72

Power systems electromagnetic transients simulation Table 4.1 Norton components for different integration formulae
Req IHistory

Integration method Inductor

L in1 t t 2L in1 + vn1 Trapezoidal t 2L 3L 4i 1 Gear 2nd order 3 n1 3 in2 2 t ................................................................................................... Backward Euler Capacitor Backward Euler Trapezoidal Gear 2nd order t C t 2C 2 t 3C C vn1 t 2C vn1 in1 t 2C C vn1 vn2 t 2 t

Substituting equation 4.17 into equation 4.16 yields: IHistory = tR t v(t t) i(t t) + i(t 2L 2L tR t = 1 v(t t) i(t t) + 2L 2L t) (4.18)

The Norton equivalent circuit current source value for the complete RL branch is simply calculated from the short-circuit terminal current. The short-circuit circuit consists of a current source feeding into two parallel resistors (R and 2L/ t ), with the current in R being the terminal current. This is given by: Ishort-circuit = (2L/ t)IHistory R + 2L/ t (2L/ t) ((1 tR/(2L)) i(t t) + ( t/(2L))v(t t)) = R + 2L/ t 1 (2L/ t R) i(t t) + v(t t) = (R + 2L/ t) (R + 2L/ t) t/(2L) (1 tR/(2L)) = i(t t) + v(t t) (4.19) (1 + tR/(2L)) (1 + tR/(2L))

Numerical integrator substitution

k k k

73

vR (t)

R Reff = 2L t m

R R+ (2L / t) IL History IRL History = R 2L / t 2L t

vL (t)

IL History

m IL History = ikm (t t)

t v (t t) 2L L

Figure 4.6

Reduction of RL branch

The instantaneous current term is obtained from the current that ows due to an applied voltage to the terminals (current source open circuited). This current is: t/(2L) 1 v(t) = v(t) (R + 2L/ t) (1 + tR/(2L)) (4.20)

Hence the complete difference equation expressed in terms of branch voltage is obtained by adding equations 4.19 and 4.20, which gives: i(t) = (1 (1 + tR/(2L)) i(t tR/(2L)) t) + t/(2L) (v(t (1 + tR/(2L)) t) + v(t)) (4.21)

The corresponding Norton equivalent is shown in Figure 4.6. The reduction of a tuned lter branch is illustrated in Figure 4.7, which shows the actual RLC components, their individual Norton equivalents and a single Norton representation of the complete lter branch. Parallel lter branches can be combined into one Norton by summing their current sources and conductance values. The reduction, however, hides the information on voltages across and current through each individual component. The mathematical implementation of the reduction process is carried out by rst establishing the nodal admittance matrix of the circuit and then performing Gaussian elimination of the internal nodes.

4.3

Dual Norton model of the transmission line

A detailed description of transmission line modelling is deferred to Chapter 6. The single-phase lossless line [4] is used as an introduction at this stage, to illustrate the simplicity of Dommels method.

74

Power systems electromagnetic transients simulation

k R vR (t) vL (t) Reff = 2L t R IL History IC History t 2C v (t t) = ikm (t t) + = ikm (t t) v (t t) 2L L t C R+ t 2L 2C + t vC (t) Reff = t 2C m

t I 2L I 2C C History + t L History

R+

t 2L 2C + t

Figure 4.7

Reduction of RLC branch

k ikm v (x, t) i (x, t) imk m

x=0

x=d

Figure 4.8

Propagation of a wave on a transmission line

Consider the lossless distributed parameter line depicted in Figure 4.8, where L is the inductance and C the capacitance per unit length. The wave propagation equations for this line are: i(x, t) v(x, t) =L x t v(x, t) i(x, t) =C x t

(4.22) (4.23)

Numerical integrator substitution and the general solution: i(x, t) = f1 (x t) + f2 (x + t) t)

75

(4.24) (4.25)

v(x, t) = Z f1 (x

t) Z f2 (x +

with f1 (x t) and f2 (x + t) being arbitrary functions of (x t) and (x + t) respectively. f1 (x t) represents a wave travelling at velocity in a forward direction (depicted in Figure 4.8) and f2 (x + t) a wave travelling in a backward direction. ZC , the surge or characteristic impedance and , the phase velocity, are given by: ZC = L C 1 = LC

(4.26) (4.27)

Multiplying equation 4.24 by ZC and adding it to, and subtracting it from, equation 4.25 leads to: v(x, t) + ZC i(x, t) = 2ZC f1 (x v(x, t) ZC i(x, t) = 2ZC f2 (x + t) t) (4.28) (4.29)

