A case study on the different types of Flexible Pavement Distress in NH-52A

A Project Report Submitted in Partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of Diploma in Civil Engineering

Submitted by:1. Amarjit Abujam 2. Laishram Herojit Singh 3. Thangmuansang Guite

DIP/09/CE/12 DIP/09/CE/15 DIP/09/CE/16

Under the guidance ofMr. N. G. Sorum Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department January- May, 2011 Department of Civil Engineering

North Eastern Regional Institute of Science and Technology

Deemed University, Nirjuli, Itanagar : Arunachal Pradesh 791 109

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL Road maintenance is one of the important components of the entire road system. Even if the highways are well designed and constructed, they may require maintenance; the extent of which will depend on several factors including the pavement type. A flexible pavement failure is defined by formation of pot holes, ruts, cracks, localized depressions, settlements, etc. The localized depression normally is followed with heaving in the vicinity. The sequence develops a wavy pavement surface. The failure of any one or more components of the pavement structure develops the waves and corrugations on the pavement surface or longitudinal ruts and shoving. Pavement unevenness may itself be considered, as a failure, when it is excessive. The subject of pavement failure distress and failure is considered complex as several factors contribute to the pavement deterioration and failure. The aging and oxidation of bituminous films lead to the deterioration of bituminous pavement. Detrimental actions in pavement are rapidly increased when excess water is retained in the void spaces of the bituminous pavements.

1.2 FAILURES IN FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT As stated above, the localized settlement of any one component layer of the flexible pavement structure could be enough to cause pavement failure. This demands that each one of the layers should be carefully designed and laid. Thus to maintain the stability of the pavement structure as a whole, each layer should be stable within itself and thereby making the total pavement maintain its stability. 1.2.1 Types of failure

One of the major challenges facing pavement engineers is how to select the optimal repair strategy for a flexible pavement that is aging and exhibiting distress. This selection process can be relatively straightforward if the cause of the pavement distress is known. Unfortunately, nding the cause of the distress is often complex. The different types of flexible pavement failure, as far as it is known to us, are classified as below:1. Fatigue (alligator) cracking 3. Block cracking 5. Depression 7. Longitudinal cracking 9. Polished aggregate 11. Raveling 13. Slippage cracking 15. Transverse (thermal) cracking 2. Bleeding 4. Corrugation and shoving 6. Joint reflection cracking 8. Patching 10. Potholes 12. Rutting 14. Stripping 16.Water bleeding and pumping

1. Fatigue (Alligator) Cracking: Description: Series of interconnected cracks caused by fatigue failure of the HMA surface (or stabilized base) under repeated traffic loading. In thin pavements, cracking initiates at the bottom of the HMA layer where the tensile stress is the highest then propagates to the surface as one or more longitudinal cracks. This is commonly referred to as "bottomup" or "classical" fatigue cracking. In thick pavements, the cracks most likely initiate from the top in areas of high localized tensile stresses resulting from tire-pavement interaction and asphalt binder aging (top-down cracking). After repeated loading, the longitudinal cracks connect forming many-sided sharp-angled pieces that develop into a pattern resembling the back of an alligator or crocodile. Problem: Indicator of structural failure, cracks allow moisture infiltration, roughness, may further deteriorate to a pothole. Possible Causes: Inadequate structural support, which can be caused by a myriad of things. A few of the more common ones are listed here:

Decrease in pavement load supporting characteristics

Loss of base, sub-base or subgrade support (e.g., poor drainage or spring thaw resulting in a less stiff base). Stripping on the bottom of the HMA layer (the stripped portion contributes little to pavement strength so the effective HMA thickness decreases)

Increase in loading (e.g., more or heavier loads than anticipated in design) Inadequate structural design Poor construction (e.g., inadequate compaction)

Repair: A fatigue cracked pavement should be investigated to determine the root cause of failure. Any investigation should involve digging a pit or coring the pavement to determine the pavement's structural makeup as well as determining whether or not subsurface moisture is a contributing factor. Once the characteristic alligator pattern is apparent, repair by crack sealing is generally ineffective. Fatigue crack repair generally falls into one of two categories:

Small, localized fatigue cracking indicative of a loss of subgrade support . Remove the cracked pavement area then dig out and replace the area of poor subgrade and improve the drainage of that area if necessary. Patch over the repaired subgrade.

Large fatigue cracked areas indicative of general structural failure . Place an HMA overlay over the entire pavement surface. This overlay must be strong enough structurally to carry the anticipated loading because the underlying fatigue cracked pavement most likely contributes little or no strength.

2. Bleeding: Description: A film of asphalt binder on the pavement surface. It usually creates a shiny, glass-like reflecting surface (as in the third photo) that can become quite sticky. Problem: Loss of skid resistance when wet. Possible Causes: Bleeding occurs when asphalt binder fills the aggregate voids during hot weather and then expands onto the pavement surface. Since bleeding is not reversible during cold weather, asphalt binder will accumulate on the pavement surface over time. This can be caused by one or a combination of the following:

Excessive asphalt binder in the HMA (either due to mix design or manufacturing) Excessive application of asphalt binder during BST application (as in the above figures) 4

Low HMA air void content (e.g., not enough room for the asphalt to expand into during hot weather)

Repair: The following repair measures may eliminate or reduce the asphalt binder film on the pavement's surface but may not correct the underlying problem that caused the bleeding:

Minor bleeding can often be corrected by applying coarse sand to blot up the excess asphalt binder. Major bleeding can be corrected by cutting off excess asphalt with a motor grader or removing it with a heater planer. If the resulting surface is excessively rough, resurfacing may be necessary (APAI, no date given).

