Small Crack Behavior and the Prediction of Fatigue Life

S.J. Hudak, Jr.1

Structural Behavior of Materials Department, Westinghouse R&D Center, Pittsburgh, Pa. 15235

It is becoming increasingly evident that an understanding of incipient microcracking and growth of small cracks is essential to the development of improved predictions of the fatigue life of structures. Information on the threshold and kinetic properties of small cracks is reviewed and critically discussed. It is shown that the use of conventional fracture mechanics concepts to characterize small cracks results in behavior which differs from that of large cracksthis difference is due to a breakdown of underlying continuum mechanics assumptions. Methods to incorporate small crack behavior in fatigue life predictions are also considered. In these predictions, the importance of separately treating crack initiation and crack growth and of accounting for small crack behavior and plasticity effects (particularly for notched members) is demonstrated.

Introduction The concept that fatigue is not a sudden event, but rather one which occurs by a progression of damaging events, was advanced nearly 60 years ago [1,2]. Nevertheless, due primarily to expediency in testing, most of the fatigue data which have been generated over the years have used cycles-tofailure as the measure of fatigue resistance. Mechanistic studies have provided some information on the development of crystallographic slip, incipient microcracking and early growth of small cracks, however, except for a few notable studies [3,32], most of this information has been in the form of qualitative descriptions. More recently, with the advent of fracture mechanics, much effort has been devoted to the study of fatigue crack growth. However, in compliance with underlying continuum mechanics assumptions, most of these data have been generated using relatively large crack sizes. Thus, there currently exists a lack of systematic, quantitative information on the initiation and growth of small cracks. The need to understand incipient microcracking and growth of small cracks is becoming increasingly recognized and recent efforts to systematically examine these phenomena have been increasing. Such understanding is essential to developing materials with improved resistance to fatigue, to selecting the proper material for a given application, and, perhaps most importantly, to formulating improved methods of predicting fatigue lives of structures by combining crack initiation and crack growth concepts. With respect to the latter, elucidating the nature of small cracks is fundamental to resolving the following issues, both old and new:

durance limit, Aae, and threshold stress intensity for fatigue crack growth, AKlh. 3) Resolving apparent size effects and the discrepancy between the elastic stress concentration factor, K,, and the fatigue reduction factor, Kf. 4) Explaining nonpropagating cracks at notches. 5) Properly combining crack initiation and crack growth to predict the total fatigue life, particularly for notched members. The purpose of the present paper is to review and interpret information on the initiation and early growth of small cracks. Whenever possible, this information is discussed in terms of the above issues. First, microstructural features of crack initiation are treated briefly. With this as background, subsequent treatment will focus on aspects of small crack behavior which differ from large crack behavior and on the complex problem of incorporating small crack behavior and plasticity effects into the prediction of cracking from notches.

Microstructural Aspects of Crack Initiation and Early Growth The progressive nature of fatigue damage is clearly illustrated by Hunter and Fricke's systematic microscopic studies of smooth specimens subjected to completely reversed bending [3-6]. The development of slip, incipient cracking and growth of microcracks was monitored using plastic replication techniques and etching. Figure 1 shows the onset of various microscopic events observed during the testing of 1) Formulating an improved definition of crack initiation. 2) Determining the relation between the smooth bar en- an unalloyed aluminum of 99.5 percent purity [3]. These results, expressed in the form of S-N curves, show that slip can occcur very early in the fatigue life and that it subsequently increases in intensity and amount until a saturation level is achieved. In this relatively soft material, incipient Currently, Senior Research Scientist, Department of Materials Sciences, cracking is difficult to resolve because of extensive surface Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, Texas 78284. roughening developed by slip. Relatively large cracks are Contributed by the Materials Division for publication in the JOURNAL OF observed subsequent to slip saturation and these finally cause ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND TECHNOLOGY. Manuscript received by the the specimens to fail. Material Division, June 1980.
26/Vol. 103, JANUARY 1981 Transactions of the ASME

Copyright 1981 by ASME

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5500

35000

225 3000U

\p

-Failure

200 175

25000

20000

_ -

First Crack

1 cW\ o

150 125
!

15000 -

100
1 I 1
;

10000

75

10

10

10

10 10 Cycles

1 0

1 0

109

Fig. 2 Relation between the first observable crack (0.0025 mm depth) and failure in a 6061-T6 aluminum alloy (reference [5]) Cycles Fig. 1 Relation between various stages of progressive fatigue damage in a pure aluminum (DD1S-0) sheet (reference^])

