anofher. Whaf,
fhen, Is fhIs seIl he advocafes And vhaf precIseIy Is
fhIs reIafIonshIp vIfh cuIfure !urfher, fhe seIl Is nof
fhe ''same or essenfIaIIy sImIIar lor aII peopIe ol fhe
vorIdcuIfures ellecf, I presumeluf seIves are ''nof
necessarIIy as dIllerenf as many anfhropoIogIcaI fexfs
. . . porfray fhem. Whaf does he mean ly ''cuIfure,
and precIseIy hov Is If a componenf ol seIl arIIer he
vrIfes fhaf ''agency, reLexIvIfy, and fhe seIl go hand In
hand. ThIs lurfher conluses me. So IeleId seems fo ad-
vocafe a seIl fhaf Incorporafes fhree IeveIs ol seIl-repre-
senfafIon: ''IdenfIfIes, emergIng onIy alfer experIence,
ouf-ol-confexf narrafIves fhaf Inlormanfs reIafe fo an
efhnographer alouf hov fhey acf and characferIze
fhemseIves, and IndIvIduaI managemenf ol acfIon and
ol narrafIve In ''conLIcfuaI rocrco| momenfs. Whaf
Is fhe reIafIonshIp among fhese IeveIs
I leIIeve fhaf vhaf So IeleId cafches Is fhaf fhe seIl Is
a poverluI Iocus lor undersfandIng acfIon, mofIvafIon,
and fhe everyday phenomena ol socIaI IIle. Whaf I le-
IIeve he mIsses, Il ever so sIIghfIy, Is fhaf fhe seIl Is Lrsf
an avareness susfaIned In socIaI reIafIons. There can le
no seIleIfher In fhe Wesf or eIsevherefhaf Is aufon-
omous. Such a sense Is aIvays an IIIusIon. When hIs In-
lormanfs expIaIn fhemseIves fo hIm, fhey do so ly de-
scrIlIng a IInd ol BaIhfInIan dIaIogue vIfh sIgnILcanf
ofhers. Indeed, much ol seIl-avareness Is lroughf Info
conscIousness precIseIy lecause If faIes fhe lorm ol
lofh InfernaI and acfuaI argumenfs vIfh ofhers alouf
hov fo lehave and hov lehavIor shouId le esfImafed.
Confrary fo C. H. Nead, fhIs seIl-conscIousness aIIovs
hIs Inlormanfs fo examIne fheIr reIafIonshIps, fo Imag-
Ine fhem conLgured In dIllerenf vays and somefImes In
nev vays, and fo affempf conscIousIy fo reconsfIfufe
reIafIons and groups and so fo franslorm socIefy. AII ol
fhe IdenfIfIes fo vhIch So IeleId relers aIIude fo groups
consfIfufed In fhIs manner. ThIs, fhen, Is nof }usf an
alfer-fhe-acf avareness luf a pIannIng, ImagInIng, po-
fenfIaIIy creafIve avareness. RecognIzIng fhIs pufs fhe
responsIlIIIfy lor socIaI acfIon and socIaI hIsfory In hu-
man hands, vhIch Is vhere If leIongsIn fhe hands ol
IndIvIduaI acfors.
icci vAiicvi
Sc|oo| of P||oo|co| ond Anr|roo|ogco| Srude,
Inverry of Sr. Andrev, Sr. Andrev KY16 ,AI,
Scor|ond, I.K. /njrzrondrev.oc.u|). z6 ii ,,
So IeleId vIII apprecIafe fhaf I am greafIy In sympafhy
vIfh fhe generaI efhos ol hIs pro}ecf. I mIghf rehearse a
numler ol Ifs Iey fhemes as loIIovs:
i. AnfhropoIogy ore` IurIheIm has laIIed fo recog-
nIze fhe sIgnILcance ol acfIng IndIvIduaIs ''seIves].
ThIs fendency has faIen an exfreme furn vIfh fhe posf-
sfrucfuraIIsf !oucauIf, }ameson, SpIvaI, Cergen] nega-
fIon ol fhe IdenfIcaI sul}ecf.
z. Nore precIseIy, If has freafed fhe convenfIonaI con-
cepfuaIIzafIon ol seIlhood fo fhe excIusIon ol Ifs experI-
encIng, as Il fhere vere no room lor dIllerence lefveen
fhemlefveen, Ief us say, ''IndIvIduaIIsm and ''IndI-
vIduaIIfy.
j. RuIIng ouf fhe sIgnILcance ol seIves dIsfIncf lrom
fheIr socIo-cuIfuraI concepfuaIIzafIonregardIng fhem
sc xcrcir Se|f, Idenrry, ond Cu|rure j,
as epIphenomenaI, IrreIevanf, InaccessIlIe, even non-
exIsfenfhas evenfuafed In lacIIe dIchofomIes Iu-
monf: ''fhe Wesfern seIl may have lecome IndIvIduaIIs-
fIc luf fhe Resf remaIn socIocenfrIc], fhe hyposfafIza-
fIon ol ''socIefy and ''cuIfure, and defermInIsm.
. A leffer approach Is fo InvesfIgafe fhe socIo-cuI-
furaI as an ol}ecf consfrucfed ly ongoIng IndIvIduaI ac-
fIon, medIafed ly IndIvIduaI InferprefafIon, and exIs-
fenf vIa experIence vhIch, vhIIe nof lree-LoafIng, Is
IndIvIduaI lofh In provenance and In sulsfance.
. The IndIvIduaIIfy ol experIence fransIafes, lor ex-
ampIe, Info an IndIvIduaIs leIng alIe fo deveIop a
sfrong sense ol seIl even In a seffIng vhIch, concepfu-
aIIy, Is non- or anfI-IndIvIduaIIsfIc.
6. The dIsfance lefveen fhe IndIvIduaI and fhe con-
venfIonaI concepfuaIIzafIon Is especIaIIy apparenf In
sIfuafIons ol socIo-cuIfuraI pIuraIIsm. Here If Is Impos-
sIlIe fo accounf lor fhe manoeuvrIng ly IndIvIduaI
acfors among a dIversIfy ol pulIIc IdenfIfIes and fheIr
pursuIf In dIllerenf confexfs ol confradIcfory ends vIfh-
ouf relerence fo a seIl vhIch seIecfs courses ol acfIon
and monIfors fheIr condIfIons, course, and oufcome.
The seIl ollers fhe possIlIIIfy ol a sfalIe poInf ol reler-
ence lrom vhIch fo reLecf on and manage a dIversIfy ol
IdenfIfIes.
;. The sfalIIIfy ol fhe experIencIng seIl Is acceded fo
vIa narrafIve. TeIIIng fhemseIves an ongoIng sfory ol
seIl, IndIvIduaIs achIeve a seIl-IdenfIfy dIsfIncf lromfhe
Images convenfIonaIIy assocIafed vIfh fhe roIes fhey
pIay.
8. In fhIs seIl-narrafIve fhe amlIguIfIes surroundIng
dIllerenf roIes and fhe amlIvaIences alouf fhe dIsfance
lefveen roIes and seIl can lecome a cognIfIve resource:
a means ol consIderIng nev vays ol sfrucfurIng fhe so-
cIaI vorId and ol acfIng vIfhIn If.
,. In shorf, fhere can le neIfher human leIng nor le-
comIng vIfhouf seIlhood, and IndIvIduaI agency vIs-a` -
vIs fhe convenfIonaI Is unIversaI. NefhodoIogIcaIIy ve
musf aIvays affend fo fhe seIl and refaIn an avare-
ness ol fhe IndIvIduaI amId fhe socIo-cuIfuraIIy concep-
fuaI.
These fhemes accord, as I say, vIfh concIusIons ol my
ovn concernIng fhe dIversIfy ol ''vorIdvIevs and ''per-
sonae vhIch IndIvIduaIs can le seen fo le responsIlIe
lor and fhe agency evInced ly IndIvIduaIs creafIng,
maInfaInIng, and reaIIzIng fhese In socIo-cuIfuraI mI-
IIeux cl. Rapporf i,,j]. I vouId go larfher fhan So Ie-
leId, hovever, In advocafIng a humanIsf-exIsfenfIaIIsf
anfhropoIogy vhIch recognIzes fhe radIcaI lreedom or
aparfness ol fhe IndIvIduaI: aparf lrom so-caIIed prIor
condIfIons, lrom seemIng pover InequaIIfIes, sfruc-
fures, and consfraInfs, lrom ofhers In a socIo-cuIfuraI
mIIIeu, even lrom fhemseIves.
!Irsf, If seems fo me unnecessary fo fIe IndIvIduaIs
seIl-Images fo fhe pIuraIIfy ol reIafIonshIp domaIns In
vhIch fhey are ensconced and nof aIIov lor seIl-Images
leIng creafed ex n||o. SecondIy, I leIIeve If Is Impor-
fanf fo recognIze fhaf IndIvIduaIs may le InconsIsfenf
and seIl-confradIcfory luf no Iess ''fhemseIves, no Iess
agenfIaI, and no more fhe pIayfhIngs ol cIrcumsfance or
dIscourse. So IeleId seems fo say fhaf InconsIsfency
musf le somefhIng ol vhIch IndIvIduaIs are conscIous
Il If has pracfIcaI, socIaI consequences.] ThIrdIy, I Lnd
fhaf fhe vrong sfafus Is leIng granfed fo fhe confexfs
and cIrcumsfances vIfhIn vhIch IndIvIduaIs IIve. So -
IeleId descrIles hov IndIvIduaIs acf In ferms ol prol-
Iems sef up ly a Iong hIsfory ol pover reIafIons and
sfruggIe.] In sulscrIlIng fo hIs posIfIons I leeI fhaf he Is
InsulLcIenfIy open fo fhe nafure and ellecfs ol IndIvId-
uaI lecomIng.