3.

Block Cracking:

Description: Interconnected cracks that divide the pavement up into rectangular pieces. Blocks range in size from approximately 0.1 m2 to 9 m2. Larger blocks are generally classified as longitudinal and transverse cracking. Block cracking normally occurs over a large portion of pavement area but sometimes will occur only in non-traffic areas. Problem: Allows moisture infiltration, roughness. Possible Causes: HMA shrinkage and daily temperature cycling. Typically caused by an inability of asphalt binder to expand and contract with temperature cycles because of:

Asphalt binder aging Poor choice of asphalt binder in the mix design Low severity cracks (< 1/2 inch wide). Crack seal to prevent (1) entry of moisture into the subgrade through the cracks and (2) further raveling of the crack edges. HMA can provide years of satisfactory service after developing small cracks if they are kept sealed (Roberts et. al., 1996).

Repair: Strategies depend upon the severity and extent of the block cracking:

High severity cracks (> 1/2 inch wide and cracks with raveled edges) . Remove and replace the cracked pavement layer with an overlay.

4.

Corrugation and Shoving:

Description: A form of plastic movement typified by ripples (corrugation) or an abrupt wave (shoving) across the pavement surface. The distortion is perpendicular to the traffic

direction. Usually occurs at points where traffic starts and stops (corrugation) or areas where HMA abuts a rigid object (shoving). Problem: Roughness Possible Causes: Usually caused by traffic action (starting and stopping) combined with:

An unstable (i.e. low stiffness) HMA layer (caused by mix contamination, poor mix design, poor HMA manufacturing, or lack of aeration of liquid asphalt emulsions)

Excessive moisture in the subgrade

Repair: A heavily corrugated or shoved pavement should be investigated to determine the root cause of failure. Repair strategies generally fall into one of two categories:

Small, localized areas of corrugation or shoving . Remove the distorted pavement and patch. Large corrugated or shoved areas indicative of general HMA failure . Remove the damaged pavement and overlay.

5. Depression: Description: Localized pavement surface areas with slightly lower elevations than the surrounding pavement. Depressions are very noticeable after a rain when they fill with water. Problem: Roughness, depressions filled with substantial water can cause vehicle hydroplaning. Possible Causes: Frost heave or subgrade settlement resulting from inadequate compaction during construction. Repair: By definition, depressions are small localized areas. A pavement depression should be investigated to determine the root cause of failure (i.e., subgrade settlement or frost heave). Depressions should be repaired by removing the affected pavement then digging out and replacing the area of poor subgrade. Patch over the repaired subgrade. 6. Joint Reflection Cracking: Description: Cracks in a flexible overlay of a rigid pavement. The cracks occur directly over the underlying rigid pavement joints. Joint reflection cracking does not include reflection cracks that occur away from an underlying joint or from any other type of base (e.g., cement or lime stabilized). 6

Problem: Allows moisture infiltration, roughness Possible Causes: Movement of the PCC slab beneath the HMA surface because of thermal and moisture changes. Generally not load initiated, however loading can hasten deterioration. Repair: Strategies depend upon the severity and extent of the cracking:

Low severity cracks (< 1/2 inch wide and infrequent cracks). Crack seal to prevent (1) entry of moisture into the subgrade through the cracks and (2) further raveling of the crack edges. In general, rigid pavement joints will eventually reflect through an HMA overlay without proper surface preparation.

High severity cracks (> 1/2 inch wide and numerous cracks) . Remove and replace the cracked pavement layer with an overlay.

7. Longitudinal Cracking: Description: Cracks parallel to the pavement's centerline or laydown direction. Usually a type of fatigue cracking. Problem: Allows moisture infiltration, roughness, indicates possible onset of alligator cracking and structural failure. Possible Causes:

Poor joint construction or location. Joints are generally the least dense areas of a pavement. Therefore, they should be constructed outside of the wheelpath so that they are only infrequently loaded. Joints in the wheelpath like those shown in third through fifth figures above, will general fail prematurely.

A reflective crack from an underlying layer (not including joint reflection cracking) HMA fatigue (indicates the onset of future alligator cracking) top-down cracking Low severity cracks (< 1/2 inch wide and infrequent cracks). Crack seal to prevent (1) entry of moisture into the subgrade through the cracks and (2) further raveling of the crack edges. HMA can provide years of satisfactory service after developing small cracks if they are kept sealed (Roberts et. al., 1996). 7

Repair: Strategies depend upon the severity and extent of the cracking:

High severity cracks (> 1/2 inch wide and numerous cracks) . Remove and replace the cracked pavement layer with an overlay.

8. Patching: Description: An area of pavement that has been replaced with new material to repair the existing pavement. A patch is considered a defect no matter how well it performs. Problem: Roughness Possible Causes:

Previous localized pavement deterioration that has been removed and patched Utility cuts

Repair: Patches are themselves a repair action. The only way they can be removed from a pavement's surface is by either a structural or non-structural overlay. 9. Polished Aggregate: Description: Areas of HMA pavement where the portion of aggregate extending above the asphalt binder is either very small or there are no rough or angular aggregate particles. Problem: Decreased skid resistance. Possible Causes: Repeated traffic applications. Generally, as a pavement ages the protruding rough, angular particles become polished. This can occur quicker if the aggregate is susceptible to abrasion or subject to excessive studded tire wear. Repair: Apply a skid-resistant slurry seal or BST or overlay. 10. Potholes: Description: Small, bowl-shaped depressions in the pavement surface that penetrate all the way through the HMA layer down to the base course. They generally have sharp edges and vertical sides near the top of the hole. Potholes are most likely to occur on roads with thin HMA surfaces (25 to 50 mm (1 to 2 inches)) and seldom occur on roads with 100 mm (4 inch) or deeper HMA surfaces (Roberts et al., 1996). Problem: Roughness (serious vehicular damage can result from driving across potholes at higher speeds), moisture infiltration

