1. Chemistryastudyofmatterandenergyandtheirchanges. 2. Matterhasmassandoccupiesspace. 3. Energyabilitytodowork. Massvs.Weight Mass; *measuresthequantityofmatter. *Massisconstantfromplacetoplace.(sameeverywhere) *ismeasuredwithabalance. Weight; *measuretheeffectsofgravityonmass. *weightcanvaryfromplacetoplace. *weightismeasuredbyascale. A. Matterit'spropertiestochanges. a. PhysicalpropertyVS.Chemicalproperty Physicalproperty;donotalteridentity.

entity. *canbedeterminedwithoutalteringidentity;mass,weight,temperature, volume,density,color.... Chemicalproperty; *canbedeterminedonlybyalteringidentity;combustibility. b. IntensivepropertyVS.Extensiveproperty. Intensiveproperty; *doesnotdependonquantity.Example;temperature,density,color. Extensiveproperty; *doesdependonquantity.Example;mass,weight,volume. 1

 c. PhysicalchangeVS.Chemicalchange Physicalchange; *doesnotalteridentity. Chemicalchange; *doesalteridentity. B. Formsofmatter Puresubstancevs.Mixtures Puresubstance;oneformofmatter. 1. Cannotbebrokendownintosmallersubstancebyphysicalchanges. 2. Hasaconstantcomposition. 3. Changesinstateoccurataconstanttemperature. Twotypesofpuresubstance;elementorcompound. Element;basicbuildingblockofmatter,cannotbebrokendownbysimple substancesbyordinarychemicalchanges. Compound;canbebrokendownbysimplesubstancesbychemicalchanges. Distinctsubstancecomposedoftwoorelementscombinedinadefinite proportionbymass. Mixtures;oneformofmatter. containingtwoormoresubstanceswhichcanbepresentinvariableamounts;can behomogeneous(sugarwater)orheterogeneous(sandandwater). 1. Canbebrokendownbysimplesubstancesbyphysicalchanges. 2. Canhavevariablecomposition. 3. Thetemperaturevariesinthechangeinstate. Twotypesofmixtures;homogeneous&heterogeneous. Heterogeneous;differentpropertiesthroughout.Alsoknownasasolution.Matter withoutuniformcompositionhavingtwoormorecomponentsorphases. Homogeneous;samepropertiesthroughout.Matterthathasuniformproperties throughout. 2

 A. Elements; 1. Naturaloccurring92 2. Manmade A. Symbolsofelements; *Oneortwoletters. *ifoneletter,useacapital. *iftwoletters,onlythefirstisacapital. B. Compounds; CovalentcompoundsVS.Ioniccompounds Covalentcompounds;chemicalcombinationofatoms.Achemicalbondfor betweentwoatomsofsharingapairofelectrons. Ioniccompounds;chemicalcombinationsofIon'sthatareeitherpositiveor negative. *compoundsaresymbolby chemicalformulas;tellsthenumberandtypesofatomsorionsinthecompound. Solution(homogeneous)asysteminwhichoneormoresubstancesare homogeneouslymixedordissolvedinanothersubstance. Solute;substancethatisdissolvedorthelastabundantcomponentinasolution. Solvent;dissolvingagentorthemostabundantinasolution. Energyforms&changes. A. Potentialenergyvs.Kineticenergy Potentialenergystoreenergy,ortheenergyofanobjecttoitsrelativeposition. sharedaformofenergydueto: 1.Position. 2.Internalarrangement(chemical) 3

 Kineticenergyenergythatmatterpossessesduetoitsmotion. activeformofenergydueto: 1.Motion B. Typeofworkitdoes;chemical,heat,sound,light,mechanical. *thesearealsoconvertible. *theseconversionsarenot100%efficientsourceofenergy,isalwayslostas heatenergy. Heatenergyvs.Temperature. Heatenergynaturalformofenergythatflowsfromaregionofhigher temperaturetooneoflowertemperature. Temperaturemanmadescales,weusedtomeasurerelativehotnessor coldness. *threecommonlyusedtemperaturescales: Fahrenheit=F Celsius=C Kelvin(absolute)=K *allphysicalandchemicalchangesarecompoundedbychangesinheatenergy. Endothermicreactionachemicalreactionthatabsorbsheat. Exothermicreactionachemicalreactioninwhichheatisreleasedasaproduct. *changesintheamountofheatenergyinasubstancewillcauseeither; 1. Changeintemperature. 2. Changeinstate. 3. Orboth 4