Il ve say alfer RedLeId i,6o:,] fhaf fhe ''sfafes ol
mInd ol parfIcuIar peopIe . . . jfheIr| compIIcafed fhInI-
Ing and leeIIng . . . Is fhe reaI and uIfImafe rav maferIaI
ol anfhropoIogy, sInce ''If Is fhere fhaf evenfs reaIIy
happen, fhIs Is nof a refreaf Info IdeaIIsm luf an accu-
rafe accounf ol fhe IrreducIlIe dIaIecfIc lefveen envI-
ronmenfs and fheIr IndIvIduaI consfruaI. The lorms
vhIch IndIvIduaIs Lnd around fhem nafuraI and socIo-
cuIfuraI] achIeve fheIr confInuIng exIsfence and sIg-
nILcance ly vay ol InferacfIve-InferprefIve procedures
conducfed ly IndIvIduaIs In fhe process ol creafIng
fhemseIves. WorIds lecome and remaIn human ly le-
comIng IndIvIduaI, ly vay ol IndIvIduaIs InferacfIng
vIfh fhem. If Is an onfoIogIcaI error fo descrIle IerrI-
dean lorms or Saussurean |ongue or NarxIan condI-
fIons] as dIrecfIy, causaIIy, or meanIngluIIy allecfIng
fhe IdenfIfIes and vorIds vhIch IndIvIduaI Inferprefa-
fIons gIve on fo. IndIvIduaIs carry vIfh fhem fheIr ovn
experIenfIaI confexfs, In shorf, and human socIaI IIle Is
fhe sfory ol a dIversIfy ol IndIvIduaI vorIds aluffIng
agaInsf one anofher.
cD incv scnicc
orc|ungc|verun|r nrvc||ungozo|oge,
Inverro r e|efe|d, Porfoc| 1oo11, ,o1
e|efe|d, Cermony. j i ,,
So IeleId addresses fhe cIassIcaI prolIem ol fhe socIaI
scIences: hov fo comlIne fhe socIaI sphere socIefy,
sfucfure, sysfem . . . ] vIfh vhaf Is goIng on vIfh fhe
IndIvIduaI acfor. The easy vay ouf ol fhe prolIem has
aIvays leen fo Ignore one ol fhe fvo perspecfIves: fo do
eIfher pure sysfem fheory e.g., sfrucfuraI-luncfIonaI-
Ism, ecoIogIcaI defermInIsm] or pure acfIon fheory, In-
spIred ly psychoIogy or economIcs e.g., rafIonaI choIce,
game fheory]. He Is nof as aIone as he may leIIeve In
IooIIng lor a synfhesIs: In InsfIfufIonaI economIcs and
poIIfIcaI economy one Lnds sImIIar affempfs. SocIaI
scIence has dIscovered fhaf acfuaI peopIe do nof com-
pIefeIy Lf fhe modeI ol fhe Homo oeconomcu vho
caIcuIafes hIs cosfs and leneLfs and InfeIIIgenfIy and
lreeIy pursues hIs seIl-Inferesf af aII fImes or fhaf ol fhe
somevhaf Iess ImpressIve Homo oco|ogcu vho Is
perlecfIy socIaIIzed and sheepIshIy oleys one sef ol roIe
expecfafIons alfer fhe ofher. BehInd fhe varIefy ol roIes
perlormed In fhe course ol a day and lehInd fhe con-
LIcfIng IdenfIfIes deLned ly dIllerenf sefs ol crIferIa ve
o cDvvci Ainvcicicc. Vo|ume o, Number , AugurOcrober 1,,,
Lnd fhe confInuous personhood ol an acfor vho frIes
fo remaIn pIausIlIe fo hImseIl[herseIl and ofhers and
sfrIves lor some sorf ol lIographIcaI consIsfency. So Ie-
leId crIfIcIzes a numler ol anfhropoIogIsfs lor negIecf-
Ing fhIs ''seIl. In my IImIfed space I am nof goIng fo
dIscuss vhefher fhIs crIfIcIsm Is luIIy }usfILed In aII
cases, fhose vho are IIvIng can delend fhemseIves.
ReadIng fhIs paper, vhIch Is InspIred ly Soufh AsIan
maferIaI, vIfh fhe eyes ol an AlrIcanIsf, I Lnd If surprIs-
Ing fhaf So IeleId aImosf reInvenfs Nax CIucImans
fheory ol crosscuffIng fIes, apparenfIy vIfhouf leIng
avare ol If, }usf as CIucIman i,], In hIs furn, lor
some sfrefches ol hIs vay, InadverfenfIy moves aIong
pafhs frodden much earIIer ly Nauss i,6, ji,ji|:i].
So IeleId deveIops hIs ovn fermInoIogy, vhIch mIsses
fhe esfalIIshed ferms onIy narrovIy ''InfersecfIng].
!or CIucIman, vho sfarfs lrom a rafher HollesIan per-
specfIve ol ulIquIfous conLIcf, fhe lacf fhaf peaceluI In-
fegrafIon Is possIlIe af aII Is due fo fhe exIsfence ol
crosscuffIng fIes. They are fhe very cause ol socIaI ''co-
hesIon. We are IImIfed In our conLIcfs vIfh fhose vho
are ly one sef ol crIferIa our adversarIes ly fhe ever-
presenf possIlIIIfy fhaf fhey mIghf le our aIIIes ly dIl-
lerenf crIferIa In fhe nexf conLIcf consfeIIafIon. The
avareness fhaf vhaf ve do In one capacIfy can allecf
vhaf ve can do and vhaf peopIe do fo us In anofher
capacIfy can, ol course, onIy le medIafed ly a ''seIl
vhIch exIsfs confInuousIy aIongsIde fhe dIllerenf roIes
If enacfs. As fhIs Is appIIed fo Wesfern and non-Wesfern
exampIes aIIIe, CIucImans fheory seems fo le Im-
mune fo fhe fype ol crIfIcIsm IeveIIed ly So IeleId
agaInsf ofhers.
ConLgurafIons ol crosscuffIng fIes ol fhe fype ol-
served here In norfhern aIIsfan occur lrequenfIy
across AlrIca, aIso InvoIvIng fhe presence ol cIans and
ofher seIl-sfyIed] descenf groups In more fhan one efh-
nIc or IInguIsfIc groupIng. ThIs has leen olserved lofh
In cIassIcaI vrIfIngs !orfes i,6,:i,] and more re-
cenfIy AIIen i,,, Lamphear i,;6, Turfon i,,]. !or a
Iong fIme fhese fIes have leen negIecfed lecause BrIfIsh
and AmerIcan anfhropoIogy have leen maInIy Infer-
esfed In anaIysIng fhe InfernaI sysfemIc reIafIonshIps ol
''socIefIes and ''cuIfures respecfIveIy as lounded
unIfs and, In fhe AmerIcan case, In Iarge-scaIe comparI-
son ol such unIfs aroII i,6]. veryfhIng vhIch oc-
curred lefveen such unIfs vas underlocused as a conse-
quence.
Nore recenfIy If has leen quesfIoned vhefher such
crosscuffIng fIes aIvays have fhe InfegrafIng and de-
escaIafIng ellecf posfuIafed ly CIucImans fheory and
lound aIso In So IeleIds exampIes. HaIIpIIe i,;;] lor
an area ol ev CuInea and SchIee i,,;] lor norfhern
Kenya have descrIled crosscuffIng fIes fhaf have con-
LIcf-escaIafIng ellecfs or open nev rIlfs In fhe process
ol heaIIng oId ones. Inder vhIch condIfIons do fhey
vorI In fhese dIllerenf vays There seems fo le much
more fo crosscuffIng fIes fhan fhose vho once coIned
fhaf concepf ImagIned. So IeleIds InferesfIng maferIaI
vouId le hIghIy reIevanf In fhaf fheorefIcaI lramevorI,
and he shouId le encouraged fo address If more expIIc-
IfIy.
mAvii ) vA rccx
Deorrmenr of r|nogro|y ond Soco| Anr|roo|ogy,
Inverry of Aor|u, Moegoord, 8z;o Hojbjerg,
Denmor|. io iii ,,
So IeleId ollers a fImeIy pIea lor more affenfIon In an-
fhropoIogIcaI anaIysIs fo ''reaI or ''acfuaI IndIvIduaIs.
HIs crIfIque ol fhe fendency In much schoIarIy vorI fo
freaf IndIvIduaIs as mere carrIers ol parfIcuIar cuIfuraI
prIncIpIes, lorms, or concepfs Is In my opInIon veII-far-
gefed, and hIs lroad argumenf lor ''lrIngIng fhe seIl
lacI In Is veIcome. Whereas fhe anfhropoIogy ol fhe
KaraIoramHIndu Kush regIon has produced cIassIc
sfudIes ol coIIecfIve IdenfIfy and efhnIcIfy e.g., Barfh
i,6,], So IeleIds efhnographIc vorI see aIso So IeleId
i,,, i,,;], shovs cIearIy fhaf here, foo, peopIe have
muIfIpIe and crosscuffIng ''IdenfIfIes. ThIs ollers a
useluI correcfIon fo fhe prevaIenf nofIon fhaf such com-
pIexIfy and amlIguIfy are a producf or consequence ol
posf-] modernIfy. So IeleId suggesfs fhaf ve shouId
faIe acfuaI seIves, acfIng peopIe, as fhe sfarfIng poInf
ol our InquIrIes vhen ve sfudy ''cuIfure, and If Is dIl-
LcuIf fo dIsagree. Buf does he hImseIl faIe such a sfarf-
Ing poInf WhIIe I agree vIfh hIm In many respecfs, I
vonder vhefher hIs argumenf Is nof veaIened ly hIs
reIIance on ''IdenfIfy as a cenfraI concepfuaI fooI In hIs
anaIysIs.
When dIscussIng fhe exampIe ol AII Hassan, So IeleId
maInfaIns fhaf fhIs musf ] le read as ''managemenf ol
IdenfIfIes, fhaf he ''enacfed a numler ol IdenfIfIes,
fhaf he dId so ''sfrafegIcaIIy, and fhaf fhIs shovs hov
peopIe In CIIgIf ''pursued varIous and af fImes confra-
dIcfory ol}ecfIves. He asIs, ''Hov do fhey deveIop a
sense ol a confInuous and consIsfenf seIl In fhIs con-
fexf and ansvers fhaf AII Hassan Is In hIs ovn opIn-
Ion consIsfenfIy ''hImseIl and fhaf he Is ''denyng con-
scIous ellorfs and sfrafegIes. So IeleId resoIves fhe
prolIem ly InfroducIng a ''narrafIve seIl fhaf ''resuIfs
In fhe creafIon ol a personaI Image. Buf vhaf Is fhe sfa-
fus ol fhIs narrafIve seIl In reIafIon fo vhaf ''reaIIy
happened I.e., fhe sfrafegIc managemenf ol IdenfIfIes]
If seems fo me fhaf vhIIe fhe concepf may heIp us fo
undersfand hov AII Hassan can represenf a consIsfenf
seIl on paIn ol seIl-deIusIon], If Ieaves fhe anaIysIs
ol evenfs fhrough relerence fo reILed concepfIons ol
IdenfIfy and communIfymuIfIpIe, luf reILed none-
fheIessunchanged.