Hunter and Fricke also examined structural aluminum alloys and found them to exhibit somewhat different microscopic damage than did pure aluminum. Figure 2 gives S-N type relations corresponding to the first observation of cracking (typically, crack depths of 0.0025 mm or less) and to failure in a 6061-T6 aluminum alloy [5]. Although slip may have preceded incipient cracking, it was not resolvable, indicating that it was much less extensive than that which occurred in pure aluminum. Forsyth proposed that the mechanism of crack initiation and growth occurs by two physically different processes, designated Stage I and Stage II, which proceed as follows [7-9]. Stage I cracking results from dislocation motion along the slip plane and is determined by the magnitude of the resolved shear stress on the slip plane. Thus, cracks form Unique Character of Small Cracks preferentially on those planes which are closely aligned and A number of recent studies have demonstrated that small which are oriented in the maximum shear stress directions. In cracks behave differently than large cracksor at least this many materials, cyclic loading then causes intrusions and appears to be the case when small cracks are analyzed using extrusions to form in the slip bands [10]. These microscopic conventional fracture mechanics concepts. For purposes of notches provide the nucleation sites for crack initiation. Stage discussion, it is convenient to separate the unique characI cracks generally continue growing along the slip plane and teristics of small cracks into the following two categories: 1) exhibit fracture surfaces which are primarily featureless. In threshold stress or stress intensity considerations, including polycrystalline metals, the Stage I cracks generally extend for the relation between the smooth bar endurance limit, Aae, and only a few grain diameters before crack propagation changes the threshold stress intensity for fatigue crack growth, AA',/,, to Stage II. and 2) kinetics of small crack growth, particularly comparing Stage II cracks grow on planes which are normal to the them to kinetics of large crack growth. Each of these maximum principal tensile stress operating on the component. categories is treated separately in this section. This inTheir fracture features generally involve microscopic formation is then used in the following section on the more striations, each of which corresponds to a loading cycle; thus complex problem of the effect of small cracks on the fatigue life of notched members. they are often distinguishable from Stage I cracks. The above slip initiated mechanism is capable of occurring Threshold Stress and Stress Intensity. Traditionally, the in many systems, however, often it is superseded by other mechanisms when more favorable crack nucleation sites are problem of fatigue has been approached by empirically available. Recall, for example, that the 6061-T6 aluminum determining the nominal stress range (or amplitude) which alloy examined by Hunter and Fricke initiated microcracks could be applied to either a smooth or a notched specimen with little or no prior slip deformation (Fig. 2). More recently, without causing failure for an indefinite number of cycles. In Morris et.al. used scanning electron microscopy to show that smooth specimens, this stress range is termed the endurance crack initiation in 2219-T851 aluminum alloy occurs at brittle limit, ACT,,, and is operationally defined in terms of a given intermetallic inclusions at or near the specimen surface (11). number of applied cycles, typically ranging from 107 to 109 Microcracks initiated either at the matrix-inclusion interface cycles. More recently, the application of fracture mechanics or in the inclusions themselves and propagated as non-crystal- to fatigue has led to the empirical establishment, in cracked lographic, Stage II cracks. Pearson found similar results in members, of a threshold stress intensity below which no two other comercial aluminum alloys [12]. Yokobori and his detectible crack propagation occurs, AKlh. Here an collaborators found that non-metallic inclusions were the operational definition, based on the AA' corresponding to a preferred crack initiation sites at the surface of a mild steel rate of 10~10 m/cycle, has recently been established [16]. [13] and a tempered martensitic steel [14]. Initiation also From its inception, the AKth concept has caused a occurred, although much less frequently, along prior philosophical conflict with that of the smooth bar endurance austenite grain boundaries, at packets of martensite platelets limit. Measurement of a AAT,, establishes a regime of crack and at precipitates along packets of martensite platelets. sizes and applied stress ranges for which further crack exJournal of Engineering Materials and Technology JANUARY 1981, Vol. 103/27

Grain boundaries are also known to serve as primary initiation sites under environmental and/or creep conditions where selective attack occurs because of chemical segregation followed by enhanced oxidation at the boundaries [15]. Thus, in commercial alloys, there exist many opportunities for Stage I cracking from slip band formation to be precluded by direct Stage II cracking from more favorable nucleation sites. Furthermore, even in the absence of these favorable sites, it has not been demonstrated that Stage I cracks form under the multiaxial stress states which exist at notches where fatigue cracks inevitably form in engineering structures. This summary of microstructural aspects of crack initiation and early growth serves to emphasize the importance of notches since even in the case of fatigue of smooth specimens the cracks are shown to initiate at the "metallurgical notches" formed by intrusions or extrusions or present as inclusions.

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tension does not occur. For the case of a wide plate containing a central, through-crack of length "2a," or an edge-crack of length " a , " this regime is defined by A(rfwa<AKlh (1) For a given mean stress, environment and loading frequency, AA", is a material property and thus is constant. It follows then from equation (1) that as the crack size becomes exceedingly small, the allowable stress range should become exceedingly large. However, the limiting case, where the crack size approaches zero, is merely the smooth bar endurance limit which is known to be approximately one-half the materials ultimate strength. In addition, substantially lower values occur in the presence of detrimental environments. Thus, there must exist some crack size where equation (1) and the underlying fracture mechanics assumptions become invalid. 2 Indeed, we could arrive at this same conclusion in a somewhat different manner by merely considering underlying continuum mechanics assumptions. These dictate that the crack size should always be greater than the materials microstructural features, e.g., grain size, inclusion spacing, etc. Nevertheless, let us at this point proceed by using the fracture mechanics anlaysis without regard to this obvious limitation. The above limitation is not a problem with most of the AKlh data in the literature since large crack sizes are conveniently employed. The measurement technique generally involves decreasing the load in a slow and carefully controlled manner until the fatigue crack is arrestedor at least growing at a rate less than 10" 10 m/cycle. However, this AKlh value, having been determined from long crack data (typically, several cm long) is often utilized to evaluate structural components, exposed to high frequency vibratory loading, which contain flaws down to 0.05 mm. Recent data indicate that indiscriminate practices such as this can lead to nonconservative design and reliability assessments. Kitagawa and coworkers have provided the critical data to illustrate this point [17,18]. Threshold stress intensities were determined using cylindrical specimens containing small surface cracks. Fig. 3 shows these results for three different commercial steels. The crack length dependence for both AA",,, (Fig. 3(b)) and the corresponding threshold stress (Fig. 3(a)) is provided. The latter is given by
Aff

ta> o^i.-^" ^S^wc^feg

fl_.A_-_V^*S0A(,

MPa e=550 Ao e =380

500

Ao /2 =230

k 100 AK (h (lor large crackl = 4.78MPa m ' ' ^ o v

) v High Strength Steel, HHT80I, R=0 r\^ *" ostructural Steel, RSM50I, R=0 '1 / ^ 2 a Mild Steel, AISB22), R = - l 1 ! 1 1 I I 0.5 1 0. 05 0. 1

- 100
50

Crack Length 2a, mm

r (bi

2a2b El HT80) R SM50) A( SB22I

2a 2b

o
A

* e 6
- t>e

~ 10

'^

S'

A K , h I for large crack) = 4 . 7 8 MPa m

0. 05

0. 1

0.5

10

Crack Length 2a, mm

Fig. 3 Dependence of the fatigue a) threshold stress and b) threshold stress intensity on crack length of a surface flawed specimen, (aa and ab are the length and depth of the surface flaw, respectively) (reference [18])

