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Failure Mechanism in Staple Yarns

Maria Cybulska, Bhuvenesh C. Goswami and David MacAlister III Textile Research Journal 2001 71: 1087 DOI: 10.1177/004051750107101209 The online version of this article can be found at: http://trj.sagepub.com/content/71/12/1087

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DECEhfBER

2001

1087

Failure Mechanism in Staple Yarns

MARIA CYBULSKA' AND BHUVENESH C. GOSWAMI
School o f Textiles, Fiber & Polynier Science, Clemson University, Clemson, Soiith Caroliua 29634

DAVID MACALISTER I11

USDA, ARS, Cottoii Qirality Research Stclrion

ABSTRACT The failure mechanism in staple yams is strongly influenced by yam structure. Manufacturing methods impose certain constraints on the disposition and distribution of fibers in the yam cross section. This paper investigates the failure mechanism in ring, rotor, air-jet, and vortex yams. The yams are subjected to uniaxial loading on a tensile tester, and images of the yams before and after breaking are recorded. Image analysis of the failure regions yields some interesting features and reveals typical mechanisms occurring in different yarn structures. The failure mechanism in each yam type is discussed in terms of some basic parameters characteristic of the structure.

The mechanism of yarn failure is usually explained on the basis of stress-strain characteristics of yams. Figure 1 reveals the nonlinear mechanical behavior of a yam with linearity restricted for very small stress only (region I), where slippage is prevented by friction. In region 11, fibers start to slip, and for higher stress (region III), both slippage and breakage of fibers until yam breakage can be observed.

E
FIGW 1. Stress-strain curve for a staple yam.

A staple yam may fail either because of fiber slippage (e.g., in low twist ring or rotor and air-jet yams) or slippage and/or breakage in medium and highly twisted
Current address: Technical University of L6di. Faculty of Textile Engineering, L6di. Poland.
Texfile Rex J. 71(12), 1057-1094 (2001)

'

yams. Most publications on the mechanics of staple yams are primarily concerned with ring spun yams. Gregory [3, 41 studied the strength of twisted yams in relation to fiber properties and yam structure. In order to increase staple yam strength, the individual fibers must grip each other when stress is applied, mainly from twist pressing fibers together and developing friction between them. On the other hand, since the fibers are inclined to the yarn axis, only the components of fiber stress in the axis direction balance the applied load, and the full contribution of fiber strength is not realized. This effect of obliquity increases as the twist increases. The twist required to generate maximum strength in a yarn element can be determined based on a V-shaped twist curve for twisted yam elements. Gregory reported that the twist factor for maximum strength can be presented as a function of the mean length of fibers in the yam cross section, the coefficient of fiber-upon-fiber friction, and fiber surface per unit mass. The work reported by Hearle [5] on the tensile behavior of staple yams mainly concerns ring spun yams. The idealized yam is assumed to be uniform along its length, with a circular cross section and uniform specific volume. The yam consists of perfectly elastic fibers with the same dimensions and properties. Fiber ends are distributed randomly through the yam. Tensile properties of a staple yam are explained in terms of the combined effects of obliquity and fiber slippage, which cause yam strength losses. Taking into account the effect of twist, migration, and discontinuities at the fiber ends, Hearle developed an expression for the yam modulus.
WO-5 175/$15.00