If seems fo me fhaf So IeleId maIes fvo prolIemafIc
moves. !Irsf, fhe assumpfIon fhaf fhese evenfs shouId
le read as sfrucfured fhrough fhe desIre lor a ''coherenf,
consIsfenf seIl seems fo me fo le aIready Inlormed ly
a parfIcuIar readIng fhaf faIes a sInguIar concepfIon ol
''IdenfIfy or seIl as Ifs yardsfIcI: coherenf, unIque,
consIsfenf. venfs are seen fhrough fhe Iense ol ''Iden-
fIfy, even fhough lor AII Hassan fhey appear fo have
sc xcrcir Se|f, Idenrry, ond Cu|rure i
fo do vIfh a compIex ol olIIgafIons, Inferesfs, lamIIy
fIes, and economIc, poIIfIcaI, and reIIgIous consIder-
afIons, fo name a lev. The ImposIfIon ol an ''IdenfIfy
lramevorI olscures precIseIy vhaf Is InferesfIng In fhe
sIfuafIon, nameIy, fhaf personaI readIngs IdenfILca-
fIons] ol fhe sIfuafIon and Ifs demands Inlorm fhe ac-
fIons ol fhe IndIvIduaI In quesfIon. Hov does ''IdenfIfy
heIp us fo undersfand fhIs compIex ol consIderafIons
SecondIy, So IeleIds resoIufIon, fhrough a narrafIve
seIl, rIsIs reInlorcIng fhe separafIon lefveen researcher
and peopIe sfudIed, fhey narrafe, luf fhe anfhropoIogIsf
Inovs vhaf reaIIy IIes lehInd: IdenfIfIes and fheIr sfra-
fegIc managemenf. In ofher vords, If rIsIs reInfroduc-
Ing fhe ol}ecfIvIsf lanfasy ol anfhropoIogIsfs vIfh per-
lecf vIsIon.
If seems fo me fhaf So IeleId mIghf exfend fhe same
agency-orIenfed perspecfIve he appIIes fo concepfIons
ol fhe seIl fo fhe concepf ol IdenfIfyor, rafher, fhaf he
mIghf consIder, as HandIer i,,6] dId, vhefher ''Iden-
fIfy Is af aII a useluI cross-] cuIfuraI concepf. Insfead
ol ''IdenfIfy I preler fo use ''IdenfILcafIon fo sIgnaI af
once fhe pracfIcaI, emlodIed socIaI and poIIfIcaI charac-
fer ol such reIafIons, Ideas, and pracfIces. Among fhe
advanfages ol fhIs IInd ol concepfuaIIzafIon Is fhaf If
opens up a LeId ol InferprefafIon fhaf can In prIncIpIe
le shared ly researchers and fhe peopIe fhey sfudy
vIfhouf a prIorI esfalIIshIng a hIerarchIcaI reIafIonshIp
lefveen ''our and ''fheIr InferprefafIons. There Is, ol
course, a grovIng lody ol vorI on IdenfIfy, commu-
nIfy, and seIl fhaf vIfh varyIng degrees ol success
avoIds fhe reILcafIons fhaf So IeleId rIghfIy depIores.
Nany ol fhese approaches share a concern vIfh Ian-
guage, rheforIc, and represenfafIon rafher fhan vIfh
''IdenfIfy per se e.g., Comaroll i,,6, HerzleId i,,z,
Roselerry i,,6]. Such an approach does nof precIude or
dImInIsh fhe need lor fhe consIderafIon ol ''acfuaI IndI-
vIduaIs fhaf So IeleId caIIs lor.
osIng fhe Issue as one ol ''IdenfIfyfhe need lor a
coherenf, sfalIe seIl In a vorId characferIzed ly muIfI-
pIIcIfy, confradIcfIng and overIappIng IoyaIfIes, de-
mands, and olIIgafIonsrIsIs furnIng humans Info per-
pefuaIIy neurofIc creafures graspIng lor an ImpossIlIe
vhoIeness. The efhnographIc record, IncIudIng So Ie-
leIds ovn vorI, shovs fhaf fhe negofIafIon ol such
compIexIfIes and confradIcfIons Is nof desfalIIIzIng or
even surprIsIng fo mosf peopIe mosf ol fhe fIme, In lacf,
If Is fhe very sulsfance ol ''cuIfure. The prolIem ol
''IdenfIfy, fhen, arIses nof necessarIIy lrom anxIefy
alouf ones ''seIl luf lrom fhe InsIsfence on sInguIar-
Ify fhaf Is characferIsfIc ol semanfIc orders, vhIch de-
mand a purIfy fhaf socIaI] reaIIfy cannof mafch. If Is
fhIs InsIsfence on purIfy, on sInguIar IdenfILcafIon, on
vhoIeness, coherence, and consIsfency, vhIch causes
anxIefy, precIseIy lecause Ifs demand cannof ''reaIIy
le mef. NIghf nof fhe ''narrafIve seIl vhIch dIssImu-
Iafes a coherenf, consIsfenf seIl In fhe exampIe ol AII
Hassan reveaI a delensIve or }usfILcafory sfrafegy In fhe
lace ol fhe demands ol an InsIsfenf anfhropoIogIsf
rafher fhan a seIl-orIenfed sfrafegy lor ''IdenfIfy
ii A wcvrcv
Deorrmenr of Soco|ogy ond Soco| Anr|roo|ogy,
Kee|e Inverry, Sroff. ST, ,C, I.K. zz iii ,,
So IeleId raIses Imporfanf, Iong-negIecfed quesfIons
alouf fhe reIafIon lefveen seIl and IdenfIfy and le-
fveen pIuraI or conLIcfIng IdenfIfIes and agency or seIl-
hood. HIs argumenf sfarfs lrom presenf posfsfrucfura-
IIsf reLecfIons alouf muIfIpIe IdenfIfIes, agency, and
fhe sul}ecf vhIch sfress fhaf IdenfIfIes exIsf In and
fhrough dIllerence, ly confrasf fo ofher IdenfIfIes. HIs
fImeIy caII Is fo alandon earIIer anfhropoIogIcaI as-
sumpfIons alouf an essenfIaI dIllerence lefveen Wesf-
ern and non-Wesfern seIves. Buf vhen he Impufes fo
anfhropoIogy an ''ImpIIcIf paraIIeIIsm ol seIl and Iden-
fIfy . . . as somefhIng essenfIaIIy shared and sInguIar,
he Is, I vanf fo argue here, reLecfIng a lroader fendency
In fhe dIscIpIIne fovards anfhropoIogIcaI amnesIa.
So IeleId asIs, ''Whaf Il fhe peopIe anfhropoIogIsfs
sfudy cannof le cafegorIzed ly shared IdenfIfIes Whaf
Il fheIr IdenfIfy Is nof one luf, as In a pIuraI socIefy, a
coIIecfIon ol dIllerences seffIng fhem oll lrom varyIng
groups ol ofhers . . . Il vhaf Is shared vIfh some con-
LIcfs vIfh vhaf Is shared vIfh ofhers We are Ied fo
leIIeve fhaf fhIs Is a quesfIon Ielf enfIreIy unexamIned
In fhe hIsfory ol anfhropoIogy so larIndeed, a ques-
fIon arIsIng lrom IerrIdas nofIon ol dIllerence[df
fe ronce or Avfar Brahs ol sul}ecfIve ''InfersecfIons ol
IdenfIfIes ol gender, race, cIass, sexuaIIfy]. nce such
confradIcfIons and InfersecfIons are acInovIedged, So -
IeleId proposes, fhen IndIvIduaIs are necessarIIy dIs-
cIosed phenomenoIogIcaIIy fo le empIrIcaI agenfs or
acfIng seIves even, as fhe resf ol hIs paper reveaIs, vhen
ve Inov IIffIe alouf fheIr seIl-conscIousness, Infro-
specfIons, doulfs, and amlIvaIences.
AgaInsf fhIs I propose fhaf fhe cIassIc modern anfhro-
poIogIcaI sfudy ol IdenfIfy, T|e Nuer, pulIIshed In
i,o, Is a vorI vhIch hIghIIghfs nof onIy fhaf IdenfI-
fIes are consfrucfed fhrough dIllerence geneaIogIcaI,
segmenfary] luf fhaf memlershIp In dIllerenf groups
generafes conLIcfs lor IndIvIduaIs vhIch can onIy le re-
soIved sIfuafIonaIIy. vans-rIfchard vas sfIII, hov-
ever, vorIIng vIfh a nofIon ol muIfIpIe homoIogous
IdenfIfIes on a rIsIng scaIe. IdenfIfIes, In ofher vords,
aIfhough conLIcfIng and muIfIpIe, rafher fhan Infer-
secfIng nered In hIs anaIysIs vIfhIn one anofher ac-
cordIng fo a ng|e rnc|e of egmenroron.
In Nax CIucImans revorIIng ol T|e Nuer and In hIs
modeI ol crosscuffIng fIes deveIoped sulsequenfIy as a
comparafIve fheory, fhe move vas fo shov fhe exIs-
fence ol endemIc confradIcfIons lefveen prIncIpIes ol
socIaI organIzafIon In frIlaI socIefIes and hence aIso le-
fveen IdenfIfIes. The Nanchesfer SchooI conLIcf fhe-
ory, as If came fo le Inovn, Ied fo a consIderafIon lrom
fhe sfarf, much as So IeleId InsIghfluIIy recognIzes, ol
hov conLIcfIng IdenfIfIes Impacfed on personaI agency
and seIlhood. In fhe uer Insfance, CIucIman poInfed
fo fhe conLIcf lefveen ruIes ol exogamy and agnafIon,
vhIch meanf fhaf IndIvIduaI uer vere sul}ecf fo con-
z cDvvci Ainvcicicc. Vo|ume o, Number , AugurOcrober 1,,,
LIcfIng IoyaIfIes fo alLnes, fo agnafes] ImpeIIIng fhem
fo seeI speedy resoIufIons fo leuds. In fhe alsence ol
such a resoIufIon, men vere prohIlIfed lrom commen-
saIIfy or sexuaI reIafIons vIfh fheIr vIves and vere
quIfe olfen pIaced In morfaI danger CIucIman i,].
Buf fhe fheory vas aIso appIIed fo urlan sIfuafIons In
fovn, a cIassIc Insfance leIng fhaf ol fhe KaIeIa dance
on fhe ZamlIan CopperleIf, In vhIch dancers dIspIayed
a paradoxIcaI mIx ol IdenfIfIes NIfcheII i,6].
CIucIman hImseIl appIIed hIs fheory fo an anaIysIs ol
fhe coIour lar In Soufh AlrIca In an affempf fo under-
sfand vhy fhe endemIc cIeavages fhere dId nof expIode
Info vIoIenf dIsorder i,i, i,]. RecenfIy Rolerf
Thornfon has lrIIIIanfIy exfended fhIs anaIysIs fo fhe
poIIfIcaI confexf ol fhe nev Soufh AlrIca i,,;].