Recent data of El Haddad, et al. on a CSA G40-11 steel tested at R = - 1 using sheet specimens with small edge cracks confirm this behavior as shown in Fig. 4 (19,20). It was further shown that this small crack threshold behavior could be modeled by adding a constant, l0, to the physical crack size in the elastic stress intensity factor solution as follows: AA^AoVTr^-r-/,,^ (3) where F is the factor accounting for specimen geometry which for small through-cracks is approximately unity. 3 The term a + l0 is viewed as an effective crack length which accounts for the small crack behavior and l0 is suggested to be a constant for a given material condition. This constant is evaluated from the limiting condition where the physical crack size, a, approaches zero, that is, in equation (3): l0 > > a, ACT = ACT,, and AA" = AK,,,, giving (4)
IT V ACT

AKa

f(a)4 wa

(2)

where f(a) is a function of crack size which accounts for specimen geometry as well as crack shape. As shown in Fig. 3 (a), at the indicated load ratios (R), all of the steels exhibit the same relation between Aeth and crack length when cracks are large. This relation corresponds to a common AKth of a 4.78 MPaVin which agrees with that obtained on larger through-cracked, panel specimens. Furthermore, this relation is equivalent to the crack length independence of AKlh at large cracks which is shown in Fig. 3(b). Both of these features are in contrast to the data for small cracks. The Aath values of Fig. 3(a) asymptotically approach the smooth bar fatigue limits as the crack lengths decrease. This is equivalent to AKth values which decrease as crack size decreases as shown in Fig. 3(b). The fact that AKlh values for small cracks become increasingly smaller than those for large cracks indicates that small cracks can propagate at AK values below those defined by more conventional, large crack AKth values.

In place of equation (2), we now have ACT,/, for any crack length given by AA-,,, Aalh = (5) V7r(fl + / 0 ) As " a " decreases, /0 makes an increasing contribution to equation (5) and in the limit as the physical crack size approaches zero, l0 provides for a finite value of Aelh, unlike equation (2). Although no physical interpretation of l0 was proposed, it is nevertheless effective in modeling the threshold conditions for the growth of small cracks as shown by the solid line in Fig. 4. Since /0 arises from the need to overcome the implied breakdown in the continuum concepts, one might expect that this length should be related to the largest characteristic length of the materials' microstructure. However, for the case of the above steel, l0 is appreciably larger than any microstructural characteristic and furthermore the author is unaware of any other material for which such a correlation has been demonstrated.
Actually a value of 1.12 to account for the near surface is more appropriate, however, it is not essential to this development.

Note that an analagous situation exists in stress corrosion cracking between the smooth bar threshold stress, ascc, and the threshold stress intensity for crack growth KIscc.

28/Vol. 103, JANUARY 1981

Transactions of the ASME

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a, mm
^ 1 ^ \ ^ AK

1.0
1 -Atr^Tra

10.0
1

Log AK, MN m units 0. 2 0. 4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2

1.4
I

1.6
-

-3
1

i '

_ 10
A I T . = constant

0J io-

^AK

AaVTTlaty 0 = 0 . 2 4 - mm

~"%k.

"

-A

" Long Through Section Cracks y >0. 254 mrnlO. 01 in. ) Long /

ta
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS G40.ll STEEL R- I 2 ~-

-5

PREDICTION

\^
-6

l 0.10

a, in Fig. 4 Comparison of experimental and predicted values of the fatigue threshold stress as a function of crack size (reference [19])
7

10- ' 7

r
r
-

-7
y 1

/ // 0 mm-0. 5 Cracks mm / . 012 Short Surface f 10. 0005 in. - 0 . 0 2 in. )deep

A
i

// / / / /

-4

:
-6

-8 10 " -

/
/ ,/ ,
i i i i i

0.2
1

0.4
1

Log AK, MN m units 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2

1 1 I

1.4

1.6

. -

10

'/ ~~':

10

Long Through Section Cracks >0. 254 mmlO. 01 in) Long^

3. 2 3. 4 3. 6 3. 8 4. 0 4. 2 4. 4 4. 6 Log AK, lb in units Fig. 6 Fatigue crack growth kinetics for long and short cracks in a DTD 5050 aluminum alloy (reference [12])
- 10

10^ 3. 0

-3

n -5

10^h

/ // /
-7 7

^
/ /

// Short Surface Cracks / 0. 006 mm-0. 5 mm (0. 00025 in. -0.02 in. ) Deep

/ / / ' / /

-4 & 0 -ii E E -5

AK, MPa^/m
50

IOO
0

200

4O0

- 10

": -6

0 0* 9 0

. 10

-7

, / ,
3. 0 3. 2 3. 4

3. 6 3. 8 4. 0 4. 2 Log AK, lb in. units

4. 4 4. 6

J
*

SO

G40.ll STEEL P.--I

Fig. 5 Fatigue crack growth kinetics for long and short cracks in a BS L65 aluminum alloy (reference [12])

SHORT

CRACKS

a s I mm !4l4MPa) ( 3 3 8 MPa) (33I (283 (24I MPa) MPa) MPa)

o AO" = 6 0 KSI

Usami has recently suggested that the physical interpretation of equation (5) is that AKlh corresponds to a constant fatigue plastic zone size [21]. Kinetics of Small Crack Growth. Several studies have been made of the crack growth kinetics of small fatigue cracks using either linear elastic or elastic plastic fracture mechanics to describe the mechanical "driving force." Pearson (12) examined the initiation and subsequent growth of short cracks (0.006 mm < a < 0.25 mm) in aluminum alloys BS L65 (490 MN/m2 yield strength) and DTD 5050 (540 MN/m2 yield strength). Smooth tapered specimens were loaded under linear-elastic conditions using cantilever bending. Resulting crack growth rate data were analyzed using linear-elastic fracture mechanics and are given in Figs. 5 and 6 where they are compared with data for large cracks (a > 0.25 mm). Pearson concluded from these results
Journal of Engineering Materials and Technology

D r
> a'.'

o A O " . 4 9 KSI
A AO"-

4 8 KSI 35 KSI

o ACT" 41 KSI o i l LONG

'.J
Otf* A * 9 SB** 0 0 *

CRACKS

AK= A c y f a f(a)
I IOO

AK

KSI yin"

Fig. 7 Long and short fatigue crack growth kinetics in a G40.11 steel (reference [19])

JANUARY 1981, Vol. 103/29

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AK, MPa yfn

id
20 1 50 1 100 ! 200 i 400 i

AJ.m- MN/m2
0.001 .01

0 e

@
K54 0 9 e

j
10 o

-4 APPROX A 9 0 0.04 B D 0.02

:S

z
a

Jf .?*
> .'
10
J >

G40.ll

STEEL

R--I

_ ,-

e E

* A 0.012

* O 0.009 # 0.005
OPEN SYMBOLS a < 0 . 0 0 7 in. (O.I778mm)

SHORT o A C . a i f f .

