MAGNETIC LEVITATION

INTRODUCTION Magnetic levitation, maglev, or magnetic suspension is a method by which an object is suspended above another object with no support other than magnetic field .The electromagnetic force is used to counteract the effects of the gravitational force .A substance which is diamagnetic repels a magnetic field. Earnshaw's theorem does not apply to diamagnets; they behave in the opposite manner of a typical magnet due to their relative permeability of r < 1. All materials have diamagnetic properties, but the effect is very weak, and usually overcome by the objects paramagnetic or ferromagnetic properties, which act in the opposite manner. Any material in which the diamagnetic component is strongest will be repelled by a magnet, though this force is not usually very large. Diamagnetic levitation can be used to levitate very light pieces of graphite or bismuth above a moderately strong permanent magnet. As water is predominantly diamagnetic, this technique has been used to levitate water droplets and even live animals, such as a grasshopper and a frog.

The highest recorded speed of maglev train is 581 km/h. Achieved in Japan by the CJRs MLX01 superconducting maglev in 2003, 6km/h faster than the conventional TGV wheel- rail speed record.
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MAGLEV METHODS

Attraction between an electromagnet and a piece of iron or magnet, with sensors and active control of the current to the electromagnet used to maintain some distance between them. Repulsion between like poles of permanent magnet or electromagnet. Repulsion between a metallic conductor induced by relative motion. Repulsion between a metallic conductor and an AC electromagnet. Repulsion between a magnet and a superconductor. Attraction between unlike poles of permanent magnet or electromagnets.Attraction between the open core of an electromagnet solenoid and a piece of iron or a magnet. Repulsion between an electromagnet and a magnet, with sensors and active control of the current to the electromagnet used to maintain some distance between them.

The minimum criteria for diamagnetic levitation is is the magnetic susceptibility is the density of the material g is the local gravitational acceleration (-9.8m/s2on Earth) 0 is the permeability of free space B is the magnetic field

, where:

is the rate of change of the magnetic field along the vertical axis.

Assuming ideal conditions along the z-direction of solenoid magnet. Water levitates at Graphite at

WORKING OF MAGLEV VEHICLE

Basically the construction depends on 3 different working forces.

Fig1: Maglev train PROPULSION FORCE LEVITATING FORCE LATERAL GUIDING FORCE

Earnshaws theorem proved conclusively that it is not possible to levitate stably using only static, macroscopic, paramagnetic fields. The forces acting on any paramagnetic object in any combinations of gravitational, electrostatic and magneto static fields will make the objects position, at best, unstable along at least one axis, and it can be unstable equilibrium along all axes. However, several possibilities exist to make levitation viable for example the use of electronic stabilization or diamagnetic material; it can be shown that diamagnetic materials are stable along at least one axis. Dynamic stability occurs when levitation system is able to damp out any vibration like motion that may occur.

PROPULSION FORCE:

This is a horizontal force which causes the movement of train. It requires 3 parameters. Large electric power supply Metal coil lining, a guide way or track. Large magnet attached under the vehicle

Fig2: Magnetic forces in a maglev train

PRINCIPLES OF LINEAR MOTOR

Its principle is similar to induction motor having linear stator and flat rotor. The 3-phase supply applied to the stator produces a constant speed magnetic wave, which further produces a

repulsive force. Maglev vehicles are propelled primarily by one of the following three options: 1 .A linear synchronous motor (LSM) in which coils in the guide way are excited by a three phase winding to produce a traveling wave at the speed desired; Trans Rapid in Germany employs such a system. 2. A Linear Induction Motor (LIM) in which an electromagnet underneath the vehicle induces current in an aluminum sheet on the guide way. 3. A reluctance motor is employed in which active coils on the vehicle are pulsed at the proper time to realize thrust.

The attraction from a fixed strength magnet decreases with increased distance, and increases at closer distances. This is unstable. For a stable system, the opposite is needed; variations from a stable position should push it back to the target position. Stable magnetic levitation can be achieved by measuring the position and speed of the object being levitated, and using a feedback which continuously adjusts one or more electromagnets to correct the object's motion, thus forming a servomechanism. Many systems use magnetic attraction pulling upwards against gravity for these kinds of systems as this gives some inherent lateral stability, but some use a combination of magnetic attraction and magnetic repulsion to push upwards. Either system represents examples of Electromagnetic Suspension (EMS). For a very simple example, some tabletop levitation demonstrations use this principle, and the object cuts a beam of light to measure the position of the object. The electromagnet is above the object being levitated; the electromagnet is turned off whenever the object gets too close, and turned back on when it falls further away
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Such a simple system is not very robust; far more effective control systems exist, but this illustrates the basic idea. EMS magnetic levitation trains are based on this kind of levitation: The train wraps around the track, and is pulled upwards from below. The servo controls keep it safely at a constant distance from the track. A magnet can be levitated against gravity when gyroscopically stabilized by spinning it in a toroidal field created by a base ring of magnet(s). However, it will only remain stable while the rate of precession is between both upper and lower critical thresholdsthe region of stability is quite narrow both spatially and in the required rate of precession. The first discovery of this phenomenon was by Roy M. Harrigan, a Vermont inventor who patented a levitation device in 1983 based upon it.[5]Several devices using rotational stabilization (such as the

popular Levitron branded levitating top toy) have been developed citing this patent. Noncommercial devices have been created for university research laboratories, generally using magnets too powerful for safe public interaction.

