Design Guide for Steels a t Elevated Temperatures and High Strain Rates

MATERIAL PROPERTY DATA FOR STEELS UNDER HIGH STRAIN-RATE LOADING

is maintained. The energy for the deformation is obtained from a rotating flywheel.

4.1 Introduction This chapter provides information on material property data that can be used in the design of offshore structures against explosions. Data is provided to enable the engineer to use both simplified methods and advanced non-linear methods. Methods of measuring strain-rate effects Numerous techniques are employed to determine the strain-rate sensitivity of steels. The objective is to obtain material properties that are unaffected by the instrumentation used, the effects of inertia, friction or by the method of processing the results. Quasi-static machines, such as screwdriven Instrons and servo-hydraulic machines, normally generate data for strain rates between and10' s-'. For medium rates (10' to lo2 s-I), cam and wedge plastometers and drop hammers are used. As structural components of offshore installations under hydrocarbon-based blast loading experience strain rates within the range to lo2 s-', only the quasi-static, cam and wedge plastometer and drop hammer methods are discussed. 4.2.1 Quasi-static methods Quasi-static methods comprise hydraulic testing machines used routinely at low strain rates for a variety of tests. They have in some cases been used successfully at medium strain rates. When operating in the medium strain rate region, however, it is necessary to consider carefully the compliance of the testing machine, especially as this may change dramatically depending on the size of the specimen being tested and whether the machine is operating in tension or compression. 4 . 2 . 2 Cam and wedge plastometers The cam plastometer incorporates a logarithmic-shaped cam to change the speed in direct proportion to the instantaneous length of the specimen. In this way, a constant strain rate

4.2

The principal advantage of this machine is that it can produce large plastic strains and that there is no severe impact during the engagement of the cam and specimen. However, the maximum strain rate obtainable with the cam plastometer is of the order lo2 s.' before friction or the inertia effects becomes significant.
A wedge plastometer is activated by a linear cam as opposed to a logarithmic one. In this, compression testing is possible in multiple stages, under constant engineering or natural strain rate at any selected temperature. Essentially, the principles are similar to the rotational cam plastometer, but the energy source is a hydraulic press instead of a flywheel and the cam is effectively a profiled wedge that is pulled over the cam follower to produce the compression.

4.2.3 Drop hammer This is essentially a mass released from a certain height onto the specimen, which rests on a load cell. The top is guided by rails. The impact velocity of the mass is usually measured by photo-diodes or a laser light beam and the instantaneous height of the specimen is measured by a resistance slide wire, a capacitance transducer or by high-speed photography. The load is measured from a load cell placed between the specimen and a rigid anvil. The instantaneous force and displacement curves are then cross-plotted by eliminating time to give force - displacement and stress-strain at that particular impact velocity. Drop forges have been used in the medium strain rate region.
It is important to recognise that the strain rate during a drop forging test, particularly if large strains are involved, is not constant. Most investigators who have used this device have, therefore, referred to a mean strain rate. It is noted that deviation from this mean may be as much as two or three times. Clearly the strain rates obtainable with devices such as these can

28

FABIG Technical Note 6 - September 2001

Design Guide for Steels a t Elevated Temperatures and High Strain Rates

be greater than those obtained using the cam plastometer.

noticeably different behaviour is experienced by steels with different composition. The commonly used mechanical properties of steel that are obtained in quasi-static tests at about per sec rate of straining, will be different when tested at higher strain rates. The steel yield stress and ultimate strength will increase and the strains corresponding to these stresses, as well as the strain at the beginning of the strain hardening range, will either increase or remain constant with increasing strain rate. However, the steel modulus of elasticity will not be significantly influenced by the rate of straining. Figure 4.1 presents stress-strain profiles up to fracture for low-carbon mild steel at different strain rates").
Strain rate A - 106 B = 55

