Optimisation of hybrid high-modulus/high-strength carbon fibre reinforced plastic composite driveshafts Original Research Materials & Design, Volume

46, April 2013, Pages 88-100 O. Montagnier, Ch. Hochard

Article

Abstract
This study deals with the optimisation of hybrid composite drive shafts operating at subcritical or supercritical speeds, using a genetic algorithm. A formulation for the flexural vibrations of a composite drive shaft mounted on viscoelastic supports including shear effects is developed. In particular, an analytic stability criterion is developed to ensure the integrity of the system in the supercritical regime. Then it is shown that the torsional strength can be computed with the maximum stress criterion. A shell method is developed for computing drive shaft torsional buckling. The optimisation of a helicopter tail rotor driveline is then performed. In particular, original hybrid shafts consisting of highmodulus and high-strength carbon fibre reinforced epoxy plies were studied. The solutions obtained using the method presented here made it possible to greatly decrease the number of shafts and the weight of the driveline under subcritical conditions, and even more under supercritical conditions. This study yielded some general rules for designing an optimum composite shaft without any need for optimisation algorithms.

Article Outline o o o o o o o o o o o
4.1. Subcritical shaft optimisation 4.2. Supercritical shaft optimisation 5. Conclusion 3.3.1. Initialisation 3.3.2. Elitism 3.3.3. Scaling, selection and crossover 3.3.4. Mutation 3.1. Individual 3.2. Constraints and fitness 3.3. The genetic algorithm method 2.1. Flexural vibration analysis 2.2. Torsional vibration analysis 2.3. Failure strength analysis 2.4. Torsional buckling analysis 2.5. Driveline mass 3. Shaft optimisation using a genetic algorithm Nomenclature 1. Introduction 2. Design aspects

4. Case study

Appendix A. Torsional buckling equations References Bending of fibre-reinforced thermoplastic sheets T.A. Martin, D. Bhattacharyya, I.F. Collins

Original Research Article

Composites Manufacturing, Volume 6, Issues 34, 1995, Pages 177-187

Abstract
When forming continuous fibre-reinforced thermoplastic (CFRT) sheets into three-dimensional components, interply shearing may be necessary in order to accommodate the out-of-plane bending because the fibres severely constrain the deformation along the fibre directions within their planes. Furthermore, thermoforming takes place at elevated temperatures so that the molten matrix polymer becomes fluid. These two factors are of prime importance in analysing any forming process with thermoplastic composite materials. This paper examines the process of forming unidirectional Plytron (a glass fibre-reinforced polypropylene composite, originally developed by ICI, UK) sheets into V-bends at a constant elevated temperature, and compares the experimental results with those predicted by an analytical model for plane strain bending of an incompressible Newtonian fluid reinforced with a single family of inextensible fibres. The shape of a strip as it is formed, the effects of temperature and forming speed on the forming loads are also investigated. A major conclusion from this study is that Plytron sheets demonstrate a viscoelastic response when formed within their melting range and the degree of elasticity is increased by reducing the temperature, which, in turn, can reduce the fibre instability. The theoretical model provides useful results for evaluating the effective longitudinal viscosity of the composite sheet, the effects of forming speed and punch geometry on the bending stresses and also highlights the limitations of a Newtonian fluid model in comparison with the actual material response. Damage behavior of fiber reinforced composite plates subjected to drop weight impactsOriginal

Research

Article
Composites Science and Technology, Volume 66, Issue 1, January 2006, Pages 61-68 Ramin Hosseinzadeh, Mahmood Mehrdad Shokrieh, Larry Lessard