 Statesofmatter. a. Mattercanbeagas,liquidorsolid. 1. Gas(g):ittakestheshapeofitscontainerandalwayscompletelyfillsit. 2. Liquid(l):takesitsshapeofitscontainer,butdoesnotalwaysfillit. 3. Solid(s):maintainsitsownshapeanddoesnotalwaysfillitscontainer. VI.Changesinstate. A. Willoccurundertheproperconditions. B. Melting;iswhenasolidconvertsintoaliquid.(endothermic). 1) ThereverseFreezingLiquidintoasolid(Exothermic). 2) VaporizationLiquidintoagas.(Endothermic). 3) CondensationGasintoaliquid(exothermic). 4) SublimationSolidGas(endothermic). 5) DepositionGasSolid(exothermic) Conservationlaws. A. Late1700s. Lawsofconservationofmatter(mass)totalamountofmatterinthe universeisconstant. 5

 B. Lawsofconservationofenergy;totalamountofenergyintheuniverse isconstant. C. 1905Einstein E=mc. E=energy. M=mass. c=speedoflight(3x10meterspersecond). *smallamountsofmasscanconvertintolargeamountsofenergy. Or. *largeamountsofenergycanconvertintoasmallamountofenergy;Space. D.lawofconservationofmatterandenergytotalamountofmatter andenergyintheuniverseisconstant. E.lawsofconservationofmath *duringphysicalandchemicalchanges,therearenodetectablechanges inmass. Elements. Puresubstancecannotbebrokendownbychemicalchanges. A. 116knownelements. B. 92naturallyoccurringelements. C. Restaremanmade. Atroomtemperature; a) 11aregases. b) 2areliquids(Mercury,Bromine) c) Therestaresolid. 6

 D. Elementsareabbreviatedbysymbols. *Oneletter;uppercase. Carbon;C Hydrogen;H Boron;B Fluorine;F *Twoletters;1stletteruppercase&2ndletterlowercase. *mostelementsoriginatefromtheEnglishsystem. *someoriginatefromtheLatinlanguage; Sodium;Na+(Nativum). Potassium;K(Kalium). Lead;Pb(plumbum). Gold;Au(Aurum) *OneoriginatesfromtheGermanlanguage;Tungsten;W(Wolfman) V.Elementsarecomposedofatoms. A. Atoms=smallestpartofanelements,whichreturnsallpropertiesofthat element.(basicbuildingblocksofelements). B. Origins; 400BC.MostGreekphilosophersbelievedmattertobecontinuous. (Couldbecutintosmallerpieces). DemocritusandLeucippusbelievedmattertobediscrete. *Democritusthoughtthatallformsofmatterwerecomposedoftinyinvisible particles,whichhecalledatoms. SocratesPlatoAristotle *allbelievedmattertobecontinuous. Athreadofatoms,ideasurvived.Onthenatureofthings Attemptedtoexplainallnaturaltheoriesusingtheatomidea. 1500A.D.Guthubergpriestlypress 7

 influencedmanyofEuropeanscientists(Newton). Early1800sJohnDalton. 1statomictheory. A. Postulates 1. Elementsconsistoftinyindivisibleparticlescalledatoms. 2. Atomsofthesameelementsarealikeinmassandsize. 3. Atomsofdifferentelementshavedifferentmassesandsizes.Agiven compoundalwayscontainsthesamenumberandtypeofatomsorions. 4. Duringchemicalchangeisatomsarematter,neithercreatednordestroyed byarerarelyrearranged.Chemicalcompoundsareformedbytheunionof twoormoreatomsofdifferentelements. 5. Atomscombinetoformcompoundsinasimplenumericalratios,suchas onetoone,1to2,2to3,andsoon. 6. Atomsoftwoelementsmakecombinedindifferentratiostoformorethan onecompound. E. Chemicalsymbolism F. Chemicalformulasgivesthenumberandtypeofatomsorionsinthe compound. HOwaterNHammoniaCOCarbon H=2atomsN=1atomsC=1atoms O=1atomsH=3atomsO=2atoms CHOGlucoseCHOSucrose(tablesugar) C=6atomsC=12atoms H=12atomsH=12atoms O=6atomsO=11atoms NaClTablesalt Na=1ion Cl=1ion