4.3 Structural Carbon Steels Although information on the strain rate effects on carbon steels is extensive, it predominantly relates to steel behaviour either at low strain rate and high temperatures or at very high strain rates and at room temperature (at least an order of magnitude greater than those encountered in hydrocarbon explosions).
This is not surprising, due to the interest from the metal forming, power and defence industries. Though information is available on mild steels (yield strength 240-275 N/mm*), virtually no information is available on the medium and high strength structural steels that are commonly used today (yield strength 345-460 MPa). Such testing as has been done has had as its chief objective the characterisation of Charpy V notched properties. This is not surprising, since all standards for such steels (eg BS EN 10025) do not include dynamic requirements except for the impact Charpy test. The work that was performed by British Gas as part of the Blast and Fire Engineering Project for Topside Structures in 1991('), attempted to extract experimental data from the literature on steels nearest in composition to those used in offshore structures. That review mainly focussed on BS 4360 Grade 50D steels. Since 1991, however, BS 4360 Specification for weldable steels has been superseded by BS EN 10025 Hot rolled products of non-alloy structural steels and BS 7191 Steels for ogshore structures. With the introduction of these new Standards, new manufacturing processes (thermo-mechanically rolled and quenched and tempered steels) and new higher strength steels (yield stress typically 450MPa), it is not possible to apply with confidence the 1991 data to these new steels. Although analytical expressions of the relationships between the properties considered and the rate and other parameters that influence these properties exist, they cannot be used generally for all carbon steels. This is because the relationships proposed are not definitive nor valid throughout the range of rates and because

.'

c-2 D 0.22
A

E =

0.001

lWt

0.1

0.2

0.3
Strain

0.4

0.5

Figure 4.1 EfSect of behaviour of mild steel

strain

rates

on

Results from dynamic tensile tests on lowcarbon steels have been recorded over a long period of time and have been collated by S ymonds"). Dynamic tests have revealed that steels with lower yield strength are relatively more sensitive to strain rate variations than steels with higher strength. Other factors, such as the chemical properties and the manufacturing process, also influence the strain rate effects. This is clearly shown in Figure 4.2, where the dynamic increase factor for yield strength versus strain rate is plotted for a mild steel (ASTM A36 steel with static yield stress of 250 MPa) and for a high strength, quenched and tempered steel (ASTM A514 steel with yield stress approx 760 MPa)"".

FABIG Technical Note 6

- September 2001

29

Design Guide for Steels a t Elevated Temperatures and High Strain Rates

4.4 Cowper-Symonds Relationship Relationships have been developed which attempt to model strain rate dependency in steels and other materials. The relationship that was put forward by Cowper-Symonds"" is the one that is most commonly used to calculate the enhancement of stresses due to strain rate effects. The relationship is expressed as follows:

To describe the strain sensitive behaviour of mild steel at the ultimate tensile stress, Campbell and Cooper"*' have shown that values of D=6844 s.' and q=3.91 are appropriate. Due to the variety of values for coefficients D and q that have been obtained from different experimental studies, it is clear that there is a need to conduct dynamic tensile tests to obtain the dynamic material properties for the specific material involving large plastic strains. For other structural grades of carbon steel the Interim Guidance notes for the design and protection of topside structures against explosion and fire('3' recommends that dynamic yield stresses can be derived from the results for mild steel using the following equation:
I \ -

where
(Jd

oS
&

and

is the dynamic stress at a particular strain rate is the static stress is the uniaxial plastic strain rate D and q are constants which are specific to the steel.

odYn =u,-25+210[%)q

For engineering purposes, the values of the constants usually quoted for mild steel are those determined by Symonds'') with D = 40.4 s-' and q=5. These values were obtained from dynamic uniaxial tensile tests that produced strains up to only a few percent. (24%). Thus, these particular values are valid for estimating the dynamic flow stresses in the neighbourhood of the yield stress and for relatively small plastic strains. Alternatively, D=300 s-' and q=2.5 could be used to describe the behaviour at 5 % strain.

where q is the specified minimum yield stress of the steel (in MPa) and D and q are as for mild steel. This relationship is useful primarily to obtain data for steels with yield stress in the vicinity of 355 MPa. The relationship, however, may not be valid for higher strength steels such as BS 7191:Grade 450 EM steels and BS EN 10025: S420 and S460 steels.