CRACKS 6 0 KSI 4 8 KSI

a S 1 mm (414 MPa) ( 3 3 8 MPa) (331 MPo) ( 2 8 3 MPa) (241 MPo)

o A 0 " 4 9 KSI o A C T - 41 KSI o A C T . 35 KSI LONG

10

I02

I03

4^
o '

CRACKS

A J , in.-lb/in.2 Fig. 9 Large and small fatigue crack growth kinetics obtained under plastic loading and analyzed in terms of AJ (reference [22])

A J
-7

m-MN/mz o.oi

10

LF
K = Aayi7-(a + f 0 ) f ( a ) S
A533B STEEL 10 TESTS, IS CRACKS DATA FROM

3EI0

-a L 10

100

AK

KSI yin"

Fig. 8 Long and short fatigue crack growth kinetics in a G40.11 steel analyzed using / 0 (reference [19])
SCATTERBAND FROM LARGE SPECIMENS

that microcrack growth kinetics are faster than macrocrack growth kinetics.4 Similar results were obtained by El Haddad et.al. on a CSA G40.11 steel at R = - 1 using sheet specimens containing small edge cracks (19). These results are compared with long crack data on the same material and, again, show the microcrack kinetics to be faster, as shown in Fig. 7. However, it is interesting to note that a reanalysis of these data using equation (3) and the material constant l0 which was discussed in the previous section provided an improved correlation between the small and large crack data as shown in Fig. 8. The same value of l0 which was determined from small crack threshold considerations, equation (4) and Fig. 4, was used in this reanalysis of the kinetic data. The utility of this simple approach to model effects which are presumably related to the breakdown of continuum mechanics is remarkable, even though it is not physically understood. The remainder of the relevant data on the kinetics of small crack growth were obtained using specimens which were plastically strained, thus elastic-plastic fracture mechanics analyses were required to interpret the results. Apart from providing a means of correlating small crack data from these specimens, these elastic-plastic methods are significant in that they are relevant to the important problem of the behavior of small cracks at notches. Here, elastic-plastic fracture mechanics considerations are necessary since cracks are often
4 It should be noted, however, that equations 2 thru 4 in reference [12] for the stress intensity solutions for various crack configurations are incorrect. It is unclear whether these errors are included in the data of Figs. 5 and 6.

lb/in2 Fig. 10 Large and small fatigue crack growth kinetics obtained under plastic loading and analyzed using AJ and l0 (reference [20])

completely imbedded in the notch plastic zonea problem which is discussed in the next section. Dowling measured the initiation and growth of small cracks in axialiy loaded smooth specimens of A533B steel subjected to completely-reversed, strain cycling [22]. Cracks were initiated at about 10 percent of the specimens' fatigue life; subsequent crack growth from 0.08 mm cracks to failure of the 0.76 cm-diameter specimens was monitored using plastic replication techniques. Growth rate data were analyzed using A/, based on J integral concepts, which was previously
Transactions of the ASME

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AK

ff

, MPov'm
-Tneroetical Stress to Form Crack at Notch Root=Ao e /K ( 250

0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

200

150 Complete Fracture 100 Non-propagating Cracks Formed at Notch Root No Cracks Formed 0 7 9
K t Fatigue limit based on stress to initiate crack at notch root o Plate D Round Bar Fatigue limit based on complete fracture Plate = Round bar

50

Fig. 12 Fatigue threshold stress versus K, for plate and cylindrical mild steel notched specimens tested under completely reversed tension-compression loading (reference [33])

AK ,. ksiVTrl
Fig. 11 Fatigue crack growth kinetics of microcracks (25-100 pm) analyzed in terms of the effective stress intensity range, AK e ) ( , based on measured crack opening loads (reference [28])

successfully applied to growth of large cracks under elasticplastic conditions [23]. Values of AJ were determined from the measured cyclic stress-strain response of the material using an approximate /-analysis for the surface cracked, cylindrical specimen. The resulting crack growth kinetics expressed in terms of AJ are given in Fig. 9. Most of the data for the various applied strain ranges correlate well with each other and with large specimen, i.e., large crack data. Note, however, that data corresponding to crack lengths of less than about 0.18 mm consistently exhibit faster kinetics. A subsequent reanalysis of these data [20], using El Haddad's l0 correction is shown in Fig. 10. Again, as in the case of the previously discussed linear-elastic results, this simple correction results in a significant improvement in the correlation between small and large crack data. Kitagawa, et al. [18] have conducted similar experiments using low cycle fatigue specimens subjected to plastic straining under both tension and bending. Although, in this study, a plastic stain intensity factor, AKep was utilized to account for plasticity effects. The value of AKtp was computed by simply substituting the plastic strain range, Aep, for ACT in the linear elastic stress intensity expression to give AK[p=Atp^
where Aep is given by -wa (6)