Abstract
Fiber reinforced materials are widely used in many industrial structures including automotive, aviation, and civil due to their lower weights compared to metal structures. Full-composite body structures, especially in automotive and aviation applications, are becoming a proper replacement for current metal ones. For this reason, damage of such structures subjected to impact is a crucial case study in current research. The typical types of damages are mainly caused during production, repair, maintenance, or by particle crashes during function, and collisions between different structures. In this paper, four different fiber reinforced composite plates are studied after being impacted by a standard drop weight with different impact energies and moments. The damage zones are studied by ultra-sonic nondestructive inspection. Carbon fiber reinforced composite plates show the best structural behavior under low velocity impacts meanwhile carbon/glass fiber reinforced (hybrid) plates show suitable behavior under high impact energy. Finally, all the plates are modeled using ANSYS LS DYNA V6.1 under similar conditions to those of the tests. The damage zone shapes derived from software modeling do not show very good coincidence with those resulting from the tests. However, the software is able to predict the threshold of damage as it is verified well by test results.

Article Outline
1. Introduction 2. Test configuration 3. Inspection method

4. Glass fiber woven composites 5. Carbon fiber reinforced composites 6. Hybrid composites 7. Test results 8. Software modeling 9. Summary References

Composition of Fiber Reinforced Composites

Common fiber reinforced composites are composed of fibers and a matrix. Fibers are the reinforcement and the main source of strength while the matrix 'glues' all the fibers together in shape and transfers stresses between the reinforcing fibers. Sometimes, fillers or modifiers might be added to smooth manufacturing process, impart special properties, and/or reduce product cost.

Fibers of Fiber Reinforced Composites

The primary function of the fibers is to carry the loads along their longitudinal directions. Common fiber reinforcing agents include Aluminum, Aluminum oxide, Aluminum silica Asbestos Beryllium, Beryllium carbide, Beryllium oxide Carbon (Graphite) Glass (E-glass, S-glass, D-glass) Molybdenum Polyamide (Aromatic polyamide, Aramid), e.g., Kevlar 29 and Kevlar 49 Polyester Quartz (Fused silica) Steel Tantalum Titanium Tungsten, Tungsten monocarbide

Matrix of Fiber Reinforced Composites

The primary functions of the matrix are to transfer stresses between the reinforcing fibers (hold fibers together) and protect the fibers from mechanical and/or environmental damages. A basic requirement for a matrix material is that its strain at break must be larger than the fibers it is holding. Most matrices are made of resins for their wide variation in properties and relatively low cost. Common resin materials include Resin Matrix o o o o o Epoxy Phenolic Polyester Polyurethane Vinyl Ester

Among these resin materials, polyesters are the most widely used. Epoxies, which have higher adhesion and less shrinkage than polyesters, come in second for their higher costs. Although less common, non-resin matrices (mostly metals) can still be found in applications requiring higher performance at elevated temperatures, especially in the defense industry. Metal Matrix o o o o o o o o Aluminum Copper Lead Magnesium Nickel Silver Titanium Ceramics

Non-Metal Matrix

Modifiers of Fiber Reinforced Composites

The primary functions of the additives (modifiers, fillers) are to reduce cost, improve workability, and/or impart desired properties.

Cost Reduction: o Low cost to weight ratio, may fill up to 40% (65% in some cases) of the total weight

Workability Improvement: o o o o o o o Reduce shrinkage Help air release Decrease viscosity Control emission Reduce coefficient of friction on surfaces Seal molds and/or guide resin flows Initiate and/or speed up or slow down curing process Improve electric conductivity Improve fire resistance Improve corrosion resistance Improve ultraviolet resistance Improve surface toughness Stabilize heat transfer Reduce tendency of static electric charge Add desired colors

Property Enhancement: o o o o o o o o

Common materials used as additives include Filler Materials: o o o o o o o o o o o o Feldspar Glass microspheres Glass flakes Glass fibers, milled Mica Silica Talc Wollastonite Other microsphere products Organic peroxide, e.g., methylethylketone peroxide (MEKP) Benzoyl peroxide Tertiary butyl catechol (TBC)

Modifier Materials:

o o o

Dimethylaniline (DMA) Zinc stearate, waxes, silicones Fumed silica, clays

Multiphase layout optimization for fiber reinforced composites considering a damage modelOriginal