17

Figure 4.2

Dynamic increase factor for yield strength of mild and high strength steel versus strain rate""
FABIG Technical Note 6 - September 2001

30

Design Guide for Steels at Elevated Temperatures and High Strain Rates

4.5 Stainless steels Parameters for the Cowper - Symonds relationship have also been derived for stainless steel("). The values of D and q quoted for Grade 304 stainless steel are D = 100 s-' and q = 10.
Recently experimental work was undertaken by University of Liverpool for the Steel Construction Institute'l4). Static and dynamic tensile tests were performed on three stainless steels; Grade 1.4404 (316L), Grade 1.4362 (SAF 2304) and Grade 1.4462 (2205) steels. Stainless steels have a strong strain-rate dependency; strengths are increased (particularly in the region of the 0.2%proof strain) for high strain rates and the rupture strain is reduced. Figure 4.3 shows a typical strain versus time curve for a dynamic tensile test, illustrating how the strain rate can be idealised as two discrete slopes representing the pre- and post- yield . , and E., respectively. strain rates i
0.03

may be enhanced to ad,, to take advantage of the improvement in strength due to the high strain rates. o d y n is given by:

The enhancement of stresses as a result of high strain rates can also be represented by the Cowper - Symonds empirical relationship. (See Section 4.4.) The Cowper-Symonds constants D and q, for 316L, SAF2304 and 2205 stainless steels, which have been obtained from least mean squares fit"') are given in Table 4.1. Table 4.2 and Table 4.3 give values of the strain rate enhancement factor KSRfor the 0.1 %, 0.2% and 1 % proof strengths ( ( K S R I~ ,O (KSR)O 2, and (KSR)I 0 respectively) for a range of preyield strain rates k y . Values of KSR for the ultimate tensile strength ((KsdUTs) for a range of post-yield strain rates i, are also given alongside the rupture strain g f . Using the strain rate enhancement factors given in Table 4.2 and Table 4.3 the typically used strengths at known proof strains, it is possible to construct a simplified linearized stress-strain curve for a particular strain rate. A family of curves can be generated for a range of strain rates thereby producing full enhanced stressstrain curves. These curves can then be used for assessments of the plastic deformation using non-linear finite element analysis (NLFEA). Figure 4.4 shows one linearized stress-strain curve for a particular strain rate.

' t1
g
0.02

0.025 I

0.015

0.01

0.m

2
,
n m @I

T.

Figure 4.3

Typical strain-time curve for a tensile test on stainless steel

The minimum specified values of 0.2%and 1 % proof strength q0.2and fi.0~) and the ultimate tensile strength Cr;) are given in EN 10088-2, based on 'static' tests to EN 10002-1. The strain rates for static tests defined in EN 10002-1 are:

iy < 2.5 x l o 3 s-'

foZp

and, where specified for fi.@ iU < 8.0 x lo6 s-' for strengths at strains greater than 1.0%proof strain For general design in stainless steel, the design strength cry is taken as the minimum specified 0.2%proof strength fo 2p. However, when blast loading is being considered, the design strength
FABIG Technical Note 6

Figure 4.4

Linearized stress-strain curve allowing for strain rate effects

- September 2001

31

Design Guide for Steels a t Elevated Temperatures and High Strain Rates

Table 4.1

Cowper - Symonds constants for stainless steels

Proof strength
D

Material

0 0

316L
SAF 2304

0.1% 0.2% 0.1% 0.2% 0.1% 0.2%

d 471
240 22.0 635 (ah) 3489 7 6 9 5958

MPa

5.76 4.74 2.51 4.04(alt) 5.77 5.13 6.36

2 6 3 277 5 1 6 527 544 5 7 5

2205 (318)