AIfhough nof very expIIcIfIy deveIoped, a fheory ol
agency and fhe seIl vas a ly-producf ol fhe locus on or-
ganIzafIonaI dIaIecfIcs, on ''fhe peace In fhe leud. The
sfress vas olfen on amlIvaIence, InfernaI conLIcf, and
unresoIved dIIemmas vIfhouf ever denyIng fhe Infeg-
rIfy ol fhe empIrIcaI agenf or acfIng seIl lullefed IIIe
a fragIc hero lefveen socIaI lorces. ThIs emphasIs on
amlIvaIence, promInenf In posfcoIonIaI sfudIes as veII,
Is one vhIch I Lnd mIssIng In So IeleIds anaIysIs. Thus
VIcfor Turner i,;:jjo, emphasIs added] sums up hIs
anaIysIs ol Sandomlo and ofher confesfers lor Ieader-
shIp among demlu: ''In parfIcuIar sIfuafIons prIncI-
pIes ol organIsafIon come Info conLIcf vIfhIn sIngIe
groups. There are conLIcfs ol IoyaIfIes, and fhere Is
fherelore an ongu|ed c|oce lefveen goods, nof le-
fveen good and lad. CIucIman i,6j:iz;] vrIfes, ''v-
ery socIaI sysfem Is a LeId ol fensIon, luII ol amlIva-
Iences, ol cooperafIon and confrasfIng sfruggIe. ThIs Is
frue ol reIafIveIy sfafIonaryvhaf I IIIe fo caII reer
rvesocIaI sysfems as veII as sysfems vhIch are
changIng and deveIopIng. Thus headmen and chIels,
caughf In ''InfercaIary reIafIons lefveen coIonIaI ad-
mInIsfrafors and IInsmen, vere anaIysed as sul}ecf fo
''InsoIulIe conLIcfs p. i]. In order fo mInImIze
fhese personaI dIIemmasas veII group conLIcfs
acfors empIoyed sfrafegIes ol ''sIfuafIonaI seIecfIon, a
ferm vhIch CIucIman and hIs sfudenfs derIved lrom
vans-rIfchards anaIyses ol Azande vIfchcralf aIong
vIfh fhe uer.
AII Hassan, fhe profagonIsf In So IeleIds accounf,
caughf lefveen crosscuffIng IoyaIfIes fo reIafIves and
fo co-reIIgIonIsfs, pIays a compIex game repIefe vIfh
amlIguous and confradIcfory messages In hIs affempf
fo susfaIn aII fhe dIllerenf lacefs ol hIs IdenfIfy[per-
sonaI nefvorI. Indeed, one vonders vhefher a hIdden
poIIfIcaI agenda mofIvafes hIm fo lrIng aIong on a ved-
dIng vIsIf a man, Sher Khan, Inovn as a mIIIfanf Ieader
ol fhe ShIIfe communIfy and perceIved fo le leyond
o m reIafIons. Whafever fhe vheeIs vIfhIn vheeIs Ielf
unspoIen, I vouId agree vIfh So IeleId fhaf AII Hassan
Is nof fo le descrIled sImpIy as a man vIfh a lrag-
menfed seIl, IacIIng agency or a sense ol sul}ecfIvIfy.
Where I parf company vIfh hIm Is In deLnIng fhIs
sul}ecfIvIfy[seIlhood as leyond cuIfure.
There are poverluI cu|ruro| moro| Ideas shapIng AII
Hassans choIces and sense ol seIlhood as an Infegrafed
vhoIe. Alove aII, he Is a promInenf IocaI Ieader, a man
ol cIvIc responsIlIIIfy NInes i,,] and fherelore a man
ol honour or zzor, an acfIng sul}ecf vho Is expecfed fo
dIspIay generosIfy, IoyaIfy, and frusf. In readIng fhe case
sfudy, my sense Is fhaf AII Hassan Is drIven fo meef hIs
socIaI olIIgafIons even In fhe lace ol fhe dangers pre-
senfed ly fhe presenf froulIesvhIch aIso generafe a
cIash lefveen conLIcfIng Inferesfs and aspecfs ol hIs
muIfIpIe IdenfIfIes[sul}ecfIvIfy. l course, fhere are
many unscrupuIous IocaI Ieaders vIshIng fo capIfaIIze
on fhe grovIng reIIgIous poIarIzafIon generafed ly sec-
farIan vIoIence. In my ovn vorI I have frIed fo consIder
hov smaII cadres ol reIIgIous acfIvIsfs affempf fo creafe
unlrIdgealIe cIeavages ly undermInIng fhe pragmafIcs
ol lacfIonaI aIIIances, luIIf upon fransversaI IdenfIfIes
Werlner i,,i]. The peace In fhe leud Is here susfaIned
ly fhe IIIes ol AII Hassan vIfh hIs poverluI sense ol
personaI honoura compIex luf Infegrafed cuIfuraI
efhos, nof a personaI InvenfIon.
In sum, fhen, So IeleIds confrIlufIon Is fo compeI us
fo fhInI once agaIn alouf conLIcf, IdenfIfy, and seIl-
hood and fo pIace fhese Issues In fhe confexf ol presenf
posfsfrucfuraIIsf delafes. HIs crIfIque ol ccIdenfaIIsf
InferprefafIons luIIf on unlounded us-fhem confrasfs Is
parfIcuIarIy apposIfe. NIssIng lrom hIs accounf, hov-
ever, aIong vIfh an erasure ol an anfhropoIogIcaI pasf Is
a more susfaIned anaIysIs ol fhe amlIvaIences gener-
afed ly muIfIpIe IoyaIfIes and leIongIngs and fhe hoIIs-
fIc Soufh AsIan personaI efhos fhaf counferacfs fhese
LssIparous fendencIes.
RepIy
mAvii sc xcrcir
Homburg, Cermony. ji v ,,
The cenfraI fopIc vhIch my paper addresses concerns
fhe reIafIonshIp lefveen fhe acfIng and reLecfIng IndI-
vIduaI and shared, nonIndIvIduaIIzed lrames ol reler-
ence such as cuIfure and IdenfIfy vIfhIn fhe anfhropo-
IogIcaI enferprIse. Ny InfenfIon Is fo laIance some ol
fhe socIocenfrIc lIas ol socIaI[cuIfuraI anfhropoIogy.
AIfhough my presenfafIon ol fhaf lIas Is poIemIcaIIy
overdravnas I admIf In fhe fexffhe crIfIque In-
voIved can hardIy le dIsmIssed. Hovever, I apprecIafe
fhe relerence ol many commenfafors fo fhe many vrIf-
ers vho are avare ol fhaf lIas and especIaIIy fhe reler-
ence ly Werlner and SchIee fo Nax CIucImans con-
cepf ol crosscuffIng fIes. CIucIman, hovever, locused
on fhe socIaI Imporfance ol fhese fIes and much Iess on
fheIr meanIng lor fhe IndIvIduaI. AgaInsf fhe aImosf ex-
cIusIve anfhropoIogIcaI emphasIs on fhe ''cuIfuraI I ar-
gue fhaf fhe IndIvIduaIas a reLexIve cenfer ol avare-
ness and agencydeserves more promInence fhan If Is
sc xcrcir Se|f, Idenrry, ond Cu|rure j
accorded In much anfhropoIogIcaI anaIysIs and repre-
senfafIon. ThIs Is ol course a very confroversIaI LeId,
and fherelore fhe commenfs reler fo a greaf numler ol
Issues, some ol fhem reIafed fo lar-reachIng dIscussIons.
I can here address onIy some ol fhem.
AffempfIng fo sysfemafIze some ol fhe crIfIque, I dIs-
cover Lrsf fvo lroad dIrecfIons ol fhoughf. ne caIIs lor
faIIng my argumenfs sfIII larfher. Rapporf maIes fhe
mosf radIcaI move, aIIovIng lor ''seIl-Images leIng cre-
afed ex n||o and arguIng fhaf aII fhe confexfs and
consfraInfs ol IIle are IndIvIduaIIzed In fhe process ol
lecomIng ol fhe IndIvIduaI. Van BeeI crIfIcIzes vhaf he
perceIves fo le my ''ImposIfIon ol a sfIII reIlyIng]
lramevorI ol IdenfIfy on fhe personaI readIngs ol com-
pIex sIfuafIons. The ofher IIne ol fhoughf, hovever,
aIms af groundIng IndIvIduaI seIves In ''poIIfIcaI econ-
omy IrIessen] or In fhe ''consfraInfs ol cuIfure CeII-
ner]. The chaIIenge lor me Is fo Lnd a medIafIng posI-
fIon In vhIch neIfher ol}ecfIvIfy nor sul}ecfIvIfy Is
accorded prImacy once and lor aII.
l course seIl-Images may le creafed ouf ol nofhIng
luf ImagInafIon, luf fhey may cIash quIfe paInluIIy
vIfh exfraIndIvIduaI condIfIons. RecognIzIng, hovever,
fhaf human leIngs are alIe and olfen vIIIIng fo endure
consIderalIe paIn lor fhe saIe ol specILc seIl-Images, I
preler fo see cuIfure or sfrucfure nof as a consfraInf luf
as a condIfIon fhaf lacIIIfafes cerfaIn seIl-represenfa-
fIons vIfhouf precIudIng ofhers. Hovever, our Ian-
guages have dIlLcuIfy In expressIng nonhIerarchIcaI re-
IafIonshIps, reIafIons In vhIch no sIngIe eIemenf Is
accorded fhe sfafus ol a cause and fhe ofher ol an ellecf,
and fhIs lormuIafIon ol ''lacIIIfafIng condIfIons sfIII
gIves prImacy fo fhe exfraIndIvIduaI. I fry fo conceIve ol
fhe reIafIonshIp lefveen seIl and cuIfure as ''mufuaIIy
causafIve. ThIs Is a lanaI proposIfIon af a generaI IeveI,
lor cerfaInIy fhere vouId le no cuIfure vIfhouf humans
and no humans vIfhouf cuIfure, luf af fhe IeveI ol fhe
specILc efhnographIc caseand especIaIIy Ifs efhno-
graphIc represenfafIonIf requIres consIderalIe re-
orIenfafIon. WIfh Ifs sfrong fradIfIonaI emphasIs on
cuIfure, conceIved ol as pre- and exfraIndIvIduaI, an-
fhropoIogy has a consIderalIe IncIInafIon fo puf fhe In-
dIvIduaI on a secondary, derIved and ellecfed IeveI. To
convey fhe openness ol cuIfure, Ifs condIfIon ol confIn-
uaIIy leIng ''ellecfed ly creafIveIy acfIng IndIvIduaIs,
If Is necessary fo hIghIIghf hov IndIvIduaIs acfuaIIy IIve
vIfh fhe condIfIons or ruIes ol cuIfure ve easIIy repre-
senf as gIven. Ny argumenf Is cerfaInIy nof, as CeIIner
suggesfs, fhaf ''person-cenfred efhnography Is fhe onIy
IInd ve vanf luf fhaf person-cenfered accounfs, lo-
cusIng nof onIy on IndIvIduaI Ideas and dIscourses luf
on rocrce, are a necessary laIance lor a dIscIpIIne fhe
cenfraI concepf ol vhIch Is cuIfure.