Unfortunately, results analyzed in this manner cannot be compared with large crack data. Crack closure considerations have thus far not been mentioned. However, this phenomenon is known to accompany fatigue crack growth of large cracks [24] and has been proposed as a major factor in determining load ratio effects, particularly at low growth rates {da/dN < 10~5 mm/cycle) where it appears to become increasingly important due to the ever decreasing magnitude of the applied stress intensity range [25-27]. It follows that crack closure should be important in microcrack propagation in the threshold regimeperhaps, more so than in the case of large cracks. Recent data of Morris and Buck tend to support this view [28]. They measured the growth of very small, surface microcracks in miniature flexural specimens of aluminum alloy 2219-T851 using the scanning electron microscope. Since crack growth measurements were made on the grain size level, specifically from 25 to 100 txm, all cracks were in the subcontinuum regime. It was found that crack growth rates from several different specimens could only be correlated when crack closure was accounted for by using the effective stress intensity range, AKef!, as shown in Fig. 11. Crack opening displacement measurements at the tips of growing cracks were measured and used to estimate closure stresses and AKiff. An attempt was made to account for the non-continuum aspects of the problem by incorporating a model for the crack-tip plastic zone which depends on grain size and the relative position of a crack in a grain. Admittedly much more effort is needed to develop the mechanics of the non-continuum. Nevertheless, these results indicate the importance of crack closure in determining the growth of very small cracks in the threshold regime. Behavior of Small Cracks at Notches Preceding sections discussed the microprocesses which give rise to crack initiation and defined the threshold and kinetic characteristics of small cracks. The challenge which remains is to apply this information in such a manner to improve our ability to predict the total fatigue life of structures. The importance of notches in providing a preferred site for initiation of cracks was indicated in previous discussion. Virtually all engineering structures contain notches in one form or another. Moreover, the material at the notch root will nearly always undergo plastic deformation. Thus, improved methods having general utility for predicting fatigue lives JANUARY 1981, Vol. 103/31

Aep=y(Ao)"

(7)

Equation (7) represents the materials' cyclic stress-strain response and thus is a measured property. However, an inconsistency exists in the above approach since the form of equation (6) is based on linear-elastic assumptions while equation (7) is in the realm of cyclic plasticity. Nevertheless, Kitagawa, et al. claim that this approach eliminates the dependence of the cracking kinetics on applied stress level and loading mode (that is, rotating versus in-plane bending). Journal of Engineering Materials and Technology

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should contain both small crack characteristics and plasticity considerations. Both of these aspects are discussed in this section.
0. 9

Notch Root Radius, mm

Nonpropagating Cracks and Related Effects. The fact that cracks can initiate at notches, grow for some distance, and eventually become nonpropagating was first suggested by Phillips, et al. [29]. This interesting aspect of fatigue of notched members was subsequently confirmed by Frost and co-workers who, through extensive metallographic examinations, showed that cracks could remain unchanged for millions of cycles after having initiated and grown as microcracks [30-34], Conditions of notch geometry, nominal stress range and mean stress corresponding to no crack initiation, nonpropagating cracks and complete failure were defined. Figure 12 provides a typical summary of such information in terms of the long life fatigue strength of notched mild steel specimens as a function of the elastic stress concentration factor, K,. The key points illustrated by these data are as follows: 1) the existence of a lower limiting alternating stress, ACT,,,, required for complete specimen failure, which is independent of#,. 2) the existence of a critical value of K, above which nonpropagating cracks can occur. 3) the alternating stress required to predict the initiation of cracking in a notched member is given by Aoe IK,. These facts serve to clarify some long misunderstood behavior in fatigue of notched members. For example, much effort has been expended to experimentally determine values of the fatigue strength reduction factor, Kf, which is defined by smooth bar endurance limit, ACT. Kf = (8) notch bar endurance limit Furthermore, much discussion has centered on the fact that Kf < Kt, this difference becoming larger as K, increases. Many hypotheses have been proposed to rationalize this difference and equations have been developed to predict Kf from K,, most of these relying on an empirically determined size factor which has been thought of as being related to the minimum distance over which a stress gradient can exist in a given material. However, this apparent discrepancy between K, and Kf is clearly understandable in terms of the data of Fig. 12 and the three points cited above [34]. Specifically, this difference is due to the fact that Kf is defined in terms of specimen failure and no account is taken for the fact that non-propagating cracks occur. When fatigue strength of notched members is measured in terms of actual crack initiation, this property becomes predictable from a knowledge of ACT,, and Kt. Thus, the apparent differences between K, and Kf stem from not separately treating crack initiation and crack propagation. Final comments on the reason for the occurrence of nonpropagating cracks are in order. A relatively simple possible explanation is provided by the previously discussed threshold conditions for small cracks. As illustrated in Fig. 3, small cracks are capable of growing below the AKlh value defined by large cracks. Thus, once initiated, a small crack will propagate for some distance until the combination of its size and local stress associated with the notch field causes it to arrest at the long crack AKth value. It follows that the horizontal line of Fig. 12, which corresponds to the lower limiting stress required for complete specimen failure, is defined by ACT,,, as previously given in equation (2) AK
ACT,,

Failure Defined as a Crack Length of 5 mm \ 0. S S 2 0. 7 0. 6 0.5 A No Initiation at 2 x 1 0 Cycles Pre-existing Fatigue Crack.

,^I

0.4
0.3 0.2 0. 1 0* 10 10 J 10 Notch Root Radius, in.

Fig. 13 Effect of notch root radius on the fraction of the total fatigue life spent in initiating a crack (reference [35])

Aae/Kt, the point of divergence of these two curves, that is, the critical K, for the occurrence of non-propagating cracks is given by AoJ(a)yJira (9) Thus, nonpropagating cracks are expected when K,>K,(NVC) (10) Equations (9) and (10) define the notch geometries for which nonpropagating cracks are expected to occur in a given material, that is, for specific properties, Aae and AKlh. These equations are not hampered by non-continuum effects since they are based on equation (2) and the long crack AK,h value. However, equations (9) and (10) will only provide reasonable predictions when the non-propagating crack lies outside of the notch plastic zone since equation (2) implicidly assumes that linear elastic conditions prevail. Incorporating Small Crack Effects in Fatigue Life Predictions. Previous discussions have established that a complete treatment of fatigue must include considerations of both crack initiation and crack propagation. Thus, it is essential to delineate these features in any theoretical or experimental study of fatigue, regardless of whether the primary goal is mechanistic understanding or engineering predictability. This concept is formally expresed by the following simple relation: Nf = Ni+Np where Nf = cycles to failure N; = cycles to initiate a crack Np = cycles to propagate the crack (11)