Table 4.2 Grade

Strain rate enhancement for 0.1 %, 0.2% and I .O % proof strengths, for stainless steels

%
(d)
1.38e-4 0.0017 0.0025 0.0086 0.0178 0.0880 7.4200 1.3844 9.9e-4 O.OO25 0.0055 0.01 11 0.10oo 5.3900 1.38e-04 0.0024 0.0025 0.0055 0.01 1 2 0.1230 6.4800

00.1

(KSd0.I

0 . 2

(Ksdo.2

q.0

(~SdI.0

1A 0 4 (316L)

1.4362 (2304)

(N/mm2) 269 287 2 91 304 311 327 372 5 2 5 536 5 4 3 549

(N/mIl12)

( N / m 2 )

1 ,4462 ( 2 2 0 5 )

555 572 604 5 6 5 5 91 592 601 610 639 688

0.93 0.99 1 .oo 1.04 1.07 1.12 1 . 2 8 0.97 0.99 1 .00 1 . 0 1 1.02 1 . 0 5 1.11 0.95 1 .oo 1 .oo 1.02 1 . 0 3 1 . 0 8 1.16

2 7 6 2 9 6 300 313 321 338 385 548 562 572 581 588 613 656 596 627 627 638 648 682 737

0.92 0.99 1 .oo 1.04 1.07 1.13 1 . 2 8 0.96 0.98 1 .oo 1.02 1.03 1.07 1.15 0.95 1 .oo 1 .oo 1.02 1.03 1 . 0 9 1 . 1 8

3 1 6 332 335 3 4 6 352 3 6 6 4 0 4 615 626 634 6 4 1 647 666 700 680 705 705 715 723 7 51 797

0.94 0.99 1 .oo 1.03 1.05 1.09 1 . 2 1 0.97 0.99 1 .oo 1 . 0 1 1.02 1 . 0 5 1 . 1 0 0.96 1 .OO 1.oo 1 . 0 1 1.03 1.07 1.13

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FABlG Technical Note 6 - September 2001

Design Guide for Steels a t Elevated Temperatures and High Strain Rates

Table 4.3 Grade

1.4404 (316L)

Strain rate enhancement for ultimate tensile strength, for stainless steels
6" (s-9
0,

(KSdUTS

& f

1.4362 (2304)

1.4462 (2205)

1.38e-04 1.69e-03 2.50e-03 8.63e-03 1.78e-02 8.8Oe-02 7.42e+00 1.38-04 9.9Oe-04 2.5e-03 5.50e-03 1.1 le-02 1.Ooe-Ol 5.39e + 00 1.38e-04 2.e-03 2.5Oe-03 5 S3e-03 1.12e-02 1.23e-01 6.48e+00

(N/Id) 597 615 619 628 632 644 658 739 754 758 766 769 779 790 813 84 1 847 862 867 887 905

GL = 6 0 m ( % )
0.97 1.oo 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.05 1.07 0.98 1.oo 1.01 1.02 1.02 1.03 1.05 0.97 1.oo 1.01 1.03 1.03 1.05 1.08 58.7 49.3 50.3 50.0 51.0 52.7 36.0 28.0 26.0 29.7 29.0 30.7 34.3

29.0 29.3 30.0 30.0 28.3

4.6 Strain rate tests The Steel Construction Institute commissioned a series of tests, on behalf of the HSE, on high strength structural steel plate to ascertain the sensitivity of their mechanical properties to strain rate. Strain rates used in the testing were in the range O.OOl/sec to 10 /sec. The results have been published as an OTO report (OTO 200 1/020(~)).
The material grades tested were 355EMZ in the normalised and thermo-mechanically rolled condition and 450EMZ in the quench and tempered condition, both to BS 7191. Both grades were supplied by Corns. Material properties measured were the upper yield strength (UYS), the lower yield strength (LYS) and the ultimate tensile strength (UTS). Strengths at numerous proof strains were also measured, to enable stress-strain profiles for a range of strain rates to be produced. Detailed analysis of the test results is presented in Appendix B. This analysis shows that a higher level of confidence is achieved in the
FABIG Technical Note 6 - September 2001