If Is In fhIs confexf fhaf I propose fhe ''seIl as a hu-
man unIversaI IIIe ''cuIfure, vhefher a specILc cuIfure
confaIns a concepf ol seIl or nof. WIfh fhIs I do nof
mean fo oller anofher deLnIfIon ol human nafure, luf
I am convInced fhaf our descrIpfIons ol cuIfures are In-
compIefe vIfhouf accounfs ol hov seIves deaI vIfh or
are InvoIved In fhem. To faIe lofh concepfs as unIver-
saIs Is fo resfrIcf fheIr prefensIons. !uchs, addressIng
fhe quesfIon ol fhe unIversaIIfy ol cuIfure and seIl very
IucIdIy, suggesfs fhaf ve have fo Ieep fhe Issue In con-
sfanf ''suspense In our fhInIIng and vrIfIng, and I
agree vIfh hIm. Therelore I have fo admIf fhaf I cannof
conceIve ol fhe precIse generaI reIafIonshIp lefveen
cuIfure and seIl fhaf NInes caIIs lor aparf lrom fhe very
unspecILc IeveI fo vhIch I relerred alove. CIven fhe
specILc concepfuaIIzafIon ol seIl as oufIIned here, any
concrefe reIafIon lefveen cuIfure and seIl Is perhaps
Iess an Issue ol our generaI concepfuaIIzafIon ol lofh
fhese ''maffers fhan one ol hov specILc seIves con-
ceIve ol and acf fovard vhaf ve caII cuIfure. ComIng
lacI fo fhe quesfIon ol fhe poIIfIcaI economy ol seIl-
hood, fhIs means fhaf AII Hassans more Independenf
sfandIng vas cerfaInIy lacIIIfafed ly hIs reIafIve pros-
perIfy and fhe respecf he commanded aIfhough, af fhe
same fIme, fhe respecf he commanded vas aIso very
much enhanced ly fhIs more Independenf, ''nonsecfar-
Ian affIfude]. Buf cerfaInIy nof everyone In CIIgIf vho
vas In a sImIIar poIIfIcaI and economIc posIfIon acfed
In fhe same vay, nor vas everyone ol Iesser sfafus nec-
essarIIy more ''secfarIan-mInded. AccordIngIy, I nar-
rafed fhe epIsode ol fhe uneasy marrIage vIsIf Iess fo II-
Iusfrafe a generaI reIafIonshIp lefveen seIl and cuIfure
and IdenfIfy fhan fo poInf ouf a range ol possIlIe reIa-
fIons ly dIscussIng an exampIe vhIch In my under-
sfandIng confradIcfs much anfhropoIogIcaI vrIfIng on
IdenfIfy. !urfher, I fhInI fhaf fhe Issue cannof le posed
as one ol Homo economcu. The Idea ol fhe ''econo-
mIsfIc caIcuIafIng maxImIzer fo vhIch CeIInercor-
recfIyquIfe crIfIcaIIy relers laIIs shorf ol capfurIng AII
Hassans InfenfIons. Whaf Is af sfaIe In AII Hassans ac-
fIon Is personaI] vaIues, nof sImpIy economIc maxImI-
zafIon and I confend fhaf ''economy relers onIy fo
very sImpIILed vaIues]. AII Hassan had aIready decIded
fhaf leIng a Homo oco| as lar as possIlIe, susfaInIng
as many socIaI fIes as possIlIe, vas one ol hIs hIghesf
vaIues. Seen In ferms ol sImpIy ''economIc rafIonaI
choIce, a sfrafegy ol cuffIng fIes vIfh SunnIs and lehav-
Ing sImpIy as a Ieader ol fhe ShIa a sfrafegy fhaf vas
quIfe common In CIIgIf] mIghf have lroughf more gaIns
lor AII Hassan In ferms ol loIIovers and IeadershIp, luf
fhIs vas cIearIy ouf ol quesfIon lor hIm. He vas choos-
Ing vhaf seemed fhe mosf leneLcIaI mode ol acfIon lor
hImseIl vIfhIn a lramevorI sef ly hIs vaIues.
RelerrIng fo HandIer i,,6], van BeeI vonders
vhefher IdenfIfy Is a useluI cross-cuIfuraI concepf af aII
and vhefher Ifs empIoymenf does nof rIsI an ol}ecfI-
lyIng IInd ol represenfafIon fhaf Is leffer avoIded. I con-
cur vIfh hIm and aIso vIfh IrIessen fhaf ve shouId re-
sfrIcf our empIoymenf ol fhe concepf fo prevenf If lrom
lecomIng meanIngIess. Buf, aparf lrom fhe quesfIon
vhefher I empIoyed fhe concepf In such an ol}ecfIlyIng
manner, If has fo le Iepf In mInd fhaf peopIe In CIIgIf
and eIsevhere] In lacf do use many ol}ecfILcafIons re-
lerrIng fo fhe IdenfIfIes ol groups In CIIgIf, hovever,
fhe ferm IfseIl jor Ifs Irdu equIvaIenf| Is nof used vIfh
cDvvci Ainvcicicc. Vo|ume o, Number , AugurOcrober 1,,,
relerence fo groups IIIe fhe reIIgIous communIfIes or
om alouf vhIch I vrofe here luf onIy vIfh relerence
fo a poIIfIcaI, ''nafIonaI IdenfIfy In confrasf vIfh aII-
sfan jsee So IeleId n.d. b|]. They sfrongIy InsIsf on dIller-
ence. Such ol}ecfILcafIons, vhIch are used mosfIy In
dIscourse alouf IdenfIfIes luf are confradIcfed ly much
InferacfIon see So IeleId i,,;b], have fo le accommo-
dafed ly our concepfuaI lramevorI. I propose fhe dIs-
fIncfIon lefveen seIl and IdenfIfyaIIovIng lor a de-
gree ol anaIyfIcaI dIsfance, as HaIey vrIfesfo aIIov
fhIs accommodafIon as IndIvIduaIs InsIsfIng on many
IInds ol dIllerences are sfIII alIe fo move fhrough fhem
vIfh greaf LexIlIIIfy vhIIe refaInIng a sense ol re-
maInIng fhe same. I do nof vanf fo specuIafe as fo
vhefher fhIs sense ol fhe seIl as confInuous and consIs-
fenf Is a ''need and vhefher, consequenfIy, IndIvIduaIs
vho are unalIe fo maInfaIn If lecome neurofIcs.
Rafher, I regard fhe maInfenance ol fhIs consIsfency,
presenfed In fhe narrafIve seIl, as an empIrIcaI maffer
and somefhIng fhaf Is ''repaIred ly fhe seIl Il If Is chaI-
Ienged ly rupfurIng experIences or dIscourses. l
course, If vas prolalIy my InsIsfenf quesfIonIng vhIch
made AII Hassan Invenf hIs hypofhefIcaI sfrafegy ol
parfaIIng In fhe veddIng meaI vIfhouf eafIng meaf, luf
I do nof fhInI fhaf my InsIsfence vas so dIllerenf lrom
chaIIenges voIced ly peopIe In CIIgIf fhemseIves. When
chaIIenged ly hIs reIafIves In apura and asIed fo sfay,
AII Hassan aIso dId nof admIf a conLIcf or rupfure luf
prelerred fo Ieep sIIenf. !urfher, I am nof ol fhe opInIon
fhaf my InferprefafIon ol fhe case prefends fo ''perlecf
vIsIon van BeeI] on my parf. uIfe fo fhe confrary, I
am sure fhaf I dId nof Inov leffer fhan AII Hassan, lor
exampIe, fhaf hIs Idea ol parfaIIng In fhe meaI vIfhouf
faIIng meaf vas onIy hypofhefIcaIalfer aII, he dId nof
do If. Ny undersfandIng ol fhe epIsode rafher reveaIs
socIaI acfors as quIfe compefenf socIaI anaIysfsIf Is
onIy fhaf fhey mosfIy have fo remaIn sIIenf alouf
fheIr InovIedge In order nof fo deleaf Ifs pracfIcaI pur-
pose.
I concur vIfh vIng fhaf our IeveIs ol anaIysIs are nof
fhe same. The specILc Imporfance ol AII Hassans case
lor me Is fhe possIlIIIfy ol comparIng hIs seIl-represen-
fafIon vIfh hIs pracfIce In fhe confexf ol hIs dIverse
IdenfIfIes and fo see hov In spIfe ol fhe dIllerenf puIIs
ol hIs varIous socIaI IdenfIfIes he Is alIe fo presenf a
consIsfenf seIl. I agree fhaf such an anaIysIs shouId Il
possIlIe le exfended fo a Iess IImIfed LeId, luf fhere Is
fhe mefhodoIogIcaI dIlLcuIfy ol our dIscIpIIne fhaf fhe
parfIcIpanf olservafIon vhIch Is requIred fo record ac-
fuaI pracfIce cannof le organIzed IIIe InfervIevIng or
cIInIcaI fesfIng.
The case ol AII Hassan Is ol course sImpIILed, as
IrIessen vrIfes, lecause AII Hassans seIl has fo deaI
vIfh more IdenfIfIes fhan I reporfedmosf nofalIy
vIfh gender, vhIch Is prolalIy socIaIIy fhe mosf ellec-
fIve and meanIngluI dIllerence In CIIgIf. Because many
more IdenfIfIes are InvoIved, I do nof fhInI fhaf my In-
ferprefafIon appIIes onIy fo socIefIes ol specIaI com-
pIexIfy as Chaudhary remarIs. I am convInced fhaf ev-
eryvhere seIves have fo deaI vIfh confradIcfIons and a
pIuraIIfy ol IdenfIfIes, vhefher fhey are derIved lromre-
IIgIon, ''efhnIc IdenfIfy, gender, cIass, poIIfIcaI orIenfa-
fIon, sulcuIfuraI alLIIafIon, or any ofher IInd ol dIller-
ence.
Nageo and IrIessen address fhe fopIc ol concepfuaI-
IzIng dIllerence. When I suggesf aIIovIng lor more sImI-
IarIfy In fhe concepfuaIIzafIon ol ofhers seIves,
IrIessen remarIs fhaf sImIIarIfy and dIllerence are
cIoseIy lound fogefher. ThIs Is frue, luf If Is equaIIy
frueand I am ly no means fhe Lrsf fo sfafe fhIsfhaf
anfhropoIogy has InsIsfed much more on dIllerence,
lofh ly Ifs Iong-fIme predIIecfIon lor fhe exofIc and ly
Ifs core concepf ol cuIfure. CuIfure has, af Ieasf sInce
Boas, leen concepfuaIIzed as dIllerence. If dravs lound-
arIes ol dIllerence around groups ol peopIe fhaf are
fherely dIsfInguIshed as ''a cuIfure lrom ofhers. There
has leen IIffIe room lor confInuIfy across cuIfuraI
loundarIes aparf lrom ''eIemenfs lorroved or dIl-
lused], confInuIfy vhIch ol course vouId caII Info ques-
fIon fhaf very concepf ol cuIfure. nIy more recenfIy
has fhe quesfIon ol cuIfuraI loundarIes lecome an Issue
and confInuIfy lecome parf ol an Imporfanf reconcep-
fuaIIzafIon ol cuIfure see IngoId i,,j]. Af fhe same
fIme, hovever, fhe quesfIon ol cuIfuraI dIllerence has
leen dravn Info InnumeralIe poIIfIcaI dIscourses
vhIch InsIsf on dIllerence and drav fheIr respecfIve po-
IIfIcaI demands lrom fhaf InsIsfence. To aIIov lor sImI-
IarIfy Is fherelore a poIIfIcaI Issue foo.