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1088 The structures of rotor spun and ring spun yams differ significantly from each other. Rotor spun yarn has a two-phase structure rather than a helical one, with more folded fibers. The presence of wrapper fibers additionally affects yam strength. Xiubao and Reiyao [9] studied the tensile properties of rotor spun yams by taking into account Hearle's models for the strength of staple yam. Determining the proportion of wrapper fibers in the yam and assuming that total yam extension can be expressed as the sum of extensions caused by the strain of fibers, stretching of curly fibers, and fiber slippage, the authors developed a formula for rotor spun yam strength. Krause and Soliman [6] analyzed the tensile behavior of wrapped yarn. To predict yam strength, their model was based on the ideal yam structure. They assumed constant fiber length, uniform distribution of the wrapping fibers on the yam length and cross section, constant wrapping angle, and uniform wrapping pressure along the yam length. They described the mechanism of yam failure as a simultaneous breaking of wrapping fibers while core fibers partially slip and break. They assumed that the total strength of a yarn is the sum of the strengths of the core fibers, the wrapping fibers, and the tension developed by friction of slipping core fibers. Their model was based on an idealized yarn structure and didn't account for parameters describing yam structure irregularity, which may cause losses in yam strength. The irregularity of the'yarn structure and its effect on the mechanical properties of air-jet spun yams has been widely studied in recent years. The structure of an air-jet yam is usually divided into three classes according to the properties of wrapper fibers [7]-class I characterized by uniform wrapping angle, class I1 with wrapper fibers at different wrapping angles, and class I11 with no wrapper fibers. Chasmawala et al. [I] divided the wrapping fibers into five classes-core, wrapper, wild, core-wild, and wrapper wild. They showed that yam strength depends on the proportion of each class of fibers in the yam structure, and that yam strength decreases with an increasing number of wild and wrapper wild fibers and increases with an incrcasing number of wrapper fibers. Rajamanickam, Hansen, and Jayaraman [S] analyzed three kinds of tensile fracture behavior in air-jet yamscatastrophic when all fibers in the failure region slip and break at the same load, noncatastrophic if fibers do not break or slip completely at the same load, and failure by total fiber slippage. They divided the structure of the yarn into three classes and accounted for the proportion of each class. They showed that yam strength increases with a high frequency of the class I structure and decreases with a high frequency of the class I11 structure, especially if these sections are agglomerated in some particular regions of the yam length. Their models for the

TEXTILE RESEARCH JOURNAL tensile behavior of air-jet yams, although explaining the relationship between yarn structure and properties, did not allow for good prediction of yam strength. No significant study of the mechanical behavior of vortex yams has appeared in the literature. Yam failure, although widely described in the literature, is not yet fully understood, New testing methodsamong others, image analysis-can help us observe the yam when applying the load and determine the yam structure before and after failure. We can also identify the failure region and determine the yam characteristics in terms of structural parameters. This method should help better our understanding of the failure phenomenon and formulate assumptions for models to be developed for predicting yam tensile behavior. Our main objectives in this study are to determine the typical failure mechanisms that occur in different yam structures and to characterize the failure mechanism of yarns in terms of their structural parameters.

Materials and Methods

We chose four kinds of staple yams for our study: (1) air-jet spun yam, 5060% cottordpolyester, 29 tex linear density, (2) rotor yam, 50/50% cottordpolyester, 30 tex linear density, 5.11 tumdcm twist, (3) ring spun yarn, 50/50% cottordpolyester, 24 tex linear density, 4.86 tumskm twist, and (4) vortex y'am, 100% cotton, 22 tex linear density, 6.45 tums/cm twist. It is well known that the tensile behavior of yarns strongly depends on their fiber properties, the most important of which are fiber fineness, fiber length and its distribution, fiber strength, and the coefficient of friction. To avoid the effect of fiber parameters on the failure mechanism, we have chosen yams spun from fibers of similar mechanical and geometric properties. The yams were subjected to uniaxial loading on a tensile tester. Before and after testing, an image of the entire yam sample was registered, and the structural parameters of the yams were determined. After breaking, the failure region and the values of the structural parameters were identified. Tensile tests involved an Instron tensile tester for sample length equal to 50 mm and a cross-head speed equal to 2 mrdmin. An image of the structure of the whole yam sample was obtained by registering the images of successive 2-mm long sections. On the basis of each image, the yams' structural parameters were measured and are presented in the form of diagrams.

Structure of Staple Yarns

Images of typical structures of different staple yarns are shown in Figure 2, A-D. The structures of the yams

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DECEMBER 2001

1089

Wd -

!
FIGURE 2. Structure of staple yams: (A) ring spun y m : d = yam diameter, a = twist angle, (B) rotor yarn: d = yam diameter, LI = wrapper angle, (C) vortex yarn: d = yarn diameter, LI = wrapper angle, (D) air-jet spun yarn: d , = yam core diameter, a = wrapper angle, 10, = width of wrapper ribbon, lo,, = distance between wraps.