It should be noted that v(x, t) + ZC i(x, t) is constant when (x t) is constant. If d is the length of the line, the travelling time from one end (k) to the other end (m) of the line to observe a constant v(x, t) + ZC i(x, t) is: = d/ Hence vk (t ) + ZC ikm (t ) = vm (t) + ZC (imk (t)) Rearranging equation 4.31 gives the simple two-port equation for imk , i.e. imk (t) = 1 vm (t) + Im (t ) ZC (4.32) (4.31) =d LC (4.30)

where the current source from past History terms is: Im (t ) = 1 vk (t ) ikm (t ) ZC (4.33)

76

Power systems electromagnetic transients simulation

ikm (t) imk (t)

Ik (t ) vk (t) ZC Im (t ) ZC vm (t)

Figure 4.9

Equivalent two-port network for a lossless line

Similarly for the other end ikm (t) = where Ik (t ) = 1 vk (t) + Ik (t ) ZC 1 vm (t ) imk (t ) ZC (4.34)

The expressions (x t) = constant and (x + t) = constant are called the characteristic equations of the differential equations. Figure 4.9 depicts the resulting two-port model. There is no direct connection between the two terminals and the conditions at one end are seen indirectly and with time delays (travelling time) at the other through the current sources. The past History terms are stored in a ring buffer and hence the maximum travelling time that can be represented is the time step multiplied by the number of locations in the buffer. Since the time delay is not usually a multiple of the time-step, the past History terms on either side of the actual travelling time are extracted and interpolated to give the correct travelling time.

4.4

Network solution

With all the network components represented by Norton equivalents a nodal formulation is used to perform the system solution. The nodal equation is: [G]v(t) = i(t) + IHistory where: [G] is the conductance matrix v(t) is the vector of nodal voltages i(t) is the vector of external current sources IHistory is the vector current sources representing past history terms. (4.35)

Numerical integrator substitution

3

77

i12 5 i15 Transmission line i1 1 i13 i14 4

Figure 4.10

Node 1 of an interconnected circuit

The nodal formulation is illustrated with reference to the circuit in Figure 4.10 [5] where the use of Kirchhoffs current law at node 1 yields: i12 (t) + i13 (t) + i14 (t) + i15 (t) = i1 (t) Expressing each branch current in terms of node voltages gives: i12 (t) = 1 (v1 (t) v2 (t)) R t (v1 (t) v3 (t)) + I13 (t t) i13 (t) = 2L 2C (v1 (t) v4 (t)) + I14 (t t) i14 (t) = t 1 i15 (t) = v1 (t) + I15 (t ) Z (4.37) (4.38) (4.39) (4.40) (4.36)

Substituting these gives the following equation for node 1: 1 t 2C 1 + + + R 2L t Z = I1 (t v1 (t) 1 t 2C v2 (t) v3 (t) v4 (t) R 2L t t) I14 (t t) I15 (t t) (4.41)

t) I13 (t

Note that [G] is real and symmetric when incorporating network components. If control equations are incorporated into the same [G] matrix, the symmetry is lost; these are, however, solved separately in many programs. As the elements of [G] are dependent on the time step, by keeping the time step constant [G] is constant and triangular factorisation can be performed before entering the time step loop. Moreover, each node in a power system is connected to only a few other nodes and therefore

78

Power systems electromagnetic transients simulation

(a) R1 C1 1 2 R2 3

Vm sin ( t)

(b)

IhL 1

2 R2

IS

2L1 t

t 2C1

R1

IhC

2L2 t

IhL

Is = Vm sin ( t)/R1

Figure 4.11

Example using conversion of voltage source to current source

the conductance matrix is sparse. This property is exploited by only storing non-zero elements and using optimal ordering elimination schemes. Some of the node voltages will be known due to the presence of voltage sources in the system, but the majority are unknown. In the presence of series impedance with each voltage source the combination can be converted to a Norton equivalent and the algorithm remains unchanged. Example: Conversion of voltage sources to current sources To illustrate the incorporation of known voltages the simple network displayed in Figure 4.11(a) will be considered. The task is to write the matrix equation that must be solved at each time point. Converting the components of Figure 4.11(a) to Norton equivalents (companion circuits) produces the circuit of Figure 4.11(b) and the corresponding nodal equation: 1 t R1 + 2L1 t 2L1 0 t 2L1 t 1 2C1 + + 2L1 R2 t 1 R2 V sin(t) m I h L1 v1 R1 1 v2 = IhL IhC 1 1 R2 v 3 1 t IhL2 + R2 2L2 (4.42) 0