(2)

/(a)Vira In addition, since the lower curve of Fig. 13 is given by Aalh =

For notched members, the relative contributions of crack initiation and crack propagation to the total fatigue life will depend on the K, or more precisely on the notch root radius, p. The latter is of fundamental importance since it controls the notch stress-strain gradient and thereby the notch plastic zone. The variation of the ratio of initiation life to total life (Nj/Nf) with p is illustrated by the data of Allery and Birkbeck [35] in Fig. 13. For small p values, Nj/Nf is also small indicating that the total fatigue life is dominated by crack propagation. In contrast at large p values, Nj/Nf is large indicating that the total fatigue life is spent in initiating a crack at the notch. In addition, for a given p value, the relative contributions of crack initiation and crack propagation will depend on the applied stress

32/Vol. 103, JANUARY 1981

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AK,
60
CRACK TiP PLASTICITY

MPa yirT
80 100

HoxlO" )
/ N O T C H PLASTICITY BOUNDARY

-(2xl0~5]

-(Ixicr5)

HUH I

TTrTTTTfrrnTiTrnrrrTTiT^^

E E 2x10-

Fig. 14 Growth of a small crack at a notch and associated elastic and plastic stress-strain fields (reference [43])
CENTRAL CRACK I0--(4xl0" 6 ) CIRCULAR HOLE, P/t-0136

rangeinitiation being relatively more important at low stress ranges corresponding to the long life regime. The practical implication of the above two factors is that the relative importance of crack initiation and crack propagation will depend on the geometry of the structure as well as the loading history. This fact needs to be recognized for proper selection of both a design philosophy and a material. The latter is affected by the above concept since good resistance to fatigue crack propagation cannot necessarily be taken to imply good resistance to crack initiation, and vice versa. Although equation (11) is conceptually simple, its application is often difficult primarily because of the following two factors: 1) the breakdown of continuum concepts for small cracks, and 2) the effect of local plasticity on crack growth from the notch. This latter complexity is schematically illustrated in Fig. 14. Here, a crack of length, /, is growing from a notch of depth, D, and roots radius, p. The notch is contained in a large body which nominally behaves elastically when acted upon by an applied stress a. Associated with the notch are two distinct stress-strain fields, the larger is elastic while the smaller is plastic. Again, referring to Fig. 14, the initiation life can be obtained using the local strain approach which is thoroughly described in the literaturefor example, see references [36] and [37]. This method accounts for local plastic deformation at the notch, local means stresses, as well as alterations in material properties due to cyclic loading. Furthermore, its utility has been demonstrated for variable amplitude loading. In the other extreme, when / is large compared to p, crack propagation can be treated in a straightforward manner using fracture mechanicsfor example, see references [38] and [39]. In fact, since linear-elastic stress intensity factor solutions are available for cracks eminating from notches (40), crack propagation can be computed for / values within the elastic notch field. However, it should be noted that the fracture mechanics treatment of crack propagation is not as well established for variable amplitude loading [41] as is the local strain treatment of crack initiation under variable amplitude loading. The remaining crack propagation life, namely, that associated with / values of less than the notch plastic zone and with / values on the order of microstructural features of the material, is exceedingly more difficult to treat. One approach is to avoid the small crack and plasticity problems by operationally defining growth in this regime to be included as part of crack "initiation." Dowling has recently proposed procedures for applying this approach and Journal of Engineering Materials and Technology

CIRCULAR HOLE, p/b'0-227 ELLIPTICAL H0LE,/>U9mm ACT-269 MPa (39KSI1R I S 40.11 STEEL (2xl0- 6 ) 20 40 50

I I
60 70 80 90 100
v

AK, KSI

/iiT

Fig. 15 Fatigue crack growth kinetics of small cracks emanating from various notch geometries (reference [20])

has demonstrated limited success in predicting the fatigue lives of notched members [42]. An alternative approach is to attempt to account for small crack and plasticity problems through appropriate analysis, thereby directly computing the small crack growth contribution. Hammouda and Miller [43] have outlined one such approach but its utility has not been tested. Recently, El Haddad, et al. have demonstrated some success at handling the problems using this general approach [20]. The small crack problem was treated by using the previously discussed l0 correction of equation (4). Notch plasticity was treated using Neuber's rule to estimate the local plastic notch field and an approximate /-integral analysis to define AJ. This analysis was applied to experimental data on two steels for growth of small cracks from notched specimens having various notch root radii and subjected to various applied stress levels. Typical results are shown in Fig. 15 in terms of crack growth rate simply expressed as a function of elastically calculated stress intensity range. Growth rate kinetics for cracks near the notch were faster than those for large through-cracks. The overall trend in the small crack kinetics also appeared to be dependent on the local notch geometry. Subsequent reanalysis of these and other results, in terms of AJ as outlined above, resulted in a reasonable correlation of data from a variety of notch geometries and applied load levels as shown in Fig. 16. The initial success of the above approach warrants its further study and development. The approach is physically appealing since it explicitly handles the two major problems associated with the growth of small cracks from notches, namely the unique behavior of small cracks and local notch plasticity. Summary and Conclusions 1. When analyzed using conventional fracture mechanics techniques, small fatigue cracks behave differently than do large fatigue cracks (for example, see 2. and 3. below). The JANUARY 1981, Vol. 103/33