Fig3: Components of a 3- Phase linear induction motor

LEVITATING FORCE

The levitating force is the upward thrust which lifts the vehicle in the air. There are 3 types of levitating systems 1. EDS system 2. EMS system 3. INDUCTRACK system Levitating force is produced due to the eddy current in the conducting ladder by the electromagnetic interaction. At low speed the force due to induced poles cancel each other. At high speed a repulsive force is taken place as the magnet is shifted over a particular pole. 1. EDS SYSTEM In EDS both the rail and the train exert a magnetic field, and the train is levitated by the repulsive force between these magnetic fields. At slow speeds, the current induced in these coils and the resultant magnetic flux is not large enough to support the weight of the train. For this reason the train must have wheels or some other form of landing gear to support the train until it reaches a speed that can sustain levitation. Onboard magnets and large margin between rail and train enable highest recorded train speeds (581 km/h).This system is inherently stable. Magnetic shielding for suppression of strong magnetic fields and wheels for travel at low speed are required. It cant produce the propulsion force. So, LIM system is required.

Fig 4: Electrodynamic maglev system

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2. EMS SYSTEM Maglev concepts using electro -magnetic suspension employ attractive forces. Magnetic fields inside and outside the vehicle are insignificant; proven, commercially available technology that can attain very high speeds (500 km/h); no wheels or secondary propulsion system needed. The separation between the vehicle and the guide way must be constantly monitored and corrected by computer systems to avoid collision due to the unstable nature of electromagnetic attraction.

Fig 5: Electromagnetic maglev system

3. INDUCTRACK SYSTEM The inductrack guide way would contain two rows of tightly packed levitation coils, which would act as the rails. Each of these rails would be lined by two Halbach arrays carried underneath the maglev vehicle: one positioned directly above therail and one along the inner side of the rail. The Halbach arrays above the coils would provide levitation while the Halbach arrays on the sides would provide lateral guidance that keeps the train in a fixed position on the track. The track is actually an array of electrically-shorted circuits containing insulated wire. In one design, these circuits are aligned like rungs in a ladder. As thetrain moves, a magnetic field repels the magnets, causing the train to levitate. Inductrack trains could levitate higher with greater stability. As long as its moving a few miles per hour, an inductrack train will levitate nearly an inch above the track. A greater gap above the track means that the train would not require complex sensing systems to maintain stability. Permanent magnets had not been used before because scientists thought that they would not create enough levitating force.
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LATERAL GUIDING FORCE

Guidance or steering refers to the sideward forces that are required to make the vehicle follow the guideway. The necessary forces are supplied in an exactly analogous fashion to the suspension forces, either attractive or repulsive. The same magnets on board the vehicle, which supply lift, can be used concurrently for guidance or separate guidance magnets can be used. It requires the following arrangements: Guideway levitating coil Moving magnet.

Fig6: Lateral guiding force

The above figure (Fig) shows the guidance, levitation and propulsion coils in a maglev train. Earnshaws theorem shows that any combination of static magnets cannot be in a stable equilibrium. However the various levitation systems achieve stable levitation by violating Earchshaws theorem. The theorem assumes that the magnet are static and unchanging in magnetic strength and that the relative permeability is constant and greater than unity everywhere. EMS systems rely on active electronic stabilization. Such systems constantly measure the bearing distance and adjust the electromagnet current accordingly. All EDS systems are moving systems. Because maglev vehicles essentially fly, stabilization of pitch, roll and yaw is required by magnetic technology.
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BRAKING AND CONTROL OF MAGLEV TRAINS

Magnetic fields are conservative forces and therefore in principle have no built in damping and in practice many of the levitation schemes are under-damped and in some cases negatively damped. This can permit vibration modes to exist that can cause item to leave the stable region.

Damping of motion can be done in a number of ways:

1. External mechanical damping. 2. 2. Eddy current dampi9ng 3. Tuned mass dampers 4. Electromagnets controlled by electronics

Generally two types of breaking are used: 1. Aerodynamic braking 2. Electromagnetic braking

Fig7: Internal parts of maglev train

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VARYING MAGLEV SPEED

The maglev speed can vary from standstill to full operating speed by simply adjusting the frequency of the alternating current. To bring the train to full stop, the direction of the travelling field is reversed. Even during braking, there isnt any mechanical contact between the stator and the rotor.