should be kept constant during twisting or lesser amounts of fibers should be fed into the twisting point. The opposite will be true for a smaller amount of twist in the yarn. It is well known that the CV of linear density of a yarn and its relationship with yam geometry strongly affects the yams strength. Thats why analyzing the yarns tensile behavior in terms of geometric parameters seems to be reasonable. We assume that the ring spun yarn has a cylindrical shape of random diameter formed by the fibers twisting. Fibers creating a coherent structure form the yarn core, and the rest of fibers laid out of the yarn core form the hairiness. Fibers follow the helical path, with the helix angle depending on the twist level and the position of fibers in the yam cross section. Basic parameters of the external structure of ring spun yarn are the yarn diameter d, which is measured as a diameter of the yarn core, and the twist angle a,measured on the basis of fibers on the yam surface. To analyze the failure region in a yam, we characterize the yarn diameter and the twist angle by their mean values on 2-mm-long sections of the yam. To characterize yam unevenness, we use the coefficient of variation of yam diameter CVd and the parameter Ad, describing the changes in diameter on the short 2-mm sections of the yam and calculated as the difference between the mean diameter values for two successive yam sections or the standardized value Adld:

differ from each other due to, among other things, different migrations and relative dispositions of the fibers. From the point of view of yam geometry, the basic element of the yam structure is the core in the form of a cylinder of variable diameter, which is the main camer of axial loading. On the yam surface, the fibers laid along the helices can be observed. Geometric parameters of helices characterize the yam twist or the properties of wrapper fibers, according to the kind of yarn being considered.

RIXGSPUN YARN
Ring spun yam is usually assumed to have an ideal helical structure uniform along its length, with a uniform specific volume and helices formed by the same number of turns per unit length. When observing the images of ring spun yarns, we see that the geometric parameters of the yams external structure, such as the yarn diameter or twist angle, are far from uniform. Assuming a uniform

The reason for using two different measures of yam unevenness is that the commonly used CV doesnt take into account the order of the data analyzed and thus it does not reflect the character of yam unevenness. That is why CVd gives the same value for short- and long-period variability in the yam diameter, while Adld gives a higher value in the first case. To analyze the relationship between the yarns structure and its tensile properties, we characterize the yarn diameter by the mean value d, the coefficient of variation CVd. and the mean value of parameters Ad and Adld for the whole yam sample.

ROTOR AND

VORTEX YARNS

An open-end rotor yam is usually assumed to have a three- or two-zone structure. The inner zone consists of fibers twisted together, forming a structure similar to that

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1090
of a ring spun yam. The outer zone consists of fibers wrapped around the yam core. The fibers are generally less oriented when compared to the ring spun yam, and they form loops or folds that may lower yam strength. The structure of a vortex yam is very similar to a rotor open-end yam, but with more poorly oriented fibers. When analyzing the image of a vortex yam, we can see folded fibers even on the yarn surface and hairy fibers in the form of loops. From the point of view of the external structure, we can characterize rotor and vortex yarns by the same set of parameters, e.g., the diameter of the yarn core d, parameters A d , A d d , and CVd defined as for the ring spun yam, and the wrapper angle a measured on the basis of fibers seen on the yam surface. AIR-JET SPUN
YARN

TEXTILE RESEARCH JOURNAL

All . these parameters can fully successive wraps 1 ~ ~ characterize the structure of an air-jet spun yam.

Characterizing Failure in Staple Yams

Our characterizations of the failure regions in terms of the structural parameters of the different yams on the basis of all the yam samples we have analyzed are presented in the form of diagrams of structural yam parameters. For each kind of yam analyzed, we show a typical failure region and some characteristic features of the yams structure.

RINGSPUN YARN
For all samples of ring spun yarns, we did not observe yam rupture during extension. Instead, yam failure occurred due to fiber slippage. The fibers slipped out first on the yam surface, and then when a higher load was applied, failure extended to the inner layers of the yam. The failure region was relatively long compared to the other kinds of yams we investigated. When analyzing the image and characteristics of a typical failure region in the ring spun yarn presented in Figures 3 and 4, it is apparent that the break occurred in the yam section with the lowest diameter and the highest value of parameter Ad. For all samples of ring spun yarn, failure occurred in the region of minimum yam diameter and maximum Ad values for the whole yam sample. The twist angle in the failure region for most cases had relatively low or minimum values.