I apprecIafe Nageos concepfuaIIzafIon ol fhe coexIs-
fence In a socIefy ol dIllerenf dImensIons ol sul}ecfIvIfy
vhIch are dIllerenfIy hIghIIghfed, and I agree vIfh her
fhaf In psychoIogIcaI anfhropoIogy very Imporfanf
vorI has leen done In overcomIng negafIve and gra-
dafed consfrucfIons ol cuIfuraI dIllerence. The opfIon ol
resorfIng fo ''symmefrIcaI dIllerence In represenfa-
fIons ol ofhers I regard vIfh some reservafIon, hovever,
recognIzIng fhaf In fhe poIIfIcaI economy ol concepfs
Wesfern concepfs hovever one-dImensIonaI and reILed
fhey are, erasIng so much ol fhe dIllerence fhaf exIsfs
vIfhIn vhaf Is consIdered ''fhe Wesf] sfIII domInafe
fhe frade and sef Ifs sfandard. The quesfIon remaIns,
hovever, vhefher a non-Wesfern seIl exhIlIfIng consIs-
fency and confInuIfy has fo le IaleIed as consfrucfed
accordIng fo fhe ''Wesfern modeI. I undersfand fhIs as
an InsIsfence on dIllerence nof aIIovIng lor much sImI-
IarIfy lefveen ''Wesf and ''non-Wesf, as If Is ImpIIed
fhaf such a modeI cannof le a non-Wesfern one. The
InfenfIon ol my fexf, hovever, Is fo quesfIon fhe coIonI-
zafIon ol affrIlufes ol seIves such as consIsfency and
confInuIfy ly ''fhe Wesf.
Relerences CIfed
ArD- iDcncr, ii iA. i,,i. ''WrIfIng agaInsf cuIfure, In Feco
rurng onr|roo|ogy. Wor|ng n r|e reenr. dIfed ly RIch-
ard C. !ox, pp. ij;6z. Sanfa !e: SchooI ol AmerIcan Research
ress
Aricv, n. c. , ncvvmA iAcrc i , Ar c iiA
sc xcrcir Se|f, Idenrry, ond Cu|rure
ii cc s- vci rcv. dIfors. i,,. Auc|vrz. Zeugne und
erc|re. Hamlurg: uropa Ische VerIagsansfaIf.
AnmAr, mDmiAz. i,,i. ''IsIamIc lundamenfaIIsm In Soufh
AsIa: The }amaaf-I-IsIamI and fhe TalIIghI }amaaf ol Soufh
AsIa, In undomenro|m oberved. dIfed ly NarfIn .
Narfy and R. Scoff AppeIly, pp. ;jo. ChIcago: InIversIfy
ol ChIcago ress.
Aiic, ii m. i,,. ''fhnIcIfy and frIlaIIsm on fhe Sudan-
Iganda lorder, In r|ncry ond conhcr n r|e Horn of Af
rco. dIfed ly KafusyoshI !uIuI and }ohn NarIaIIs, pp. iiz
j,. London: }ames Currey[Afhens: hIo InIversIfy ress.
jcs|
Avcri, nAAn. i,8. T|e |umon condron. ChIcago: InI-
versIfy ol ChIcago ress.
rAvin, rvcrvi x. i,6,. r|nc grou ond boundore. Bosfon:
LIffIe Brovn. jmv|
. i,8,. The anaIysIs ol cuIfure In compIex socIefIes. r|
no :izoz.
. i,,j. o|nee vor|d. ChIcago: InIversIfy ol ChIcago
ress.
rADmA, c. i,,6. Conrerng cu|rure. Dcoure of denrry
n mu|rer|nc Iondon. CamlrIdge: CamlrIdge InIversIfy
ress. jrc|
rcc ri ci, vDin. i,,. Porrern of cu|rure. ev YorI: Nen-
for BooIs.
rccii, i. i,8j. Dongerou vve ond ocred rer. T|e o
co| ond ymbo|c ro|e of |g|core vomen n Neo|. ev
YorI: CoIumlIa InIversIfy ress. jrc|
rcAs, rvAz. i,8z. ''Some prolIems ol mefhodoIogy In fhe so-
cIaI scIences, In Foce, |onguoge, ond cu|rure, pp. z6o6,. ChI-
cago: InIversIfy ol ChIcago ress.
rvAn, AviAv. i,,6. Corrogro|e of dooro. Conrerng
denrre. London: RoufIedge.
cAincD, cvAi c. i,,. ''SocIaI fheory and fhe poIIfIcs ol
IdenfIfy, In Soco| r|eory ond r|e o|rc of denrry. dIfed
ly CraIg CaIhoun, pp. ,j6. xlord: BIacIveII.
cAvvi cv, ) Amcs c. i,,z. ccIdenfaIIsm: The vorId furned up-
sIde-dovn. Amercon r|no|ogr i,:i,ziz.
. i,,6o. ''InfroducfIon, In Occdenro|m. Imoge of r|e
Wer. dIfed ly }ames C. CarrIer, pp. ijz. xlord: CIarendon.
. i,,6b. ''NaussIan ccIdenfaIIsm: CIlf and commodIfy
sysfems, In Occdenro|m. Imoge of r|e Wer. dIfed ly
}ames C. CarrIer, pp. 8io8. xlord: CIarendon.
cAvvi incvs, m., s. cciii s, Ar s. iDxcs. dIfors.
i,8. T|e coregory of r|e eron. Anr|roo|ogy, ||oo|y,
|rory. CamlrIdge: CamlrIdge InIversIfy ress. jrc|
cnAiicv) cc, iAvinA. i,,j. T|e noron ond r frogmenr.
rIncefon: rIncefon InIversIfy ress. j)m|
ccnc, Ainc. i. i,,. Se|fconcoune. An o|rernorve
onr|roo|ogy of denrry. London: RoufIedge.
ccmAvcrr, ). i,,6. ''fhnIcIfy, nafIonaIIsm, and fhe poIIfIcs
ol dIllerence In an age ol revoIufIon, In T|e o|rc of dffer
ence. r|nc reme n o vor|d of over. dIfed ly . .
WIImsen and . NcAIIIsfer, pp. i6z8j. ChIcago: InIversIfy ol
ChIcago ress. jmv|
cvcs r., cnvi s ii A. i,,z. ''IeaIIng vIfh dIllerences, In
emnr r|eorze r|e o|rco|. dIfed ly }udIfh W. BufIer and
}oan W. Scoff, pp. ijoj. ev YorI: RoufIedge.
rcvvi rA, ) AcDcs. i,8z. Morgn of ||oo|y. ChIcago:
InIversIfy ol ChIcago ress.
rcs cncc, m. i,,8. ''!afe, domesfIc aufhorIfy, and vomens
vIIIs, In Se|ve n rme ond |oce. Idenrre, exerence, ond
|rory n Neo|. dIfed ly I. SIInner, A. ach III, and I. HoI-
Iand, pp. i,o. Lanham: Rovman and LIffIeLeId. jrc|
rc vcs, cccvcc, Ar iciA vcmADcci - vcs s. i,,.
''fhnIc IdenfIfy: A psychocuIfuraI perspecfIve, In r|nc den
rry. Creoron, conhcr, ond occommodoron, jd edIfIon. dIfed
ly L. RomanuccI-Ross and C. IeVos, pp. j,;,. WaInuf
CreeI: AIfaNIra ress. jrrn|
rDmci, i cDi s. i,6. The luncfIonaI equIvaIenf ol fhe IndI-
vIduaI In casfe socIefy. Conrrburon ro Indon Soco|ogy 8:
8,,.
. i,;o. ''The IndIvIduaI as an ImpedImenf fo socIoIogIcaI
comparIson and IndIan socIoIogy, In Fe|gon/o|rc ond |
rory n Indo. Co||ecred oer on Indon oco|ogy, pp. ijj
o. The Hague: Noufon.
. i,8o. Homo |erorc|cu. T|e core yrem ond r m|
coron. ChIcago: InIversIfy ol ChIcago ress.
cvi xsc, cvi x. i,8o. Idenrry ond |fecyc|e. ev YorI:
orfon.
cwi c, xAincvi c i. i,8;. CIInIcaI psychoanaIysIs as an efh-
nographIc fooI. r|o i:i6j,. jxic|
. i,,o. The IIIusIon ol vhoIeness: CuIfure, seIl, and fhe ex-
perIence ol InconsIsfency. r|o i8:zi;8.
. i,,i. Can psychoanaIyfIc fheorIes expIaIn fhe aIIsfanI
NusIIm voman InfrapsychIc aufonomy and InferpersonaI en-
gagemenf In fhe exfended lamIIy. r|o i,:iji6o. jxic|
rAvrc, vi cnAvr. i,,o. ''LocaIIzIng sfrafegIes: The regIonaI-
IzafIon ol efhnographIc accounfs, In Ioco|zng rrorege. Fe
gono| rrodron of er|nogro|c vrrng. dIfed ly RIchard
!ardon, pp. ij. dInlurgh: ScoffIsh AcademIc ress.
rcvics, mc.cv. i,6,. Kn| ond r|e oco| order. London:
RoufIedge and Kegan auI. jcs|
rcx, vi cnAvr c. i,8. Ion of r|e Punjob. BerIeIey: InIver-
sIfy ol CaIIlornIa ress.
rcDcADii, mi cnci. i,;,. Pover, rrur|, rroregy. Sydney: !e-
raI ulIIcafIons.
. i,8z. ''The sul}ecf and pover, In Mc|e| oucou|r. e
yond rrucruro|m ond |ermeneurc, ly Hulerf Ireylus and
auI RalInov, pp. zo8z6. BrIghfon: Harvesfer ress.
cccviz, cii rr cvr. i,66. ''ReIIgIon as a cuIfuraI sysfem, In
Anr|roo|ogco| orooc|e ro re|gon. dIfed ly NIchaeI Ban-
fon, pp. i6. London: TavIsfocI.
. i,;j. ''erson, fIme, and conducf In BaII, In T|e nrer
reroron of cu|rure, pp. j6oii. ev YorI: BasIc BooIs.
. i,8. ''!rom fhe nafIves poInf ol vIev: n fhe nafure ol
anfhropoIogIcaI undersfandIng, In Cu|rure r|eory. dIfed ly
RIchard A. Shveder and Rolerf A. LeVIne, pp. izjj6. Cam-
lrIdge: CamlrIdge InIversIfy ress.
ccvcc, xcc in. i,,i. T|e orurored e|f. D|emmo of
denrry n conremorory |fe. ev YorI: BasIc BooIs.
. i,,. Feo|re ond re|oron|. Soundng n oco|
conrrucron. CamlrIdge: Harvard InIversIfy ress.
ccwcviz, rcrcvAn, Ar rvcrcvi cx cvvi cic. i,,i.