Possible Causes: Generally, potholes are the end result of alligator cracking. As alligator cracking becomes severe, the interconnected cracks create small chunks of pavement, which can be dislodged as vehicles drive over them. The remaining hole after the pavement chunk is dislodged is called a pothole. Repair: In accordance with patching techniques. 11. Raveling: Description: The progressive disintegration of an HMA layer from the surface downward as a result of the dislodgement of aggregate particles. Problem: Loose debris on the pavement, roughness, water collecting in the raveled locations resulting in vehicle hydroplaning, loss of skid resistance. Possible Causes: Several including:

Loss of bond between aggregate particles and the asphalt binder as a result of:
o

A dust coating on the aggregate particles that forces the asphalt binder to bond with the dust rather than the aggregate Aggregate Segregation. If fine particles are missing from the aggregate matrix, then the asphalt binder is only able to bind the remaining coarse particles at their relatively few contact points. Inadequate compaction during construction. High density is required to develop sufficient cohesion within the HMA. The third figure above shows a road suffering from raveling due to inadequate compaction caused by cold weather paving.

Mechanical dislodging by certain types of traffic (studded tires, snowplow blades or tracked vehicles). The first and fourth figures above show raveling most likely caused by snow plows.

Repair: A raveled pavement should be investigated to determine the root cause of failure. Repair strategies generally fall into one of two categories:

Small, localized areas of raveling. Remove the raveled pavement and patch. Large raveled areas indicative of general HMA failure. Remove the damaged pavement and overlay. 9

12. Rutting: Description: Surface depression in the wheel path. Pavement uplift (shearing) may occur along the sides of the rut. Ruts are particularly evident after a rain when they are filled with water. There are two basic types of rutting: mix rutting and subgrade rutting. Mix rutting occurs when the subgrade does not rut yet the pavement surface exhibits wheel path depressions as a result of compaction/mix design problems. Subgrade rutting occurs when the subgrade exhibits wheelpath depressions due to loading. In this case, the pavement settles into the subgrade ruts causing surface depressions in the wheel path. Problem: Ruts filled with water can cause vehicle hydroplaning, can be hazardous because ruts tend to pull a vehicle towards the rut path as it is steered across the rut. Possible Causes: Permanent deformation in any of a pavement's layers or subgrade usually caused by consolidation or lateral movement of the materials due to traffic loading. Specific causes of rutting can be:

Insufficient compaction of HMA layers during construction. If it is not compacted enough initially, HMA pavement may continue to densify under traffic loads. Subgrade rutting (e.g., as a result of inadequate pavement structure) Improper mix design or manufacture (e.g., excessively high asphalt content, excessive mineral filler, insufficient amount of angular aggregate particles)

Ruts caused by studded tire wear present the same problem as the ruts described here, but they are actually a result of mechanical dislodging due to wear and not pavement deformation. Repair: A heavily rutted pavement should be investigated to determine the root cause of failure (e.g. insufficient compaction, subgrade rutting, poor mix design or studded tire wear). Slight ruts (< 1/3 inch deep) can generally be left untreated. Pavement with deeper ruts should be leveled and overlaid. 13. Slippage cracking: Description: Crescent or half-moon shaped cracks generally having two ends pointed into the direction of traffic. Problem: Allows moisture infiltration, roughness

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Possible Causes: Braking or turning wheels cause the pavement surface to slide and deform. The resulting sliding and deformation is caused by a low-strength surface mix or poor bonding between the surface HMA layer and the next underlying layer in the pavement structure. Repair: Removal and replacement of affected area. 14. Stripping: Description: The loss of bond between aggregates and asphalt binder that typically begins at the bottom of the HMA layer and progresses upward. When stripping begins at the surface and progresses downward it is usually called raveling. The third photo shows the surface effects of underlying stripping. Problem: Decreased structural support, rutting, shoving/corrugations, raveling, or cracking (alligator and longitudinal) Possible Causes: Bottom-up stripping is very difficult to recognize because it manifests itself on the pavement surface as other forms of distress including rutting, shoving/corrugations, raveling, or cracking. Typically, a core must be taken to positively identify stripping as a pavement distress.

Poor aggregate surface chemistry Water in the HMA causing moisture damage Overlays over an existing open-graded surface course. Based on WSDOT experience, these overlays will tend to strip.

Repair: A stripped pavement should be investigated to determine the root cause of failure (i.e., how did the moisture get in?). Generally, the stripped pavement needs to be removed and replaced after correction of any subsurface drainage issues. 15. Transverse (thermal) cracking: Description: Cracks perpendicular to the pavement's centerline or lay down direction is usually a type of thermal cracking. Problem: Allows moisture infiltration, roughness Possible Causes: Several including:

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Shrinkage of the HMA surface due to low temperatures or asphalt binder hardening Reflective crack caused by cracks beneath the surface HMA layer top-down cracking Low severity cracks (< 1/2 inch wide and infrequent cracks). Crack seal to prevent (1) entry of moisture into the subgrade through the cracks and (2) further raveling of the crack edges. HMA can provide years of satisfactory service after developing small cracks if they are kept sealed (Roberts et. al., 1996).