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yEAJ
50 100

, MPaym
200

The work was supported by the Westinghouse Technical Operations Division - Turbine Development. References
1 Upton, G. B., The Structure and Properties of the More Common Materials of Construction, J. Wiley, N.Y., 1st Ed., 1916, p. 112. 2 Moore, H. F., and Ver, T., "A Study of Slip Lines, Strain Lines, and Cracks in Metals Under Repeated Stress," Bulletin No. 208, Engr. Exp. Station, Univ. of Illinois, June 3, 1930. 3 Hunter, M. S., and Fricke, W. G., Jr., "Metallographic Aspects of Fatigue Behavior of Aluminum," Proc. ASTM, Vol. 54, 1954, pp. 717-736. 4 Hunter, M. S., and Fricke, W. G., Jr., "Effect of Alloy Content on the Metallographic Changes Accompanying Fatigue," Proc. ASTM, Vol. 55,1955, pp.942-953. 5 Hunter, M. S., and Fricke, W. G., Jr., "Fatigue Crack Propagation in Aluminum Alloys," P r o c M S r M , Vol. 56, 1956, pp. 1038-1050. 6 Hunter, M. S., and Fricke, W. G., Jr., "Cracking of Notch Fatigue Specimens," Proc. ASTM, Vol. 57,1957, pp. 643-652. 7 Forsyth, P. J. E., " A Two Stage Process of Fatigue Crack Growth," Proc. of the Crack Propagation Symp., Cranfield, England, Vol. 1, 1961. 8 Forsyth, P. J. E., "Fatigue Damage and Crack Growth in Aluminum Alloys, "Acta Met., Vol. 11, 1963, pp. 703-715. 9 McEvily, A. J., Jr. and Boettner, R. D., "On Fatigue Crack Propagation in FCC Metals," Acta Met., Vol. 11, 1963, pp. 725-743. 10 W. A. Wood, "Recent Observations in Fatigue Failure in Metals," ASTM STP 237, 1958, pp. 110-119. 11 Morris, W. L., Buck, O., and Marcus, H. L., "Fatigue Crack Initiation and Early Propagation in Al 2219-T851," Met. Trans., Vol. 7A, 1976, pp. 1161-1165. 12 Pearson, S., "Initiation of fatigue Cracks in Commercial Aluminum Alloys and the Subsequent Propagation of Very Short Cracks," Engr. Fract. Mech., Vol. 7, 1975, pp. 235-247. 13 Yokobori, T., Sawaki, Y., Shono, S., and Kumagai, A., "Initiation and Propagation of Fatigue Cracks in Unnotched Specimens of High Strength Eutectoid Steel," Reports of the Research Institute for Strength and Fracture of Materials, Tohoku Univ., Vol. 12, No. 2, Dec. 1976, pp. 29-54. 14 Yokobori, T., Kuribayashi, H., Kawagishi, M., and Takeuchi, N., "Studies on the Propagation of Fatigue Crack in Tempered-Martensitic High Strength Steel by Plastic-Replication Method and Scanning Electron Microscope," Rep. Res. Inst. Strength and Fracture of Materials, Tohoku Univ., Vol. 7, 1971, pp. 1-23. 15 Sidney, D., and Coffin, L. F., Jr., "Low-Cycle Fatigue Damage Mechanisms at High Temperature," ASTM STP 675,1979, pp. 528-554. 16 Hudak, S. J., Jr., Saxena, A., Bucci, R. J., and Malcolm, R. C , "Development of Standard Methods of Testing and Analyzing Fatigue Crack Growth Rate Data," Report AFML-TR-78-40, Air Force Materials Laboratory, May 1978. 17 Kitagawa, H., and Takahashi, S., "Applicability of Fracture Mechanics to Very Small Cracks or the Cracks in the Early Stage," Proc. 2nd Intnl. Conf. on Mech. Beh. ofMatls., 1976, pp. 627-631. 18 Kitagawa, H., Takahashi, S., Suh, C. M., and Miyashita, S., "Quantitative Analysis of Fatigue ProcessMicrocracks and Slip Lines Under Cyclic Loading," ASTM STP 675, 1979, pp. 420-449. 19 El Haddad, M. H., Smith, K. N., and Topper, T. H., "Fatigue Crack Propagation of Short Cracks," ASME JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS
AND TECHNOLOGY, Vol. 101, 1979, p. 42.

ELASTIC

LONG

CRACK SCATTERBAND

ELLIPTICAL l I

NOTCH

K )

A C T - 5 5 KSI (379 MPa) A C T - 4 5 KSI (310 MPa) A 0 - - 3 9 KSI ( 2 6 9 MPa) A O - - 3 3 . 5 KSI (231 MPa)

ICT1

ELLIPTICAL NOTCH j j - 4 . 8 m m K( 2 ACT- 3 9 KSI C" 7,9 mm CIRCULAR NOTCH K,-3 ACT. 4 5 KSI * CIRCULAR NOTCH C - 4 . 8 m m . K( - 3 ACT.56 KSI (386 MPa) ACT-39 KSI ( 2 6 9 MPa) ACT-33.5 KSI (231 MPa) S*.0;20

CIRCULAR NOTCH

ACT- 7 0 KSI ( 4 8 3 MPa) ACT. 6 0 KSI (414 MPa) 040.11 STEEL R--I I0"

C = Notch Depth K) 100

y i A J . KSI,/in Fig. 16 Fatigue crack growth kinetics of small cracks emanating from various notch geometries and analyzed using AJ and /0 (reference [20])

primary reason for this difference is the breakdown of underlying continuum mechanics assumptions. 2. Small cracks can grow at crack sizes and applied stress levels which are below those predicted from large crack AKlh data. 3. Small cracks grow at faster rates than those predicted from large crack da/dN- Mf data. 4. The unique behavior of small cracks can be accounted for in analysis by adding a constant length, l0, to the physical crack size. The term /0 is a material property which can be determined from other measurable properties as follows

*-- L [^] i
Although no physical interpretation of l0 currently exists, this approach provides reasonable predictions of small crack threshold and kinetic behavior (namely, 2. and 3., respectively). 5. In order for fatigue life predictions to be of general utility they must separately treat crack initiation and crack growth and include both small crack behavior and plasticity considerationsparticularly at notches where fatigue failures inevitably originate in engineering structures. Acknowledgments I wish to acknowledge the many enlightening discussions, on various subjects contained in this work, with N. E. Dowling of the Westinghouse R&D Center.
34/Vol. 102, JANUARY 1981
K L Aff e J