Research

Article
Engineering Structures, Volume 49, April 2013, Pages 202-220 Junji Kato, Ekkehard Ramm

Abstract
The present study addresses an optimization strategy for fiber reinforced composites, specifically Fiber Reinforced Concrete (FRC) with a complex failure mechanism resulting from material brittleness of both matrix and fibers and also from the nonlinear interfacial behavior between those constituents. A prominent objective for this kind of composite is the improvement of ductility. The entire structural response of this material strongly depends on three factors, (i) material layout of fiber on a small scale, (ii) fiber geometry on the macroscopic structural level, and (iii) material parameters of interface between matrix and fiber. The purpose of the present study is to improve the structural ductility of FRC by applying optimization; in the formulation not only the optimal material layout of fibers on the small scale but also the global fiber geometry are determined simultaneously. The proposed method is achieved by combining multiphase material optimization and material shape optimization, separately introduced by Kato et al. and Kato and Ramm , respectively. For the optimization problem a gradient-based optimization scheme is assumed. A method of moving asymptotes (MMA) is applied because of its numerically high efficiency and robustness. The performance of the proposed method is demonstrated by a series of numerical examples and compared with pure material shape optimization. It is verified that the proposed method gives more efficient results than the individual material shape optimization and that the structural ductility can be substantially improved.

Article Outline o o o o o
3.1. Multiphase material optimization 3.2. Material shape optimization 4. Multiphase layout optimization 2.1. Material model for constituents concrete and fiber 2.2. Material model for interface 3. Background: multiphase material and material shape optimization 1.1. Overview 2. Applied material models 1. Introduction

 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o
9.1.1. Deep beam 9.1.2. Splitting plate 9.2. L-shape plate 10. Conclusions Acknowledgement Appendix A. List of symbols References Hybrid natural and glass fibers reinforced polymer composites material selection using Analytical Hierarchy Process for automotive brake lever design Original Research Article 9.1. Material shape optimization vs. multiphase layout optimization 8.1. Overview of sensitivity analysis 8.2. Gradients of constitutive equations 8.3. Sensitivity for explicit term of objective function 8.4. Calculation of sensitivity coefficients 8.5. Total sensitivity 9. Numerical examples 7.1. Optimization problem 7.2. Equilibrium conditions and total derivative of design function 8. Sensitivity analysis 6.1. Discretized principle virtual work 6.2. Element matrices 7. Structural optimization of FRC 5.1. Kinematical assumption for interface between concrete and fiber 6. Finite element formulation of FRC 4.1. Basic concept 4.2. Two-phase fiber 4.3. Three-phase fiber 4.4. Interpolation rule for interface 5. Embedded reinforcement element

Materials & Design, Volume 51, October 2013, Pages 484-492 M.R. Mansor, S.M. Sapuan, E.S. Zainudin, A.A. Nuraini, A. Hambali

Abstract
Due to recent trend and increasing awareness towards sustainable product design, natural based fiber materials are gaining a revival popularity to replace synthetic based fiber in the formulation of composites especially for automotive structural and semi structural applications. In this paper, the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) method was utilized in the selection of the most suitable natural fiber to be hybridized with glass fiber reinforced polymer composites for the design of a passenger vehicle center lever parking brake component. Thirteen (13) candidate natural based fiber materials for the hybridization process were selected and analyzed to determine their overall scores in three (3) main performance indices according to the component product design specifications. Using the AHP method, the kenaf bast fiber yields the highest scores and was selected as the best candidate material to formulate the hybrid polymer composites for the automotive component construction. Sensitivity analysis was also performed and results show that kenaf bast fiber emerged as the best candidate material in two out of three simulated scenarios, which further validates the results gained through the AHP method.