We fhInI, fherelore fhey are n ccIdenfaIIzIng fhe vorId.
Anr|roo|ogco| (uorrer|y 6:8o,i.
ci rrcs, Ainc.. i,8. T|e conrruron of ocery. Our
|ne of o r|eory of rrucruroron. CamlrIdge: oIIfy ress.
ciDcxmA, mAx. i,o. Ano|y of o oco| ruoron n mod
ern Zu|u|ond. Rhodes-LIvIngsfone InsfIfufe apers z8.
. i,. Curom ond conhcr n Afrco. xlord: BasII BIacI-
veII. jcs, iw|
. i,6j. Order ond rebe||on n rrbo| Afrco. London: Co-
hen and Wesf. jiw|
nAic., rvi A r. , Ar iAvv. v. wi iccxc. i,,;. An-
fhropoIogy and fhe maIIng ol Chumash fradIfIon. cDvvci A-
invcicicc. j8:;6i,. jrrn|
nAii, siDAvi. i,,o. ''CuIfuraI IdenfIfy and dIaspora, In Iden
rry, communry, cu|rure, dfference. dIfed ly }onafhan Rufh-
erlord, pp. zzzj;. London: Lavrence and WIsharf.
nAiicwcii, i vvi c A. i,. ''The seIl and Ifs lehavIoraI en-
vIronmenf, In Cu|rure ond exerence, pp. ;iio. hIIadeI-
phIa: InIversIfy ol ennsyIvanIa ress.
nAiiii xc, c. v. i,;;. |ood|ed ond vengeonce n r|e Po
uon mounron. T|e generoron of conhcr n Touode ocery.
London: xlord InIversIfy ress. jcs|
nAricv, v. i,,6. ''Is 'IdenfIfy a useluI cross-cuIfuraI con-
cepf In Commemororon. T|e o|rc of norono| denrry.
dIfed ly }. R. CIIIIs, pp. z;o. rIncefon: rIncefon InIver-
sIfy ress. jmv|
nAricv, vi cnAvr, Ar ) ccci. ii cxi . i,8. Tra-
dIfIon, genuIne or spurIous. journo| of Amercon o|||ore ,;:
z;j,o. jrrn|
nAvvi s, cvAcc cvcr.s. i,8,. Concepfs ol IndIvIduaI, seIl,
and person In descrIpfIon and anaIysIs. Amercon Anr|roo|o
gr ,i:,,6iz.
6 cDvvci Ainvcicicc. Vo|ume o, Number , AugurOcrober 1,,,
ncvzrc ir, m. ,,iz. T|e oco| roducron of ndfference. x
|orng r|e ymbo|c roor of Werern bureoucrocy. ChIcago:
InIversIfy ol ChIcago ress. jmv|
nciiAr, rcvcin., Ar Arvcw xi ii s. i,,. Nefa-
phors lor emlarrassmenf and sforIes ol exposure: The nof-so-
egocenfrIc seIl In AmerIcan cuIfure. r|o zz:ji6z.
i ccir, ii m. i,,i. BecomIng persons: ConscIousness and socI-
aIIfy In human evoIufIon. Cu|ruro| Dynomc :j;8.
. i,,j. ''The arf ol fransIafIon In a confInuous vorId, In
eyond boundore. Inderrondng, rron|oron, ond onr|roo
|ogco| dcoure. dIfed ly CIsII a Isson, pp. ziojo. xlord:
Berg.
) Amc sc, rvcrc vi c. i,8. osfmodernIsm, or, The cuIfuraI
IogIc ol Iafe capIfaIIsm. Nev Iefr Fevev i6:j,z.
) cxi s, vi cnAvr. i,,6. Soco| denrry. London and ev
YorI: RoufIedge. jnr|
xvcc rcv, A. i. i,i;. The superorganIc. Amercon Anr|roo|o
gr i,:i6jzij.
xDxi i cx, ncvi xA. i,,i. T|e ovoge vr|n. T|e oco| |
rory of rr| onr|roo|ogy 188,1,,. CamlrIdge: Cam-
lrIdge InIversIfy ress.
xDicv, i cc. i,;;. T|e ry of r o||. Po|ororon of roco| ond
er|nc re|oron. NInneapoIIs: InIversIfy ol NInnesofa ress.
iArcv, wi iii Am, Ar rAvi r rAsnci. i,;;. T|eroeurc
dcoure. Pyc|or|eroy o converoron. ev YorI: Aca-
demIc ress. jxic|
iA rciAi c, ) cA s. i,8. ''erson and IndIvIduaI: Some an-
fhropoIogIcaI reLecfIons, In T|e coregory of r|e eron. d-
Ifed ly NIchaeI CarrIfhers, Sfeve CoIIIns, and Sfeven LuIes,
pp. izjo. CamlrIdge: CamlrIdge InIversIfy ress.
iAmincAv, ) cn. i,;6. T|e rrodrono| |rory of r|e je. x-
lord: xlord InIversIfy ress. jcs|
iADcDv, incmAs. i,,o. Mo|ng ex. CamlrIdge: Harvard
InIversIfy ress. j)m|
iAicDv, rvDc. i,,j. We |ove never been modern. Trans-
Iafed ly CafherIne orfer. ev YorI: Harvesfer Wheafsheal.
j)m|
iAw, ) cn. i,,. Orgonzng modernry. London: BIacI-
veII.
ic vi c, vcrcvi A. i,8. ''roperfIes ol cuIfure: An efhno-
graphIc vIev, In Cu|rure r|eory. dIfed ly RIchard A.
Shveder and Rolerf A. LeVIne, pp. 6;8;. CamlrIdge: Cam-
lrIdge InIversIfy ress.
ic vi c, vcrcvi A., Ar rcAir i. cAmircii. i,;z.
r|nocenrrm. T|eore of conhcr, er|nc orrrude, ond
grou be|ovor. ev YorI: }ohn WIIey. jrrn|
ic v.- rvDni, iDci c. i,6j i,z;]. Iome rmrve. arIs:
resses InIversIfaIres de !rance.
ii r ic, vcrcvi ) A.. i,,j. T|e roreon e|f. Humon re|
ence n on oge of frogmenroron. ev YorI: BasIc BooIs.
iDiz, cAincvi c. i,88. Innoruro| emoron. ChIcago: InI-
versIfy ol ChIcago ress. j)m|
mc cii iccx, Ac. i,,. Imero| |eor|er. ev YorI:
RoufIedge. j)m|
mc nDcn, cvcsii c i. i,8,. Concepfs ol fhe person among
fhe Curungs ol epaI. Amercon r|no|ogr i6:;86.
mAccc, ) cAciic mAvi c. i,,. The reconLgurIng seIl.
Amercon Anr|roo|ogr ,;:z8z,6.
. i,,8. T|eorzng e|f n Somoo. Ann Arlor: InIversIfy ol
NIchIgan ress. j)m|
mAii cwsxi, rvci siAw. i,zz. Argonour of r|e Werern
Pocfc. London: RoufIedge.
mAvvi cii, mc xi m. i,;6. ''HIndu fransacfIons: IIversIfy
vIfhouf duaIIsm, In Tronocron ond meonng. dIfed ly
Bruce Kaplerer, pp. io,z. hIIadeIphIa: InsfIfufe lor fhe
Sfudy ol Human Issues ress.
. i,8,. ConsfrucfIng an IndIan efhnosocIoIogy. Conrrbu
ron ro Indon Soco|ogy, n.s., zj:ij,.
mAvvi cii, mc xi m, Ar vcAir r. i rc. i,;;. ''To-
vard an efhnosocIoIogy ol Soufh AsIan casfe sysfems, In T|e
nev vnd. C|ongng denrre n Sour| Ao. dIfed ly Ken-
nefh IavId, pp. zz;j8. The Hague: Noufon.
mADss, mAvcci. i,6,i,ji]. ''La cohe sIon socIaIes dans Ies so-
cIe fe s poIysegmenfaIres, In o de oco|oge, pp. ijj;.
arIs: dIfIons de NInuIf. jcs|
mcAr, mAvcAvci. i,z. ''BaIInese characfer, In o|nee
c|orocrer, ly Cregory Bafeson and Nargaref Nead, pp. i8.
ev YorI: ev YorI Academy ol ScIences. j)m|
. i,6i. Comng of oge n Somoo. ev YorI: Norrov
uIII. j)m|
mciDcci, Ai rcvic. i,,;. ''IdenfIfy and dIllerence In a gIolaI-
Ized vorId, In Deborng cu|ruro| |ybrdry. Mu|rcu|ruro|
denrre ond r|e o|rc of onrrocm. dIfed ly nIna
Werlner and TarIq Nodood, pp. 86,. London: Zed BooIs.
mcicAir, rAvrAvA r. i,8,. I|omc revvo| n rr| In
do. Deobond, 186o1,oo. KarachI: RoyaI BooI Company.
mi rri cic, n. i,6o. Iugboro re|gon. Fruo| ond our|orry
omong on or Afrcon eo|e. London: xlord InIversIfy
ress lor fhe InfernafIonaI AlrIcan InsfIfufe. jrc|
mi cs, mAiii sc. i,88. ConcepfuaIIzIng fhe person: HIerar-
chIcaI socIefy and IndIvIduaI aufonomy In IndIa. Amercon An
r|roo|ogr ,o:68;,.
. i,,. Pub|c foce, rvore voce. Communry ond nd
vduo|ry n Sour| Indo. BerIeIey: InIversIfy ol CaIIlornIa
ress.
mi icncii, ). ci.rc. i,6. T|e Ko|e|o donce. Rhodes-LIvIng-
sfone apers z;. jiw|
mcvvi s, rvi A. i,;8. Are fhere any IndIvIduaIs In IndIa A
crIfIque ol Iumonfs fheory ol fhe IndIvIduaI. orern Anr|ro
o|ogr ji:j6;;.
. i,,. Anr|roo|ogy of r|e e|f. T|e ndvduo| n cu|
ruro| erecrve. London: Iufo ress.
mDvvA., r. w. i,,j. Whaf Is fhe Wesfern concepf ol fhe seIl
n lorgeffIng IavId Hume. r|o zi:jzj.