Repair: Strategies depend upon the severity and extent of the cracking:

High severity cracks (> 1/2 inch wide and numerous cracks) . Remove and replace the cracked pavement layer with an overlay.

16. Water Bleeding and Pumping: Description: Water bleeding (left two photos) occurs when water seeps out of joints or cracks or through an excessively porous HMA layer. Pumping (right-most photo) occurs when water and fine material is ejected from underlying layers through cracks in the HMA layer under moving loads. Problem: Decreased skid resistance, an indication of high pavement porosity (water bleeding), decreased structural support (pumping) Possible Causes: Several including:

Porous pavement as a result of inadequate compaction during construction or poor mix design High water table Poor drainage

Repair: Water bleeding or pumping should be investigated to determine the root cause. If the problem is a high water table or poor drainage, subgrade drainage should be improved. If the problem is a porous mix (in the case of water bleeding) a fog seal or slurry seal may be applied to limit water infiltration. 1.3 LITERATURE REVIEW Pavement deterioration models relate indicators of pavement condition to explanatory variables such as traffic loads, age, and environmental factors. The most common indicators 12

of pavement condition are surface distresses such as cracking, rutting, potholes, etc. The surface distresses are caused by load, moisture, temperature, construction defects or a combination of the above. The literature review for this research is divided into three sections: 1) Field observations of longitudinal cracks, 2) Experimental results for tire/pavement interfacial stresses, and 3) tire/pavement interaction models. The first section contains observations from experimental work performed in the area of longitudinal cracks. The second section presents experimental work done to determine tire/pavement interfacial stresses. Finally, the third section addresses analytic and numerical models used to describe tire/pavement interaction and the determination of stresses or strains in the pavement. 1.3.1 Field observations of longitudinal cracks Gerritsen et al. (5) conducted a field study in the Netherlands on the occurrence of surface cracking in asphalt pavements, and on the potential causes of surface cracking. Static indirect tensile tests were performed on core samples collected; they showed that the asphalt concrete outside of the wheel paths tended to have low strength characteristics at low temperatures. Dauzats and Rampal (6) surveyed several pavement sections located in the south of France. In this area, pavements are subjected to extreme thermal stresses. Longitudinal surface cracks in these sections were observed 3 to 5 years after construction of the road containing a slow lane and a fast lane. The longitudinal cracks were located on the centerline side of the slow lane. It also observed that the appearance of cracks fluctuated with the seasons. Matsuno and Nishizawa (7) examined longitudinal surface cracking in asphalt pavements in Japan. Their study hypothesized that longitudinal surface cracks are induced by transverse tensile strains in the pavement close to the tire edges at high temperatures. Visual observations indicated that the cracking appeared 1 to 5 years after the roads construction. The cracks typically occurred in the passing lane. It was also observed that the cracks were within or very close to the wheel paths. In addition, cracks did not appear in shadowed areas

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such as near an overpass bridge. Matsuno and Nishizawa (7) concluded from the visual survey that cracks had a higher rate of occurrence in higher temperatures. Myers et al. (8) examined eight pavement sections in Florida having different levels of surface-initiated longitudinal cracking. The pavements ranged from 5 to 10 years in age. The thickness of the asphalt concrete layer ranged from 50 mm to 200 mm (2 in. 7.9 in.). Longitudinal cracking was visible on one or both sides of both wheel paths. Crack widths at the surface were approximately 3 mm to 4 mm (0.12 in. 0.16 in. ), and the cracks appeared to close with depth. The opening of the cracks also suggested that the primary mode was tensile cracking. Crack depths varied from about 25 mm (0.98 in.) to the whole thickness of the asphalt concrete layer. Cracking was observed in sections with no surface rutting and in sections where some rutting was present. Bensalem et al. (9) performed field observations to study surface cracking in flexible pavements in the United Kingdom. A study of numerous cores revealed that surface cracks were present in pavements at least 160 mm (6.3 in.) thick. Overall, it concluded that bottomup cracking was rarely the main failure mechanism. Instead, surface cracking was the main failure mechanism. 1.3.2 Experimental results for tire/pavement interfacial stresses Markwick and Starks (10) measured the contact stresses between light-weight truck tires and pavement. The inflation pressure was 0.28 - 0.35 MPa (40 to 50 psi). The authors concluded that the local contact normal stresses induced by a pneumatic tire were approximately 1.5 times higher than the inflation pressure. The normal stresses appear to be independent of truck speed. Shear stresses were directed inwards. Under a solid tire, the shear stresses were directed outwards. Seitz and Hussmann (11) performed experimental studies on a radial-ply passenger car tire without profile. The authors observed inward shear stresses along the contact. The authors concluded that these stresses are due to sidewall bending (pneumatic effect), and that the compression of tread rubber (Poisson's effect) only reduces the magnitude of contact shear stresses due to bending but not their direction.