The structure of an air-jet spun yam is highly irregular. Usually it has been assumed that the air-jet spun yam consists of a core created by untwisted fibers, which are wrapped together by wrapper fibers. The core axis is assumed to be a straight line, with the diameter of the wrapper fiber helix equaling the diameter of the yam core. However, when analyzing the yam image in Figure 2D, we notice that generally these assumptions are not satisfied. We assume the core axis forms a helix of random diameter d&. In the particular case when d,, = 0, the axis of the core forms the straight line. Let d, denote the yarn core diameter and d,, the diameter of the wrapper helix. We can characterize the structure of an air-jet spun yam by the disposition of the wrapper fibers in relation to the yam core using the coefficient of relative disposition R D given by the following expression:

Using the coefficient of relative disposition, we can characterize three different structures of air-jet spun yarns: first, R D > 1, where the core axis is helical and the yarn has a screw-like form; second, R D = 1, where the core axis is a straight line, and the diameter of the wrapper helix equals the diameter of the yam core; and third, RD < 1, where the core axis forms a straight line, the wrapper fibers are loose, and the diameter of the wrapper helix is higher than the diameter of the yam core. Wrapper fibers are randomly distributed along the yarn length, and they create wrapping ribbons consisting of random numbers of fibers. We can characterize a wrapping ribbon by the value of the wrapping angle a, the width of the ribbon wr. and the distance between

FIGURE 3. Image of a section of ring spun yarn specimen rile before

and after breaking.

VORTEX

YARN

Figures 5 and 6 show a typical failure region in a vortex yam and its characteristics in terms of the yarns structural parameters. The wrapper fibers in the failure

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DECEhlBER

2001

1091

region were loose and folded in the form of loops, so they could not prevent the core fibers from slipping. In the failure region, the yarn diameter significantly changed its value, perhaps indicating more fiber ends in the region, thus additionally facilitating fiber slippage. For all but one sample of vortex yam, the yam diameter had a minimum value and the parameter Ad the maximum in the failure region for the whole sample length. The wrapper angle didnt show any typical features.

hilure rcsion
I

ROTORYARN
Failure in open-end yams was due to fiber slippage for all samples we investigated. When analyzing the typical failure region of a yarn and its characteristics, shown in Figures 7 and 8, it is obvious that failure occurred in the rcgion of minimum yarn core diameter and at relatively high wrapping angle. This resulted from the presence of wild wrapper

)am sarnplc length [mrn]

50

FIGURE 4. Characteristics of the structure of ring spun yam specimen ril0 in terms of structural parameters.

FIGURE 5. Image of a section of vortex yam specimen v07 before

and after breaking.

FIGURE 7. Image of a section of rotor yam specimen ro5 before

and after breaking.

failure region
0

yarn sample lenzth [mm]

50

yarn sample length [rnm]

50

FIGURE 6. Characteristics of the structure of vortex y a m specimen .

v07 in terms of structural parameters.

FIGURE 8. Characteristics of the stmcture of rotor yarn specimen ro5

in terms of structural parameters.

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1092
fibers on the yam surface, which did not add any strength to the yam and facilitated fiber slippage from the yam's inner layers. For all but one sample of the open-end spun yarns, the failure region could be characterized by the lowest value of yam diameter. The value of parameter Ad, describing yam diameter unevenness, was at a maximum or much higher than the average. As for the vortex yam, the wrapper angle did not show any typical features.

TEXTILE RESEARCH JOURNAL

AIR-JET YARN
Although for air-jet spun yams, the failure region did not show any typical characteristics such as those observed in other kinds of yams, for most samples we analyzed, the yam diameter in the breaking region was minimal or lower than the mean value for the whole yam sample. The failure region and the tensile behavior of an air-jet yarn were only partially determined by the features of the yarn core, and were highly influenced by the properties of wrapper fibers. The failure region of the air-jet yam shown in Figures 9 and 10 can be characterized by the very low value of the RD coefficient, which means that the wrapper fibers were loose and did not prevent the core fibers from slipping. In most cases, yam failure was caused by slippage of core fibers resulting from the very low value of coefficient R L m o r e ' t h a n 50%, or large lengths between successive waps-70% of the sampIes we analyzed. The other typical feature of the failure region w a s the small number of fibers creating the wrapping ribbons, accounting for 70% of the air-jet yam samples.
FIGURE 9. Image of a section of air-jet spun yarn specimen b5M
before and after breclking.