Numerical integrator substitution

79

Equation 4.42 is rst solved for the node voltages and from these all the branch currents are calculated. Time is then advanced and the current sources representing History terms (previous time step information) are recalculated. The value of the voltage source is recalculated at the new time point and so is the matrix equation. The process of solving the matrix equation, calculating all currents in the system, advancing time and updating History terms is continued until the time range of the study is completed. As indicated earlier, the conversion of voltage sources to Norton equivalents requires some series impedance, i.e. an ideal voltage source cannot be represented using this simple conductance method. A more general approach is to partition the nodal equation as follows: [GU U ] [GKU ] v (t) i (t) I [GU K ] . U = U + U History [GKK ] IK History vK (t) iK (t) = IU IK (4.43)

where the subscripts U and K represent connections to nodes with unknown and known voltages, respectively. Using Krons reduction the unknown voltage vector is obtained from: [GU U ]vU (t) = iU (t) + IU History [GU K ]vK (t) = IU The current in voltage sources can be calculated using: [GKU ]vU (t) + [GKK ]vK (t) IK History = iK (t) (4.45) (4.44)

The process for solving equation 4.44 is depicted in Figure 4.12. Only the righthand side of this equation needs to be recalculated at each time step. Triangular factorisation is performed on the augmented matrix [GU U GU K ] before entering the time step loop. The same process is then extended to iU (t) IHistory at each time step (forward solution), followed by back substitution to get VU (t). Once VU (t) has been found, the History terms for the next time step are calculated.

4.4.1

Network solution with switches

To reect switching operations or time varying parameters, matrices [GU U ] and [GU K ] need to be altered and retriangulated. By placing nodes with switches last, as illustrated in Figure 4.13, the initial triangular factorisation is only carried out for the nodes without switches [6]. This leaves a small reduced matrix which needs altering following a change. By placing the nodes with frequently switching elements in the lowest part the computational burden is further reduced. Transmission lines using the travelling wave model do not introduce off-diagonal elements from the sending to the receiving end, and thus result in a block diagonal structure for [GU U ], as shown in Figure 4.14. Each block represents a subsystem (a concept to be described in section 4.6), that can be solved independently of the rest of the system, as any inuence from the rest of the system is represented by the History terms (i.e. there is no instantaneous term). This allows parallel computation of the

80

Power systems electromagnetic transients simulation

[G ] V I

GUU

GUK VU

IU

GBA (1) [GUU GUK]

GKK

VK V

IK IU

G UU 0

GUK

VU

IU

VK [GUU ]
' GUU

VU (3) (2)

IU

GUK

VK VK

VU

IU

G UK

(1) Triangulation of matrix (2) Forward reduction (3) Back substitution

Figure 4.12

Network solution with voltage sources

solution, a technique that is used in the RTDS simulator. For non-linear systems, each non-linearity can be treated separately using the compensation approach provided that there is only one non-linearity per subsystem. Switching and interpolation are also performed on a subsystem basis. In the PSCAD/EMTDC program, triangular factorisation is performed on a subsystem basis rather than on the entire matrix. Nodes connected to frequently switched branches (i.e. GTOs, thyristors, diodes and arrestors) are ordered last, but other switching branches (faults and breakers) are not. Each section is optimally ordered separately. A ow chart of the overall solution technique is shown in Figure 4.15.

4.4.2

Example: voltage step applied to RL load

To illustrate the use of Kron reduction to eliminate known voltages the simple circuit shown in Figure 4.16 will be used.

Numerical integrator substitution

(1) [G ] V I

81

=
Frequently switching components placed last

(4)

(3)

=
(2) 0

(1) Partial triangulation of matrix (prior to time step loop) (2) Complete triangulation (3) Forward reduction of current vector (4) Back substitution for node voltages

Figure 4.13

Network solution with switches

0 [G UU]

VU

] VK I U = IU [GUK

Figure 4.14 Block diagonal structure Figure 4.17 shows the circuit once the inductor is converted to its Norton equivalent. The nodal equation for this circuit is: GSwitch GSwitch 0 v1 iv GR 0 (4.46) GSwitch GSwitch + GR v2 = v I 3 History 0 G G +G
R L_eff R