If one move a base made of a very good electrical conductor such as copper or aluminum to a magnet a current will be induces in the conductor that will oppose the changes in the field and create an opposite field that will repel the magnet.

At a sufficiently high rate of movement a suspended magnet will levitate on the metal or vice versa with suspended metal. A conductor can be levitated above an electromagnet with an alternating current flowing through it. This causes any regular conductor to behave like a diamagnetic, due to the eddy currents generated in the conductor. Since the eddy current create their own fields which oppose the magnetic field, the conductive object is repelled from the electromagnet, and most of the field lines of the magnetic field will no longer penetrate the conductive object.

This effect requires non ferromagnetic but highly conductive materials like aluminum or copper as the ferromagnetic ones are also strongly attracted to the electromagnet and tent to have a higher resistivity giving lower eddy currents.

The effect can be used for stunts such as levitating a telephone book by concealing an aluminum plate within it. At high frequencies and kilowatt powers small quantities of metals cab be levitated and melted using levitation melting without the risk of the metal being contaminated by the crucible. One source of oscillating magnetic filed that is used is the linear indication motor.

Energy for maglev trains used to accelerate the train, and maybe regarded when the train slow down. It is also used to make train levitate and to stabilize the movement of the train. The main part of the energy is needed to force the train through the air. Also come energy is used for air
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condition, heating lighting and other miscellaneous systems. The maglev trains are powered on electromagnetism.

At very low speeds the percentage of power used for levitation can be significant. Also for very short distances the energy used for acceleration might be considerable. But the power used to overcome air drag increases with the cube of the velocity and hence dominates at high speed.

Fig 8: constructional details of maglev train path

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COMPARISON WITH CONVENTIONAL TRAINS

Maglev systems offer a number of advantages over conventional trains that use steel wheels on steel rails. Because magnetic levitation trains do not touch the guideway, maglev systems overcome the principal limitation of wheeled trainsthe high cost of maintaining precise alignment of the tracks to avoid excessive vibration and rail deterioration at high speeds. Maglev can provide sustained speeds greater than 500 km/h (300 mph), limited only by the cost of power to overcome wind resistance. The fact that maglev do not touch the guideway also has other advantages: faster acceleration and braking; greater climbing capability; enhanced operation in heavy rain, snow, and ice; and reduced noise. Maglev systems are also energy-efficient on routes of several hundred kilometers length; they use about half as much energy per passenger as a typical commercial aircraft. Like other electrical transport systems, they also reduce the use of oil, and pollute the air less than aircraft, diesel locomotives, and cars. Maglev trains currently in operation have demonstrated the need for mostly insignificant guide way maintenance. Their electronics vehicle maintenance is minimal and move closely aligned with aircrafts maintenance schedules based on hours of operation, rather than on speed or distance travelled. This basic difference reveals the huge cost advantage of maglev over rail and also directly affects system reliability, availability and sustainability. Braking and over-head wire wear have caused problems for the high speed rail system. Maglev would eliminate these issues. Magnet reliability at higher temperatures is a countervailing comparative disadvantage but new alloys and manufacturing techniques have resulted in magnet that maintain their levitational force at higher temperatures,.

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APPLICATIONS

1. Maglev is finding its application in fast moving transportation, magnetic bearing, minin, etc. 2. Maglev trains generate less noise, can reach higher slope amgles, and higher speeds at shorter time. 3. Maglifter, magnetically levitates and accelerates the spacecrafts along a maglev path several miles in length. After reaching approximately 600 mph, the spacecraft detaches from its maglev carrier and accelerator, and ascends to orbit using rocket or air-breathing engines. The maglev carrier/accelerator would then brake to a stop and return to its starting point for the next launch.

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4. Using a maglev system, the valuable ores could be lifted along angled shafts that followed the actual ore veins, instead of through the network of horizontal tunnels and vertical shafts. This reduces the volume of waste rock to be excavated also reduces the number f engine powered underground ore carriers

Fig 10: Mining Technique using Maglev system

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CONCLUSION Its no longer science fiction. Maglev trains are the new way of transportation in the near future just some obstacles are in the way, but with some researchers nothing is impossible. With no engine, no wheels, no pollution, new sources of energy, floating in air, the concept has taken decades to develop, just recently its true capacities has been realized.

With increase in need for high speed transportation on shorter distances, and considering and global warming with air transportation, magnetic levitation opens a new way of development of high speed road transportation. Maglev trains are expected to create a revolution in very near future.

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REFERENCES

Dusty Funk and Kyle Gestla (2006), Bradley University, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Magnetic Levitation Train Final Report. Kazuo Sawada, RTRI and JR Central, Magnetic Levitation Technologies. J.L. He D.M. Rote, H.T. Coffey (1994), Argonne National Lab, Argonne, IL, Study of Japanese Electrodynamic Suspension Maglev Systems.

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