Article Outline o o o o o o o o
3.1. Overall material selection methodology using AHP 3.2. Development of AHP hierarchical framework 3.3. Performing judgment using pair-wise comparison 3.4. Synthesizing pair-wise judgments and calculating priority vectors 3.5. Performing consistency analysis using consistency ratio 3.6. Final AHP hybrid polymer composites material selection results 3.7. Results verification using sensitivity analysis 4. Conclusion Acknowledgments References Numerical investigation of the effects of drill geometry on drilling induced delamination of carbonfiber reinforced composites Original Research Article Composite Structures, Volume 105, November 2013, Pages 126-133 Ozden Isbilir, Elaheh Ghassemieh 2.1. Product design specification for automotive parking brake lever 3. Material selection of hybrid natural and glass fibers reinforced polymer composites using AHP: a case study on automotive parking brake lever component 1. Introduction 2. Product design specifications

Abstract
Drilling is a major process in the manufacturing of holes required for the assemblies of composite laminates in aerospace industry. Simulation of drilling process is an effective method in optimizing the drill geometry and process parameters in order to improve hole quality and to reduce the drill wear. In this research we have developed three-

dimensional (3D) FE model for drilling CFRP. A 3D progressive intra-laminar failure model based on the Hashins theory is considered. Also an inter-laminar delamination model which includes the onset and growth of delamination by using cohesive contact zone is developed. The developed model with inclusion of the improved delamination model and real drill geometry is used to make comparison between the step drill of different stage ratio and twist drill. Thrust force, torque and work piece stress distributions are estimated to decrease by the use of step drill with high stage ratio. The model indicates that delamination and other workpiece defects could be controlled by selection of suitable step drill geometry. Hence the 3D model could be used as a design tool for drill geometry for minimization of delamination in CFRP drilling.

Article Outline o o o o o o o o o
4.1. Verification of force and torque 4.2. Verification of delamination prediction 4.3. Effects of geometry on thrust force and torque 4.4. Effects of geometry on damage and delamination 4.5. Stress distribution 5. Conclusions Acknowledgements References Design of newly fabricated tribological machine for wear and frictional experiments under dry/wet condition Original Research Article Materials & Design, Volume 48, June 2013, Pages 2-13 B.F. Yousif 2.1. Stress model 2.2. Progressive failure model (intra-laminar failure) 2.3. Progressive delamination model (inter-laminar failure) 2.4. Finite element model of drilling 3. Experimental procedure 4. Results and discussion 1. Introduction 2. Numerical procedures

Abstract
Nowadays, there is demand to evaluate tribological performance of new engineering materials using different techniques. Various laboratory tribo-machines have been designed and fabricated such as Pin-on-Disc (POD), ASTM G99, Block-on-Ring (BOR), ASTM G77 or G137-953, Dry Sand Rubber Wheel (DSRW), ASTM G655, Wet Sand Rubber Wheel (WSRW), ASTM G105, and sand/steel wheel test under wet/dry conditions (ASTM B611). A concept of integrating more than one tribo-technique at different contact mechanisms (line or area) working simultaneously under same test condition against same material is introduced in a current designed machine. Different wear modes (adhesive, two-body-abrasive, three-body-abrasive, under dry, lubricated, or slurry conditions) can be conducted on the same machine. Results of adhesive wear, friction and interface temperature of glass fibre reinforced polyester

composite under wet/dry contact condition are reported at 50 N load for different sliding speeds (2.87.8 m/s) using the new machine. Weight loss and friction coefficient of the composite were substantially influenced by introducing water as lubricant. Additionally, the contact condition has the high influence key on the wear and frictional performance of the composite.

Article Outline o o o o o
4.1. Dry contact condition 4.2. Wet contact condition 4.3. Surface observations 5. Conclusion References 3.1.1. Dry adhesive tests 3.1.2. Wet adhesive tests 3.1. Preparation of samples 1. Introduction 2. New tribological apparatus configurations 3. Material preparation and experimental procedure

4. Results and discussion