I---,\

-a

b501

failure region

yarn sample lcngh [mm]

50'

Relationships Between Structural Parameters and Mechanical Properties of Staple Yarns

There are certain significant relationships between the tensile behavior of a yam and some of its structural parameters, although parameters characterizing yam failure are not necessarily those that are related to the yam's mechanical properties, such as breaking load and elongation. All our yam samples were divided into four classes according to the value of breaking load: class 1-breaking load lower than 0.3 kgf, classes 2 and 3-breaking load from intervals (0.3, 0 . 4 , ) and (0.4, 0.5>) accordingly,

FIGURE 10. Characteristics of the structure of air-jet spun yam specimen b5W in terms of structural parameters.

and class 4-breaking load higher than 0.5 kgf. For yams from each class separately, we calculated the mean values of diameter d, parameters A d d and CVd, as well as the mean values of breaking load, elongation at break, and energy to break. To determine the significance of differences between mean values of parameters for yams from different classes, we used a one-way ANOVA. When analyzing the results presented in Table I, it is apparent

TABLE I. hlem values of mechanical and structural parameters of staple yams from classes 1-4.
C l s s of breaking load, kgf
1. 2. 3. 4.

Breaking load, kgf

0.219 0.358 0.441 0.551

Elongation at break, W
6.56 9.62 10.25 10.79

Energy to break. kgf-mm

Diameter d , mm
0.216 0.229 0.230 0.258

A dld
0.121 0.06 1 0.018 0.013

CVd

B L 5 0.3 0.3 < B L 5 0.4 0.4 < B L 5 0.5 0.5 < B L

0.458
1 .on 1.441 1.874

0.132 0.1 1 I 0.077 0.066

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DECEMBER 2001 that the mean diameter value for yams from classes 2 and 3 does not differ, while it is lower for class 1 yams and higher for class 4 yams. At the same time, the yams are significantly different according to parameters CVd and Ad/d, with the exception of classes 3 and 4. This means that the diameters of the yams with the lowest breaking loads are lower and much less uniform than those with the higher breaking loads. Analysis of Table I shows that despite yam technology resulting in different migration and relative disposition of fibers, yams with higher and more uniform diameters can be characterized by higher breaking load, elongation at break, and energy to break (Figures 11 and 12).

1093
TABLE 11. Relationships between structural parameters and mechanical properties of staple yams ( R = coefficient of correlation, p = significance level). Yam Air jet Parameter Breaking load Energy to break R = 0.8057 p < 0.0001 Elongation at break R = 0.7119 p = 0.0005

d,
a
l\+

R = 0.7554

< 0.0002

I&,
id

Ring

Ad d
a

R = 0.7525 p < 0.0002 R = 0.6801 p = 0.0149

p = 0.0017

R = 0.6038 -

p = 0.0181

R = 0.5227

Rotor

CVd Ad d CVd Ad d
a CVd Ad
a

R = 0.9112 p < 0.0001 R = 0.7462 p = 0.0053

R = 0.5856 p = 0.0354

p = 0.0022

R = 0,7895

R = 0.6181 p = 0.0322

c xl
50.5J

a
.x
0

.E 0.4

co
2

*
-

Vortex

R = 0.6475

p = 0.0329

0.3

All
yams
.

R = 0.6114 p < 0.0001 R = -0.6441 p < 0.0001 R = -0.7878 p c 0.0001

d
CVd Adld

0.2

0.18

0.20

0.22

0.24

0.26

0.28

yarn diameter d [mm]

R = 0.5727 p < 0.0001 R = -0.6133 p < 0.0001 R = -0.7581 p < 0.0001

R = 0.6044 < 0.0001 R = -0.4535 p = 0.0006 R = -0.7353 p < 0.0001

p

FIGW 11. Relationship betaeen breaking load and diameter of staple yams.

For all the yarns we investigated, there was a relationship between the yarns structural parameters and its mechanical parameters. We determined these relationships using a correlation analysis. For each pair of parameters, we calculated the coefficient of correlation R and corresponding significance level p . The results of our statistical analysis, presented in Table 11, show that for all kinds of yarns, a significant correlation exists between yarn diameter and breaking load, which is typical for each yarn type. The higher the yarn diameter, the higher the breaking load. There is also a correlation between yarn diameter and elongation at break and energy to break. The lack of such relationships for vortex yarns may have been due to properties that were similar for all the samples we analyzed. For air-jet, rotor, and ring spun yarns, for which the samples were highly diversified, the correlation coefficients were higher. There was descending relationship between the twist angle and the energy to break for ring spun yam. There

was no relationship between the wrapping angle and mechanical parameters for other kinds of yams. For air-jet spun yams, the higher the R D coefficient, the higher the breaking load, elongation at break, and energy to break. The relationships between yam structural parameters and mechanical properties are even more clearly revealed when we take into account all the yams together. Despite yam technology, the higher and more uniform the yam diameter, the higher the breaking load and elongation and energy to break. When comparing the relationships between yam mechanical properties and diameter unevenness, shown in Figures 12 and 13, we see that the parameter Ad gives more useful information for predicting the tensile behavior of yarns than the coefficient of variation of yam diameter. This is because this parameter can reflect the way fiber ends are distributed along the yam axis better than the CV of diameter. Yam regions with relatively high Ad values can be characterized by higher than average numbers of fiber ends, which can result in lower frictional resistance and easier fiber slippage in those regions.