following analyses when plastic true strain (determined using deformed length) is used rather than total strain and when true stress (determined using deformed cross-sectional area) is used rather than engineering stress. From this it is clear that the properties are governed by true stress and plastic strain. The engineering proof stress (s) values were converted into true stress (a) as follows (Dieter''''):

cr = s(1 + e )
where e is the conventional engineering proof strain equal to the plastic extension divided by the original undeformed gauge length, s is the engineering stress defined as the load divided by original undeformed cross sectional area, and is the true stress defined as the load divided by deformed cross sectional area

33

Design Guide for Steels at Elevated Temperatures and High Strain Rates

The engineering strain values e were also converted to true strain (E) as follows:
E

= Zn ( 1 + e )

True strain E is the plastic extension divided by the deformed gauge length. Regression analysis of the log of the tensile properties versus the log of the strain rates enabled equations of the following form to be developed:

An advantage of having a single expression which deals with both strain rate and strain hardening (as in the above equation) is that the stress at any combination of strain rate and strain can be calculated from a single value. Thus, the Dynamic Increase Factor which only incorporates strain rate has been replaced by the Increase Factor which incorporates both strain rate and strain hardening. For the proof stress values Lncrease Factors relative to a strain rate of 0.001 per sec and a proof strain of 0.2% were calculated by dividing the calculated stress at a given strain rate and strain by the 0.2% proof stress at the strain rate of 0.001 per sec.

where j k
CJ

n
E dE -

dt m

is the elastic limit stress, MPa is the stress MPa at a true strain of 1.0, is load divided by deformed cross sectional area (true stress) is the strain hardening exponent, is the proof strain, is the plastic strain rate sec-', and is the strain rate exponent.

4.6.1 Tests on 355EMZ steel The 355EMZ steel in the normalised condition (N) was supplied in three plate thicknesses of 12 mm, 30 mm and 60 mm, whilst the thermomechanically rolled steel (TMCR) was supplied in one thickness only of 11.5 mm.
For the LYS, UYS and UTS values the Increase Factor is the value at a given strain rate divided by the value at 0.001 per sec. Table 4.4 presents strain-rate enhancement factors for simplified methods, while Table 4.5 gives regression coefficients to be used in conjunction with the expression for true stress above for analysis; both are for grade 355 EMZ TMCR steels. Table 4.6 presents strain-rate enhancement factors for simplified methods, while Table 4.7 gives regression coefficients to be used in conjunction with the expression for true stress above for analysis; both are for grade 355EMZ normalised steels.

The addition of the j stress was necessary in order to linearize the log/log relationships and to obtain a high correlation coefficient. For the LYS, UYS and UTS values the strain hardening component is not applicable and the expression used becomes:
m

~ = k ( $ ) +j Structural engineering calculations may use total strain rather than proof strain and engineering rather than true stress. The total strain includes elastic strain which depends on the stress which is being calculated. The expression for true stress is therefore modified to enable engineering stress values to be calculated for a given total strain with the following recursive equation: o=k[Zn(lie,

-%)]"($)"
+j

where e, is the total engineering strain

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FABIG Technical Note 6 - September 2001

Design Guide for Steels at Elevated Temperatures and High Strain Rates

Table 4.4

Strain rate enhancement factors for Grade 355EMZ TMCR steels (source, OTO
20011020)