20 El Haddad, M. H., Dowling, N. E., and Topper, T. H., "J-Integral Applications for Short Fatigue Cracks at Notches," Int. J. of Fracture, Vol. 16, No. l , F e b . 1980, pp. 15-30. 21 Usami, S., Fatigue of Engr. Materials and Structures, Vol. 1, No. 4, 1978, pp. 471-481. 22 Dowling, N. E., "Crack Growth During Low Cycle Fatigue of Smooth Axial Specimens," ASTM STP 637,1978, pp. 97-121. 23 Dowling, N. E., "Geometry Effects and the J-Integral Approach to Elastic-Plastic Fatigue Crack Growth," ASTM STP 601,1976, pp. 19-32. 24 Elber, W., "The Significance of Crack Closure," ASTM STP 486, 1971, p. 230. 25 Schmidt, R. A., and Paris, P. C , "Threshold for Fatigue Crack Propagation and Effects of Load Ratio and Frequency," ASTM STP 536, 1973, p. 79. 26 Kikukawa, M., Jono, M., and Tanaka, K., "Fatigue Crack Closure Behavior of Low Stress Intensity Level," Proc. of 2nd Int. Conf. on Mechanical Behavior of Materials, Boston, 1976. 27 Taira, S., Tanaka, K., and Hoshina, M., "Grain Size Effect on Crack Nucleation and Growth in Long-Life Fatigue of Low-Carbon Steel," ASTM STP 675, 1979, pp. 135-173. 28 Morris, W. L., and Buck, O., "Environmental Effects on Fatigue Crack Initiation," Rockwell International Science Center Report SC5050.1FR, Thousand Oaks, Calif., Feb. 1979. 29 Fenner, A. J., Owen, N. B., and Phillips, C. E., "The Fatigue Crack as a Stress-Raiser," Engineering, Vol. 171, 1951, pp. 637-638. 30 Frost, N. E., "Crack Formation and Stress Concentration Effects in Direct Stress FatigueNo. 1 , " The Engineer, Vol. 200, 1955, pp. 464-467, pp. 501-503.

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31 Frost, N. E., and Dugdale, D. S., "Fatigue Tests on Notched Mild Steei Plates With Measurement of Fatigue Cracks," J. Mech. and Phys. of Solids Vol. 5, 1957, pp. 182-192. 32 Frost, N. E., "A Relation Between the Critical Alternating Propagation Stress and Crack Length for Mild Steels," Proc. Instn. Mech. Engrs., Vol 173 No. 35, 1959, pp. 811-827. 33 Frost, N. E., "Notch Effects and the Critical Alternating Stress Required to Propagate a Crack in an Alumiunum Alloy Subjected to Fatigue Loading," J. Mech. Engr. Sci., Vol. 2, No. 2, 1960, pp. 109-119. 34 Frost, N. E., Marsh, K. J., and Pook, L. P., Metal Fatigue, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1974, pp. 166-173. 35 Allery, M. B. P., and Birkbeck, G., "Effect of Notch Root Radius on the Initiation and Propagation of Fatigue Cracks," Engr. Fract. Mech., Vol 4 1972, pp. 325-331. 36 Morrow, J., "Cyclic Plastic Strain Energy and Fatigue of Metals," ASTM STP 378, 1965, pp. 45-87.

37 Landgraf, R. W., and LaPointe, R. N., "Cyclic Stress-Strain Concepts Applied to Component Fatigue Life Predictions," SAE Paper No. 740280, Automotive Engineering Congress, Detroit, 1974. 38 Clark, W. G., Jr., "Fracture Mechanics in Fatigue," Experimental Mechanics, 1974, pp. 1-8. 39 Hoeppner, D. W., and Krupp, W. E., "Prediction of Component Life by Application of Fatigue Crack Growth Knowledge," Engr. Fract. Mech., Vol. 6, 1974, pp.47-70. 40 Newman, J. C , Jr., "An Improved Method of Collocation for the Stress Analysis of Cracked Plates with Various Shaped Boundaries," NASA TN D6376,1971. 41 Fatigue Crack Growth Under Spectrum Loads, ASTM STP 595, 1976. 42 Dowling, N. E., "Fatigue at Notches and the Local Strain and Fracture Mechanics Approaches," ASTM STP 677, 1979, pp. 247-273. 43 Hammouda, M. M., and Miller, K. J., "Elastic-Plastic Fracture Mechanics Analysis of Notches," ASTM STP 668, 1979, pp. 703-719.

1979 JEMT Best Paper Award to A. D. Wilson

This simply titled "Best Paper Award" was inaugurated by the Materials Division Executive Committee in the second year of publication of this section of ASME Transactions, the JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND TECHNOLOGY. In honoring the authors

deemed to have contributed the most prestigious paper of a given volume or calendar year, it was hoped that the fact of the award would attract the best possible papers to this Journal. That this objective has been attained is obvious from the list of previous recipients. 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 - K. D. Ives, A. K. Shoemaker, and F. R. McCartney, US Steel Laboratories. - K. Masubuchi, T. Muraki, and J. J. Bryan, MIT - R. Kumi, H. Okabayashi, and M. Amano, Ishikawajima-Harimi Ltd., Yokahama - R. O. Ritchie, MIT (work at U. Cal., Berkeley and Univ. of Cambridge, UK) - C. F. Shih and D. Lee, General Electric Corporate Research and Development

This year the 1979 Best Paper Award goes to A. D. Wilson, Senior Research Engineer, Lukens Steel Company. His paper entitled "The Influence of Inclusions on the Toughness and Fatigue Properties of A516-70 Steel" appears in the July 1979 issue of JEMT. Presentation of the Award Certificate was made at the Annual Materials Division Dinner held during the ASME 1980 Winter Annual Meeting in Chicago, November 16-21. Two other authors whose papers were selected by the Associate Editors of JEMT as deserving commendation are: W. H. Bamford, Westinghouse Nuclear Energy Systems "Application of Corrosion Fatigue Crack Growth Rate Data to Integrity Analyses of Nuclear Reactor Vessels"; and M. S. Weschler, Iowa State University, "The Influence of Impurity-Defect Interactions on Radiation Hardening and Embrittlement.'' The Editors of JEMT are proud to announce this award and prouder still to remind our authors and readers that again, as in previous years, the high caliber of the publication made selection difficult.

Journal of Engineering Materials and Technology

JANUARY 1981, Vol. 103/35

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