82

Power systems electromagnetic transients simulation

Initialisation

Build upper part of triangular matrix

Check switches for change

Solve for history terms

User specified dynamics file

Update source voltages and currents

Network solution No Interpolation, switching procedure and chatter removal

Solve for voltages

User-specified output definition file

Write output files

Is run finished

Yes

Stop

Figure 4.15

Flow chart of EMT algorithm

Numerical integrator substitution

1 iv 3 L = 50 mH 2 R R = 100

83

Figure 4.16

Simple switched RL load

1 iv 3 RL eff RSwitch 2

Figure 4.17

Equivalent circuit for simple switched RL load

As v1 is a known voltage the conductance matrix is reordered by placing v1 last in the column vector of nodal voltages and moving column 1 of [G] to be column 3; then move row 1 (equation for current in voltage source) to become row 3. This then gives: GR GSwitch + GR GR GL_eff + GR GSwitch 0 which is of the form [GU U ] [GKU ] i.e. GSwitch + GR GR GR GL_eff + GR GSwitch 0 [GU K ] [GKK ] vU (t) i (t) I = U + U _History IK _History vK (t) iK (t) v2 0 v3 = IHistory v1 v2 0 GSwitch v3 = IHistory 0 GSwitch v1 iv

(4.47)

84

Power systems electromagnetic transients simulation

Note the negative IHistory term as the current is leaving the node. Performing Gaussian elimination gives:
GSwitch + GR 0 GR GL_eff + GR M(GR ) v2 0 GSwitch v3 = IHistory M(GSwitch ) v1 (4.48)

where M= GL_eff GSwitch + GR

Moving the known voltage v1 (t) to the right-hand side gives:

GSwitch + GR 0 GR GL_eff + GR M (GR ) v2 v3 = 0 GSwitch v IHistory M (GSwitch ) 1 (4.49)

Alternatively, the known voltage could be moved to the right-hand side before performing the Gaussian elimination. i.e. GSwitch + GR GR GR GL_eff + GR v2 v3 = 0 GSwitch v1 0 IHistory (4.50)

Eliminating the element below the diagonal, and performing the same operation on the right-hand side will give equation 4.49 again. The implementation of these equations in FORTRAN is given in Appendix H.2 and MATLAB in Appendix F.3. The FORTRAN code in H.2 illustrates using a d.c. voltage source and switch, while the MATLAB version uses an a.c. voltage source and diode. Note that as Gaussian elimination is equivalent to performing a series of NortonThevenin conversion to produce one Norton, the RL branch can be modelled as one Norton. This is implemented in the FORTRAN code in Appendices H.1 and H.3 and MATLAB code in Appendices F.1 and F.2. Table 4.2 compares the current calculated using various time steps with results from the analytic solution. For a step response of an RL branch the analytic solution is given by: i(t) = V 1 etR / L R

Note that the error becomes larger and a less damped response results as the time step increases. This information is graphically displayed in Figures 4.18(a)4.19(b). As a rule of thumb the maximum time step must be one tenth of the smallest time constant in the system. However, the circuit time constants are not generally known a priori and therefore performing a second simulation with the time step halved will give a good indication if the time step is sufciently small.

Numerical integrator substitution Table 4.2

Time (ms) Exact 1.0000 1.0500 1.1000 1.1500 1.2000 1.2500 1.3000 1.3500 1.4000 1.4500 1.5000 1.5500 1.6000 1.6500 1.7000 1.7500 1.8000 1.8500 1.9000 1.9500 2.0000 2.0500 2.1000 2.1500 2.2000 2.2500 2.3000 2.3500 2.4000 2.4500 2.5000 2.5500 2.6000 2.6500 2.7000 2.7500 2.8000 2.8500 2.9000 2.9500 3.0000 0 63.2121 86.4665 95.0213 98.1684 99.3262 99.7521 99.9088 99.9665 99.9877 99.9955 99.9983 99.9994 99.9998 99.9999 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 t = /10 0 61.3082 85.7779 94.7724 98.0785 99.2937 99.7404 99.9046 99.9649 99.9871 99.9953 99.9983 99.9994 99.9998 99.9999 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000

85

Step response of RL circuit to various step lengths

Current (amps) t = 0 33.3333 77.7778 92.5926 97.5309 99.1770 99.7257 99.9086 99.9695 99.9898 99.9966 99.9989 99.9996 99.9999 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 t = 5 0 71.4286 112.2449 94.7522 102.2491 99.0361 100.4131 99.8230 100.0759 t = 10 0 83.3333 111.1111 92.5926 104.9383