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1093
0.6

TEXTILE RESEARCH JOURNAL

1 .
I I .

R=-0.611 I
p<O.O001

SOSc
- 2 .
Y

0 0.4 .B
0.3-

0.2

. , . , . , - , - , - , - , - .
0.04

0.06

0.08

0.10

0.12

0.14

0.16

0.18

0.20

CV d

FIGURE 12. Relationship between breaking load and CV of diameter of staple yams.

0 . 6

R=-0.7878
p<O.O001

ized by the low number of fibers in the wrapping ribbons, the relatively long distances between successive wraps corresponding with a class Ill yam structure, and an RD coefficient smaller than 1, corresponding with loose wrappers. There are significant relationships between yam tensile properties and some structural parameters. For all the yams we investigated, strong relationships exist between the value and uniformity of yam diameter and the value of the breaking load. Despite the yam structure, the yam diameter and its non-uniformity are strongly correlated with the breaking load and elongation at break, as well as the other mechanical properties of yams. The higher the yam diameter, the higher the breaking load and elongation. Yams characterized by more uniform diameters have higher breaking loads and elongations at break. Parameter Ad, reflecting in a way the distribution of fibers along the yarn length, provides significant information about yarn tensile behavior. Our results show that when trying to develop mathematical models of yam failure behavior, idealized models of yam structure do not allow good prediction of yarn strength, and non-uniformity of structural parameters should be taken into account.

Literature Cited
1. Chasmawala, R. J., Hansen, S., and Jayaraman, S., Structure and Properties of Air-jet Spun Yams, Textile Res. J. 60,61 (1990). 2. Cybulska, M., Goswami, B., and McAlister, D., Mechanism of Failure in Staple Yams, paper presented to the EFS System Research Forum, 1999. 3. Gregory, J., Cotton Yam Structure, Parts I, 11, and 111, Textile Res. J. 41, Tl-T52 (1950). 4. Gregory, J., Cotton Yam Structure, Parts IV and V, Textile Res. J. 41, T499-T533 (1953). 5. Hearle, J. W. S.,Grosberg, P., and Backer, S., Structural Mechanics of Fibers, Yams and Fabrics, Vol. 1, Wiley Interscience, NY, 1969. 6. Krause, H. W., and Soliman, H. A., Theoretical Study on the Strength of Single Jet False Twist Spun Yams, Textile Res. J. 60, 309-318 (1990). 7. Lawrence, C . A., and Baqui, hl. A., Effects of Machine Variables on the Structure and Propertics of Air-Jet Fasciated yams, Textile Res. J. 61, 123-130 (1991). 8. Rajamanickam, R., Hansen, S. M., and Jayaraman, S., A Model for the Tensile Fracture Behavior of Air-Jet Spun Yams, Textile Res. J. 67(3), 655-662 (1998). 9. Xiubao, M. H., and Reiyao, Z., Tensile Behavior of Rotor Spun Yams, in Proc. Textile Institute Annual World Conference, 1989, pp. 219-231.
Alnnuscripr received Airgiur 15, 2000: acceppred Febnmr). 9. 2WI.

0.02

0.04

0 . 0 6

0.09

0.10

0.12

0.14

0.16

0.18

0.20

Ad!d

FIGURE 13. Relationship between breakins load and parameter A d d of staple yams.

Conclusions
Our results show that the failure mechanisms and the mechanical properties of yarns are highly influenced by their structures. For each kind of yarn, we have found the typical failure region characteristic. For yarns with more pronounced helical structures, the failure region characteristics in terms of structural parameters have similar features. Failure always takes place in regions characterized by the lowest yarn diameter and the highest value of parameter Ad, describing the changes in yam diameter on short sections of the yam. For air-jet yarns, the diameter does not show such typical features as the other yams, because the tensile properties are highly influenced by the wrapper fiber properties. We have shown that for air-jet yarns, the failure region can be character-

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