Avci i, vAcDi. i,6. n efhnIc unIf cIassILcafIon. cDvvci
Ainvcicicc. :z8jjiz. jcs|
crc.cs cxcvc, cAAAin. i,,o. T|e vor| of cu|rure. ChI-
cago: InIversIfy ol ChIcago ress. j)m|
cvicv, s. i,8. Hg| re|gon. A cu|ruro| ond o|rco| |rory
of S|ero udd|m. rIncefon: rIncefon InIversIfy ress.
jrc|
cDvcDs scrr, AicxArvA. i,,j. IIIusIons ol rafIonaIIfy:
!aIse premIses ol fhe IIleraI fradIfIon. Mon z8:z8i,8.
iAvv., ). i,,. Deor| n onoro. CamlrIdge: CamlrIdge InI-
versIfy ress. jrc|
vArnAxvi snA, v. i,8;. fhnIc IdenfIfy and posf-sfrucfuraI-
Isf dIllerance. Cu|ruro| Crrue 6:i,,zzz.
vAiicvi, i cci. i,,j. Dvere vor|dvev n on ng|| v|
|oge. dInlurgh: dInlurgh InIversIfy ress. jv|
. i,,;. Troncendenr ndvduo|. Tovord o |rerory ond
|bero| onr|roo|ogy. London: RoufIedge.
vAiiAs i, Ai i. i,,. '' 'Wesfern racIsms, efhnIcIfIes, and Iden-
fIfIes In a posf-modern lrame, In Focm, modernry, ond
denrry. On r|e Werern fronr. dIfed ly AII RaffansI and
SaIIy Wesfvood, pp. i86. London: oIIfy ress.
vcAr, x. c. i,6;. ''NoraIIfy and fhe concepf ol fhe person
among fhe CahuIu-Cama, In Myr| ond como. Feodng n
myr|o|ogy ond ymbo|m. dIfed ly }ohn NIddIefon, pp.
i8zz,. AusfIn: InIversIfy ol Texas ress.
vcrr i c ir, vcrcvi. i,6o. T|e |rr|e communry ond Peoonr
ocery ond cu|rure. ChIcago: InIversIfy ol ChIcago ress.
jv|
vc.cirs, vcvc, vi cci rAi ccv, Ar i A vi c.
dIfors. i,8;. T|e ocobo|ogy of er|nocenrrm. vo|uronory
dmenon of xeno|obo, dcrmnoron, rocm, ond noron
o|m. London and Sydney: Croom HeIm. jrrn|
vcscrc vv., w. i,,6. ''Hegemony, pover, and Ianguages ol con-
fenfIon, In T|e o|rc of dfference. r|nc reme n o
vor|d of over. dIfed ly . . WIImsen and . NcAIIIsfer,
pp. ;i8. ChIcago and London: InIversIfy ol ChIcago ress.
jmv|
vcscrcvc, sc.mcDv. i,,;. ''NuIfIpIIcIfy ol seIves, In Se|f
ond denrry. undomenro| ue. dIfed ly I. Ashmore and
Lee }ussIm, pp. zj. ev YorI: xlord InIversIfy ress.
sAi r, crwAvr w. i,,i,;8]. Orenro|m. Werern conce
ron of r|e Orenr. Harmondsvorfh: enguIn.
sc xcrcir Se|f, Idenrry, ond Cu|rure ;
scni cc, cD incv. i,,;. ''Cross-cuffIng fIes and InferefhnIc
conLIcf: The exampIe ol Callra romo and RendIIIe, In r|
oo n brooder erecrve. dIfed ly KafsuyoshI !uIuI, IseI
KurImofo, and NasayoshI ShIgefa, voI. z, pp. ;;,6. Kyofo:
ShoIado BooI SeIIers. jcs|
snwcrcv, vi cnAvr A. , Ar c. ). rcDvc. i,8. ''Ioes
fhe concepf ol fhe person vary cross-cuIfuraIIy In Cu|rure
r|eory. dIfed ly RIchard A. Shveder and Rolerf A. LeVIne,
pp. i8,,. CamlrIdge: CamlrIdge InIversIfy ress.
snwcrcv, vi cnAvr A. , Ar vcrcvi A. ic vi c. dIfors.
i,8. Cu|rure r|eory. CamlrIdge: CamlrIdge InIversIfy ress.
j)m|
sc xcrcir, mAvii . i,,. SIn und YesIun In CIIgIf: IIe Al-
grenzung zvIschen zveI IdenfIfa fsgruppen und das rolIem
efhnographIschen SchreIlens. Perermonn Ceogro|c|e Mr
re|ungen ij8:j;6,.
. i,,;o. n Iobyrnr| von Idenrro ren n Nordo|ron.
Zvc|en Iondberz, Fe|gon und Ko|mrKonh|r. aII-
sfan-Cerman Research ro}ecf, CuIfure Area KaraIorum, ScIen-
fILc SfudIes 8. Ko In: Ru dIger Ko ppe VerIag. jmv|
. i,,;b. ''IIscourse and acfIon: InequIvocaIness and am-
lIvaIence In IdenfILcafIons, In Perecrve on |rory ond
c|onge n r|e Koro|orum, Hndu Ku|, ond Hmo|oyo. dIfed
ly Irmfraud SfeIIrechf and NafhIas WInIger, pp. ioii;. Ko In:
Ko ppe.
. i,,8. ''The peopIe vho reaIIy leIong fo CIIgIf: TheorefI-
caI and efhnographIc perspecfIves on IdenfIfy and conLIcf, In
Tronformoron of oco| ond economc re|oron| n norr|
ern Po|ron. dIfed ly Irmfraud SfeIIrechf and Hans-Ceorg
BohIe, pp. ,zz. Ko In: Ko ppe.
. n.d.o ''n fhe concepf efhnIc group, In Koro|orumHn
du|u|Hmo|oyo. Dynomc of c|onge. dIfed ly Irmfraud
SfeIIrechf. Ko In: Ko ppe.
. n.d.b. ''BaIavarIsfan and ofher ImagInoron: A nafIonaI-
Isf dIscourse on fhe orfhern Areas ol aIIsfan, In Iodo||.
Cu|rure, |rory, ond deve|omenr berveen Hmo|oyo ond Kor
o|orom. dIfed ly N. van BeeI, K. . BerfeIsen, and . ed-
ersen. Aarhus: Aarhus InIversIfy ress.
sii vc, mcircvr. i,,j. Is fhe Wesfern concepf ol fhe seIl ''pe-
cuIIar vIfhIn fhe confexf ol vorId cuIfures r|o zi:io;j.
rrafa
hIIIp CarI SaIzman vrIfes fhaf a relerence cIfed In hIs
repIy fo commenfs on hIs paper ''Is InequaIIfy InI-
versaI CA o:ji6i] vas omIffed lrom fhe IIsf ol
relerences: LevIs, Herlerf S. i,,8. RIghfIng vrongs
or vrongIng WrIghf. Anr|roo|ogy Todoy iz]:zj
z.
!or fhe reporf ''The Zapofec-ImperIaIIsm Argumenf: In-
sIghfs lrom fhe axaca Coasf, ly Rolerf . ZeIfIIn
and Arfhur A. }oyce CA o:j8j,z], fhe Images lor
Lgures j and vere InadverfenfIy fransposed. The cap-
fIons and Lgure numlers fhemseIves mafch fhe fexf rel-
erences.
A senfence vas mIsfaIenIy omIffed lrom CayIe !rIfzs
sii vAx, cA.Aivi cnAxvAvcvi.. i,88. ''SulaIfern sfudIes:
IeconsfrucfIng hIsforIography, In Se|ecred ubo|rern rude.
dIfed ly Rana}If Cuha and CayafrI ChaIravorfy SpIvaI, pp.
jjz. xlord: xlord InIversIfy ress.
s icmicv, ) c zcr. i,. ''SfasIo aus KraIau, In Auc|vrz.
Zeugne und erc|re. dIfed ly H. C. AdIer, Herrmann
LangleIn, and IIa LIngens-ReIner, pp. i,zz. Hamlurg: uro-
pa Ische VerIagsansfaIf.
sici nc, mi cncic. i,,. Ao gfr. A rudy of mogc ond
r|e e|f. BerIeIey: InIversIfy ol CaIIlornIa ress.
sici ncsc, i. n. i,8,. CoIng fo NacIonaIds In LeIden: Re-
LecfIons on fhe concepf ol seIl and socIefy In fhe efherIands.
r|o i;:zz6;.
sicicxc, vcvcA. i,,. TaIIIng cuIfure: ev loundarIes,
nev rheforIcs ol excIusIon In urope. cDvvci Ainvcicicc.
j6:iij.
sivAincv, mAvi i.. i,,o. T|e gender of r|e gfr. BerIeIey:
InIversIfy ol CaIIlornIa ress.
incvic, vcrc vi. i,,;. ''The pofenfIaIs ol loundarIes In
Soufh AlrIca: Sfeps fovards a fheory ol fhe socIaI edge, In
Porco|ono| denrre n Afrco. dIfed ly RIchard Werlner
and Terence Ranger, pp. ij66i. London: Zed BooIs.
iDvc v, vi cicv. i,;. Sc|m ond conrnury n r|e |fe of
on Afrcon ocery. Nanchesfer: Nanchesfer InIversIfy ress
lor fhe Rhodes-LIvIngsfone InsfIfufe. jiw|
iDvic, rAvi r. i,,. ''NursI poIIfIcaI IdenfIfy and varlare:
The survIvaI ol an Idea, In r|ncry ond conhcr n r|e Horn
of Afrco. dIfed ly KafsuyoshI !uIuI and }ohn NarIaIIs, pp.
iji. London: }ames Currey[Afhens: hIo InIversIfy ress.
jcs|
vAi r.AAinA, i. c. i,8,. AufhorIfy and IdenfIfy In IndIa.
Doedo|u ii8:i;6,.
wcvrcv, ii A. i,,i. ''!acfIonaIIsm and vIoIence In BrIfIsh
aIIsfanI communaI poIIfIcs, In conomy ond cu|rure n Po|
ron. Mgronr ond cre n o Mu|m ocery. dIfed ly Has-
fIngs Ionnan and nIna Werlner, pp. i88zi. jiw|
wi cxcv, nAs- vDrci r. i,,;. ''!rom compIex cuIfure fo cuI-
furaI compIexIfy, In Deborng cu|ruro| |ybrdry. Mu|rcu|
ruro| denrre ond r|e o|rc of onrrocm. dIfed ly nIna
Werlner and TarIq Nodood, pp. z,. London: Zed BooIs.
revIev ol BaIIcI and Coxs P|onr, Peo|e, ond Cu|rure
In fhe }une Issue CA o:ozj]. If shouId have loIIoved
fhe Lrsf senfence ol fhe nexf-fo-Iasf paragraph. WIfh fhe
mIssIng second] senfence IncIuded, fhaf paragraph
shouId legIn as loIIovs: ''A more serIous shorfcomIng,
In my opInIon, agaIn sfemmIng lrom decIsIons made ly
fhe pulIIshIng company, Is fhe vIrfuaI alsence ol In-
fexf cIfafIons or loofnofe-sfyIe relerences. In addIfIon,
lecause fhe Suggesfed ReadIng IIsf af fhe end ol fhe
looI Is IncompIefe, fhe reader Is Ielf af fImes unalIe fo
ascerfaIn prImary sources. xampIes IncIude a sfudy ol
faffoos ly TrIcIa AIIen, menfIoned on p. izj, a quofe
affrIlufed fo CharIes efers on p. i8,, anofher quofe,
on pp. i,z,j, ly HaroId . Noore }r., and sfIII ofhers
on p. i,; ly I. SmIfh] and p. zoo ly AIIson WIIson].

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