'y (S.9

(KSR)UYS

(KSR)LYS

(KSR)vrS

(KSR)0.2

(KSR)O.S

(KSR)t.O

(KSR)j.O

(KSR)S.O

(KSR)lO.O

(KSR)IJ.O

0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100

1 .00 1.05 1.10 1.17 1.25 1.34

1.OO 1.04 1.08 1.13 1.18 1.25

1 1.02 1.05 1.07 1.10 1.13

1 1.01 1.03 1.04 1.06 1.07

.oo

1 .oo 1.02 1.04 1.06 1.07 1.10

1 .oo 1.02 1.04 1.06 1.09 1.10

1 .oo 1.02 1.04 1.06 1.09 1.11

1 .oo 1.02 1.04 1.06 1.11 1.11

1 1.02 1.05 1.07 1.09 1.12

.oo

1 1.02 1.05 1.07 1.09 1.10

.oo

Table 4.5

Regression coefficients for Grade 355EMZ TMCR steels (source, OTO 20011020) WS
300 181 0.07

Regression coefficients

ULS
300 153 0.059

UTS
300 229 0.025

0.2-15% Strain
100 82 1 0.012

i
k m

Table 4.6

Strain rate enhancemenr factors for Grade 355EMZ Normalised steels (source, OTO 20011020)
(KSR)LYS
( K S R ) v r S

"
(S.9

(KSR)WS

(KSR)0.2

(KSR)O.S

(KSR)I.O

(KSR)Z.O

(KSR)S.O

(KSR)IO.O

(KSR)IS.O

0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100

1.OO 1.06 1.12 1.21 1.31 1.43

1.OO 1.04 1.09 1.15 1.21 1.29

1.OO 1.03 1.06 1.09 1.13 1.16

1 .OO 1.02 1.03 1.05 1.07 1.08

1.OO 1.02 1.04 1.06 1.09 1.11

1 .OO 1.03 1.05 1.07 1.10 1.12

1.oo 1.03 1.05 1.08 1.11 1.14

1.oo 1.03 1.06 1.09 1.12 1.15

1.oo 1.03 1.06 1.08 1.12 1.15

1.OO 1.03 1.06 1.09 1.12 1.16

Table 4.7

Regression coeflcients for Grade 355EMZ Normalised steels (source, OTO 20011020) WS
300 182 0.087

Regression coefficients

ULS
300 151 0.069

UTS
300 257 0.029

0.2-15% Strain
100 937 0.015

i
k m

FABIG Technical Note 6

- September

2001

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Design Guide for Steels a t Elevated Temperatures and High Strain Rates

4.7 Tests on 450EMZ steel The results obtained for the 450EMZ steel specimens were analysed in the same manner as that described above for the 355 EMZ steels and the same equations apply.

Details of the tests are presented in Appendix B. Table 4.8 presents -strain-rate enhancement factors for simplified methods, while Table 4.9 gives regression coefficients to be used in conjunction with the expression for true stress above for analysis; both for grade 450 EMZ quenched and tempered steels.

Table 4.8

Strain rate enhancement factors for Grade 450 EMZ Normalised steels (source, OTO 2001 /020)

%
(S?

(KSR)UYS (KSR)LYS ( K s R ) ~ (KSR)O.Z (KSR)O.S (KSR)I.O (KSR)Z.O (KSR)S.O (KSR)IO.O (KSR)IS.O

1.oo

0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100

1.04 1.09 1.17 1.27 1.42

1.oo 1.02 1.05 1.09 1.13 1.19

1.oo 1.03 1.06 1.09 1.13 1.17

1.OO 1.01 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.03

1.oo

1.01 1.02 1.03 1.05 1.06

1.OO 1.01 1.02 1.04 1.06 1.07

1.OO 1.02 1.04 1.05 1.07 1.10

.oo
.02

.04
.07 1.10 1.10

1. OO 1.03 1.06 1.09 1.13 1.17

1.00 1.02 1.06 1.09 1.13 1.17

Table 4.9

Regression coeflcients for Grade 45OEMZ Normalised steels (source, OTO 2001 /020)
UYS
400 116 0.148

Regression coefficients
J

ULS
400 86 0.09

UTS
400 174 0.047

0.2-15%

Strain
400 535 0.038

k rn

36

FABIG Technical Note 6 - September 2001