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Lippmann (12) measured the distribution of stresses between the tread of the passenger radial-ply tire and pavement. The author noticed that bulging of the tire results in inward shear stresses at the edge of the tire. Sebaaly and Tabatabaee (13) tested radial-ply, bias-ply and wide-base radial-ply single tires using different levels of inflation pressures from 0.52 to 0.76 MPa (75 to 110 psi). Only one value of contact pressure was recorded for each tread. The authors reported that the contact pressure distributions were non-uniform, with maximum contact pressures of 1.75 times the inflation pressures. The maximum contact pressures were obtained along the center tread for all three tires, and the minimum contact pressures were obtained along the outer tread. Huhtala et al. (14) measured contact pressure for two twin tires, and three twin tires. Tire pressure was varied from 0.48 to 1.08 MPa (70 to 157 psi). For passenger car tires, the contact pressures reached maximum at the edge. On the other hand, for truck tires, the contact pressures attained a maximum at the tires center. 1.3.3 Tire/pavement interaction models Gerritsen et al. (5) performed linear-elastic multi-layer analysis using the CIRCLY computer program. A vertical uniform contact pressure of 0.7 MPa (102 psi) and radial inward shear stresses of 0.35 MPa (51 psi) were considered to represent the stresses of the dual tire contact with a pavement structure. The asphalt concrete layer thickness ranged from 155 mm to 170 mm (6.1 in. to 6.7 in.). The base layer thickness ranged from 80 mm to 500 mm (3.1 in. to 19.7 in.), and the sub-grade layer thickness varied from zero to 1000 mm (39.4 in.). The authors found from the analysis that radial inward contact shear (tractions) stresses were capable of initiating surface cracks. The authors concluded that traffic loads initiate the cracks and the environmental conditions propagate the crack. Matsuno and Nishizawa (7) performed axisymmetric elastic finite element analysis with uniform normal contact stress representing the entire tire contact pressure. The radius of the load was 150 mm and two pavement structures were considered in the analysis. The first had an asphalt thickness of 200 mm and a cement-stabilized base thickness of 250 mm. In the second, the asphalt thickness was 100 mm and the base thickness was 350mm. The modulus of asphalt concrete varied from 100 MPa (14504 psi) to 2000 MPa (290,076 psi). The modulus of base layer varies from 700 MPa (101,526 psi) to 2000 MPa (290,076 psi). The 15

Poisson's ratio of 0.35 was kept constant. From the analysis, the authors concluded that the strains under the tire are mainly compressive in the vertical direction, and high lateral tensile strains at the tire edge were sufficient to cause cracking. Perdomo and Nokes (15) used the computer program CIRCLY to examine the response of a flexible pavement system due to different loading. Two types of loading were considered: non-uniform normal tractions only and non-uniform normal tractions accompanied by nonuniform inward shear tractions. In both cases the load was applied to a contact area representing the entire tire contact area. The authors concluded that when inward shear tractions were considered in the analysis, the maximum tensile strains occur on the surface of the pavement at the edges of the tires. Jacobs (16) analyzed the stresses in a pavement structure consisting of three layers, with constant thickness for each layer, one Poisson's ratio for all layers, the same elastic modulus for base and subgrade layers, and three different elastic moduli for the AC layer. In the analysis the computer program BISAR was used. The stresses applied, both normal and tangential, were obtained from experiments on a bias-ply truck tire. The experimentally measured stress distributions were subdivided into a finite number of circular cells, each carrying uniform stresses. The author concluded that the normal stresses at the bottom of the asphalt concrete layer were not affected by the tangential stress on the surface. The tensile stresses at the edge of the loaded area can be much higher than the tensile stresses at the bottom of the asphalt concrete layer. These tensile stresses can cause longitudinal surface cracking. Collop and Cebon (17) examined the potential of longitudinal surface fatigue cracking in asphalt pavements using different analytic and numerical solutions. From 2D plane strain elastic half-space solution, the author concluded that there is singularity in surface stresses at both ends of the contact if a discontinuity in shear tractions is assumed. A triangular shear tractions distribution does not produce singularities at the loaded edge. In the FE model, uniform normal contact pressure acting over a circular contact area, and an inward shear contact traction varying linearly from zero at the center of the tire towards a maximum value at the tire edge were considered. From the analysis, the authors concluded that shear tractions between the tire and the pavement induce high local tension around the edge of the contact patch, which may lead to surface longitudinal cracks that propagate by thermal fatigue. 16

1.4 STUDY OBJECTIVES There are different forms of distresses in asphalt pavements, each tied to a specific reason (such as poor mix design, construction, or environmental conditions) or a combination thereof, and most happening as a result of traffic. A brand new pavement at the start of its design life is expected to be one without any distress or undesirable features. The more the distress, the shorter the pavements life- and at some point, the distresses are so great in intensity (for example, 75% of the wheel path area in project area has cracks) that the pavement is considered to be failed or at the end of its design life. Here in our study, we study the types of pavement distress found in NH-52A, studying the causes of these distresses, and at meantime suggesting remedies and solutions for these distresses. Marshall Stability test specimens are made with four samples consisting of bitumen of 5%, 6%, 7% and 8%. Hence, the purpose of this investigation is to determine the cause of the observed inconsistencies in pavement surface elevations at the distressed location. 1.5 SCOPE Site observations of flexible pavements distress in various countries indicate frequent occurrence of longitudinal (top-down) cracking from the top surface layer. However, due to the complexity of tire/pavement interaction resulting from tire geometry and loading conditions, the accurate and fully representative distribution of surface stresses remains partly unknown. Recent trends emphasize incorporating mechanistic/empirical methods into the design of flexible pavements. The study of flexible pavement is advantageous for the engineer as follows:1. It gives us the most accurate reason for the pavement distress/failure which makes the repairing work easy. 2. The knowledge about pavement distress enables us able to make more efficient and high performance pavement.

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3. Hence, high performance pavement ensures efficient traffic flow and safety to the passengers. 4. Moreover, the study of pavement distress in an area helps in the improvement in design of the pavement, which may be so more effective in the area.

CHAPTER 2 FIELD AND LABORATORY INVESTIGATIONS AND RESULTS

2.1 INVESTIGATIONS AND OBSERVATIONS ON THE FIELD SURVEY OF NH52A National Highway 52A (NH-52A) starts from Banderdewa, Arunachal Pradesh and ends at Gohpur, Assam. The highway is 57 km long, of which 15 km is in Assam and 42 km in Arunachal Pradesh. On October 17 2007, Wednesday, the union ministry of road transport and highways has transferred the Hollongi to Banderdewa portion of NH-52A from the Border Roads Organization (BRO) to Arunachal Pradesh Public Works Department (PWD). It is under the Arunachal PWD till present. But due to the lack of the maintenance of the PWD the condition of the road is degrading. The distresses of the pavement are extending their permissible limits. We did a pictorial investigation from Nirjuli to Itanagar. We also measure of the length and depth of the distresses found. The road condition from Nirjuli to Naharlagun, as during our investigation, needs urgent repair and maintenance. The distresses found on this highway were all above the maximum permissible limits. The maximum depth we found in the pothole was 190mm and the minimum was 17 mm. But the most common distress found was fatigue or alligator cracking. The chart given below shows details of some of the seriously defected distresses found. TABLE 2.1 DETAILS OF SOME COMMON DISTRESSES FOUND IN NH-52A Sl.no 1 2 3 4 Place Bage Tinali Bage Tinali Bage Tinali Tee-Junction Bage Tinali near Jully furniture Types Pothole Pothole Pothole Pothole Length(mm) 2000 1330 3900 3002 Depth(mm) 130 127 117 119

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Turning at Bage Tinali near Maruti workshop

Pothole

2503

112

6 7 8 9 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

Techno Service near SAIL warehouse Near Techno Service 35 metres from Techno Lekhi Village near LN Car Wash Centre Govt. Middle School Tarh Driving School Near way to Yupia Near way to Yupia NIT junction, Yupia PWD office, Papu Nalah S-curve near Sango Restaurant S curve near car wash Raj Bhawan, Itanagar Best Baker, Itanagar

Pothole Longitudinal cracking Pothole Pothole Pavement failure Longitudinal Failure Alligator Cracks Pothole Pothole Pothole Pothole Pothole Pavement failure Pothole filled with roadside water

2600 12850 1126 2348 45300 7000 across the road 2351 Longitudinal 1452 Across 7100 wide road 2341 14280

129

70 190

210 290 124 136 300

The following pages show some of the pictures of the field investigations done in NH52A:-

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2.1.1 Alligator cracks in Nirjuli

2.1.2 Measuring the distresses

2.1.3 Pot holes and longitudinal cracks 2.1.4 Pothole near Police Station (190 mm deep) 2.1.5 Total failure of pavement in Nirjuli 2.1.6 Measuring pothole near Bage Tinali(3m long)

2.1.7

End

result

of

pot

holes

2.1.8 Deep pot hole consuming almost half of wheel radius (175mm deep)

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2.1.9 Longitudinal cracks(145mm deep)

2.1.10 Ravelling of aggregates

2.1.11 Taking measurement for the depth

2.1.12 Vehicle avoiding pot holes

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2.1.13 Stripping of road side- Yupia 2.1.15 Alligator cracks near Yupia

2.1.14 Stripping, causing failure 2.1.16 Alligator crack

2.1.17 Pot holes filled with water near Naharlagun 2.18 Pieces of cracked-out surface layer

2.1.19 Total failure-ravelling near NERIST auditorium

2.1.20 Ravelling

2.1.21Poor drainage leading to soil base failure of edge 2.22 Marking edge cracking- Yupia 2.23 Various pot holes on way to Itanagar 2.24 Mud on road side- Yupia. Not recommended as it reduces skid resistance of vehicles causing slipping.

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2.1.25 Total edge failure- a long ravelling can Cause accidents in case a vehicle take over from Extreme corner(S-curve on way to Itanagar)

2.1.26 Big pot hole filled with drainage water and raveled aggregates (Naharlagun)

2.2 EVALUATION OF BITUMINOUS MIX The mix design should aim at an economical blend, with proper gradation of aggregates and adequate proportion of bitumen so as to fulfill the desired properties of the mix. The desirable properties of a bituminous mix are stability, durability, flexibility, skid resistance and workability. For the rational design of a bituminous mix, the following steps are involved:1. Selection of aggregate 2. Selection of aggregate Grading 3. Determination of specific Gravity 4. Proportioning of aggregates 5. Preparation of specimen 6. Determination of specific gravity of compacted specimen 7. Stability tests on compacted specimens 8. Selection of optimum binder content 23

The properties of a bituminous mix including the density and stability are very much dependent on the aggregates and their grain size distribution. In base course maximum aggregate size of 2.5 to 5 cm are used whereas for surface course 1.25 to 1.87 cm size are used in the mixes. The gradation for 40mm thick bituminous concrete surface course specified by IRC is given below. TABLE 2.2 SPECIFIED GRADATIONS OF AGGREGATES FOR BITUMINOUS CONCRETE SURFACE COURSE Sieve Size (mm) 20.00 12.50 10.00 4.75 2.36 600 300 150 75 Binder content(percent by weight of mix) Percent Passing (by weight) Grade I Grade II 100 80 100 55 75 35 50 18 23 13 23 8 16 4 10 5 7.5 100 80 100 70 90 50 70 35 50 18 29 13 23 8 16 4 10 5 7.5

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2.2.1 Marshall Stability Test Marshal stability test is the performance prediction measure conducted on the bituminous mix. The procedure consists of determination of properties of mix, Marshal Stability and flow analysis and finally determination of optimum bitumen content. The concept of phase diagram is used for the calculations.

Fig 2.1 The Marshall Testing Machine

Approximately 1200gm of aggregates and filler is heated to a temperature of 175C to 190C. Bitumen is heated to a temperature of 121 to 125C with the first trial percentage of bitumen (say 3.5 or 4% by weight of the material aggregates) to the heated aggregates and thoroughly mixed at temperature of 154C to 160C. The mix is placed in a preheated mould and compacted by a rammer with 75 blows on either side at temperature of 138C to 149C. The weight of mixed aggregates taken for the preparation of the specimen may be suitably altered to obtain a compacted thickness of 63.5+/-3 mm. Vary the bitumen content in the next 25

trial by +0.5%and repeat the above procedure. Number of trials are predetermined. The prepared mould is loaded in the Marshall Test setup as shown in the figure above. Sieve Percentage Percentage Bitumen Percentage(by total weight of mix) Size Passing(%) Retained(% 0% 5% 6% 7% 8% (mm) ) in gm in gm in gm in gm in gm 100.00 12.5 89.5 10.5 126 119.7 118.44 117.18 115.92 10.0 79.0 10.5 126 119.7 118.44 117.18 115.92 4.75 62.0 17.0 204 193.8 191.76 189.72 187.68 2.36 50.0 12.0 144 136.8 135.36 133.92 132.48 1.18 41.0 9.0 108 102.6 101.52 100.44 99.36 600 32.0 9.0 108 102.56 101.52 100.44 99.36 300 23.0 9.0 108 102.6 101.52 100.44 99.36 180 16.0 7.0 84 79.8 78.96 78.12 77.28 75 7.0 9.0 108 102.6 101.52 100.44 99.36 > 75 7.0 84 79.8 78.96 78.12 77.28 100.00 1200 1140 1128 1116 1104

TABLE 2.3 LIST OF AGGREGRATE WEIGHTS FOR DIFFERENT PERCENTAGE OF BITUMEN CONTENT

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Some of the works done in the laboratory:-

2.2.1.1 Bitumen being heated to 200C

2.2.1.2 Bitumen heated with aggregate

2.2.1.3 Ramming of the mould

2.2.1.4 Marshall Test apparatus

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2.2.1.5 Sample after being rammed

2.2.1.6 Moulded samples

2.3 RESULTS The most commonly found pavement distresses are pot holes, alligator cracks followed by rutting. Significantly, bleeding is almost absent along this highway which indicates that the overall use of bitumen binder is very much below the required amount. Most of the cracks are top-down cracks starting with the bitumen-aggregate binding failure which indicates poor mix design. Poor drainage also cause stripping in some spots causing deep holes and large edge cracks.

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CHAPTER 3 ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

3.1 ANALYSIS OF RESULTS The distresses commonly found in the NH-52A are:1. Fatigue (alligator) cracking: No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Possible Causes
Inadequate pavement thickness Low modulus base Brittle base Poor base drainage Brittle wearing course

Probable Treatment
Strengthen the pavement or reconstruction Strengthen the base or reconstruction Base recycling or reconstruction Improve the drainage and reconstruct Replace or treat wearing course

2. Edge cracking: No. Possible Causes Inadequate pavement width Alignment which encourages drivers to travel on the pavement edge. Inadequate edge support 3. Longitudinal cracking: Probable Treatment Widen the pavement Pavement widening and realignment Shoulder strengthening

No.
1.

Possible Causes Reflection of shrinkage cracks 29

Probable Treatment Cut and patch

2. 3. 4.

Poorly Constructed paving lane in bituminous surfacing Displacement of joints at pavement widening Differential settlement between cut and fill

Replace bituminous surfacing Reconstruction of joints Crushed aggregate overlay or reconstruction of joints

4. Potholes :

No.
1. 2. 3.

Possible Causes Loss of surface course Moisture entry to base course through a cracked pavement surface Load associated disintegration of base

Probable Treatment Patching Cut and patch Base reconstruction

5. Raveling : No. 1. 2. 3. 4. Possible Causes Insufficient bitumen content Poor adhesion of bitumen binder to aggregate particles due to wet aggregate Inadequate compaction or construction during wet weather Deterioration of binder and/or aggregate

Probable Treatment
Thin bituminous overlay Thin bituminous overlay Thin bituminous overlay Thin bituminous overlay

6. Rutting : No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Possible Causes Inadequate pavement thickness Inadequate compaction of structural layers Unstable bituminous mixes Unstable shoulder material which does not provide adequate lateral support Overstressed sub-grade which deforms permanently Unstable granular bases or sub bases Probable Treatment Strengthening overlay or reconstruction Reconstruction Replace or recycle bituminous surfacing or use the stiffer mix Shoulder improvement and overlay rutted area with bituminous surfacing Reconstruction Base or sub base strengthening

7. Traverse (thermal) cracking: 30

No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Possible Causes Reflection of shrinkage cracks Construction joint in bituminous surfacing Structural failure of Portland Cement Shrinkage crack bituminous surfacing Reflection of joints in the underlying base

Probable Treatment Cut and patch Crack sealant Reconstruction of base Seal cracks or replace bituminous surfacing Crushed aggregate overlay or reconstruction of joints

8. Block cracking: No. 1. 2. 3. 4.

Possible Causes
Joints in underlying layer Shrinkage and fatigue of underlying cemented materials Shrinkage cracks (due to bitumen hardening) in bituminous surfacing Fatigue cracks in embrittled bituminous wearing course

Probable Treatment
Crushed aggregate overlay Replace underlying cemented materials Seal cracks or replace bituminous surfacing Cut and patch or crushed aggregate overlay

9. Polish aggregates: No. 1. Possible Causes Probable Treatment Inadequate resistance to polishing of The bituminous overlay of use of surface aggregates particularly in areas stiffer mix of heavy traffic movements or where high stresses are developed between surface and tyres Use of naturally smooth uncrushed Thin bituminous overlay. aggregates

2.

10. Patching :

No. Possible Causes

1. 2. 3. Inadequate cleaning or inadequate tack cot before placement of upper layers Seepage of water through asphalt, especially in cracks, to break the bond between surface and lower layers. Weak, loose layer immediately

Probable Treatment Mill off and re-lay upper layers. Replace wearing course or thin bituminous overlay Reconstruction of weak layers

3.2 DISCUSSIONS

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From the above observations, it is seen that the most common type of distress found in the NH-52A is potholes which is a result of alligator cracks. It can be a result of inadequate structural support, poor drainage, stripping on the bottom of the HMA layer, poor construction. It is primarily a failure of the soil sub-grade. Hence, proper compaction of the soil sub-grade should be ensured before initiating the construction process. The relative scale for measuring the severity of pot holes with respect to depth is given below. 1. Low < 25mm deep 2. Moderate 25mm to 50mm 3. High >50mm deep The average depth of pot holes found in NH-52A is 90-100 mm deep. And the deepest pot hole found being 190mm. This calls for an urgent repair and maintenance of the distresses as in can cause fatal accidents.

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CHAPTER 4 CONCLUSIONS
1. NH-52A is not up to the standard of National Highway. 2. This is due to poor implementation of mix design and poor workmanship. 3. Lack of timely maintenance. 4. Immediate response from the construction team is needed. 5. Mix design should be analysis at the laboratory if possible before implementation in the field. 6. All the materials should be upto the standard prescribe by the IRC. 7. It was also found that the side drainages are not maintained, cleaned and even absent in some places which causes pavement failures. Side drainages should be properly maintained along the highway. 8. Finally, if proper maintenance is not done, NH-52A should be effectively excluded from National Highway.

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REFERENCES
1. S. K. Khanna and C. E. G. Justo (2001) Highway Engineering, Nem Chand & Bros, Roorkee, India 2. C. A. OFlaherty (2001) Highways- The Location, Design, Construction & Maintenance of Pavements, Butterworth- Heinemann, Woburn, MA 3. IRC (2001) Guidelines for the design of Flexible Pavements, The Indian Roads Congress, Jamnagar House, Shahjahan Road, New Delhi-110 001, India 4. Tom V. Mathew (2006) Transportation Engineering I, Civil Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay, Powai, Mumbai-400076, India 5. A. Gerritsen, C.V. Gurp, J. van der Heide, A. Molenaar, and A. Pronk (July 1987) Prediction and Prevention of Surface Cracking in Asphaltic Pavements, Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Structural Design of Asphalt Pavements, 378-392. 9. M. Dauzats and A. Rampal (1987) Mechanism of Surface Cracking in Wearing Courses, Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Structural Design of Asphalt Pavements, 232-247.

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10. Matsuno and T. Nishizawa, Mechanism of Longitudinal Surface Cracking in Asphalt Pavement, Proceedings of 7th International Conference on Asphalt Pavements, vol. 2 (1992), 277-291. 11. L.A. Myers, R. Roque, and B. Ruth (1998) Mechanisms of Surface-Initiated Longitudinal Wheel Path Cracks in High-Type Bituminous Pavements, Journal of the Asphalt Paving Technologists, vol. 67, 401-432. 12. A. Bensalem, A.J. Brown, M.E. Nunn, D.B. Merrill, and W.G. Lloyd (October 2000) Finite Element Modeling of Fully Flexible Pavement: Surface Cracking and Wheel Interaction, Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium on 3D Finite Element for Pavement Analysis, Design, and Research, 103-113 13. A.H.D. Markwick and J.H. Starks (1940-1941) Stresses Between Tire and Road, Journal of the Institution of Civil Engineers, vol. 16, 309-325. 14. N. Seitz and A.W. Hussmann (1971) Forces and Displacements in Contact Area of Free Rolling Tires, Society of Automotive Engineers, 710626, Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc., 1-7. 15. S.A. Lippmann, (1985) Effects of Tire Structure and Operating Conditions on the Distribution of Stress Between the Tread and the Road, The Tire Pavement Interface, ASTM, Philadelphia, 91-109. 16. P. Sebaaly and N. Tabatabaee, (1989) Effects of Tire Pressure and Type on Response of Flexible Pavement, Transportation Research Record 1227, Transportation Research Board (TRB), National Research Council (Washington D.C.), 115-127. 17. M. Huhtala, J. Pihlajamki, and M. Pienimki , (1989) Effects of Tires and Tire Pressure on Road Pavements, Transportation Research Record 1227, Transportation Research Board (TRB), National Research Council (Washington D.C.), 107-114. 18. D. Perdomo and B. Nokes, (1993) Theoretical Analysis of the Effects of Wide-Base Tires on Flexible Pavement Using CIRCLY, Transportation Research Record 1388, Transportation Research Board (TRB), (Washington D.C.), 108-119. 19. M.M.J. Jacobs, (1995) Crack Growth in Asphaltic Mixes, Ph.D. thesis (Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands).

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20. A. Collop and D. Cebon (1995) A Theoretical Analysis of Fatigue Cracking in Flexible Pavements, Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers. Part C, vol. 209, no. 5, 345-361.

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