 G. Empiricalformulagivesthetypeofatomsorionsbutonlytheirlowest wholenumberratios;alsoknownasthesimplestformula. ChemicalformulaEmpiricalformulaChemicalformula. CHCH CHCH CHCH CHCH CHOCHO HOHO CHOCHO IV.Earlyatomicmodels. A. 1897JJThomson,studyingcathoricrays. B. Usingcathoderaytube(crookestube). C. Thomson 1. Streamofchargedparticles(matter). 2. Couldcalculatetheirmassratio. 3. Ratiowasconstant,regardlessofthematerialusedonthe tubes. ConclusionThesescathoderayparticlesareinsideofandcommontoallatoms. D. 1897JJThomsonproposesthefirstatommodel(plumpudding model). *Atomsconsistofauniformspiralmasspositivechargewiththenegativecharge cathroderayparticlesembeddedwithin.

 E. 1909ErnestRutherfordGoldfoilexperiment. F. Radioactivityspontaneousreleaseparticlesand/orenergy. *1896Becquerel G. Types: Alpha()particleslike(positivecharge). Beta()particleslike(negativecharge). Gamma()pureenergy H. Goldfoilexperiment:leadlinedbox(page92) I. Expected:mostAlphaparticlesshouldpassstraightthroughwitha fewbeingslightlyreflected. Actual:mostdidpassstraightthroughwithafewreflected. Unexpected:afewAlphaparticlesweregreatlyreflectedandavery fewbalancedofftheGoldfoil. 10

 J. 1911Rutherford,nuclearmodel(unstable). Theatomconsistsofatinypositivechargenucleuswhichcontainsmostof themassoftheatom. Theemovedrandomlyaboutthenucleus. ee Orbitingewillloseenergy. eSpiralsintothenucleus. V.Overviewofthemodernatom;threesubatomicparticles. 1. 2. 3.

Particle Electron Proton Neutron

Discovery 1897JJThomson 1919Rutherford 1932Chadwick

Symbol e p n

Charge 1 +1 0(neutral)

Mass 9.1x10kg 1.625x10kg 1.650x10kg

*protonsandneutronsareinsidethenucleus. *electronsareoutsidethenucleus. 11

 A. Nuclearsymbolism X Z=atomicnumbernumberofprotonsinthenucleus(determinestheelement). A=themassnumber=numberofprotonsinthenumberofneutronsinthe nucleus(Determinestheisotope). Addin H C C C U U H H

(Deutrium) (tritium)

Z=#protons AZ=#neutrons Z=#electrons

1 0 1

1 1 1

1 2 1

6 6 6

6 7 6

6 8 6

92 146 92

92 143 92

B. Nearlyallelementsconsistoftwoormoreatoms. 1. Isotopesdifferentvarietiesofatomsthathavethesamenumberof (protons)Zvalue,butdifferentnumberofAvalues(neutrons). C. Allbut23ofthe92naturalelementshavetwoormorenaturalisotopes. (Ruleratherthantheexception). D. 286naturalisotopes. E. Over2000manmadeisotopes. 2. Atomicmassunits(amu) F. Massofacarbon12atom=12atomicmassunits. G. OneAtomicmassunits=1/12massofacarbon12atom. 12

 Mass(amu) Electron .00055amu Proton 1.0073amu Neutron 1.87 B. attheatomiclevel=wholenotequaltothesumoftheparts. C12atom 6protons 6neutrons 6electrons 6(1.0073)= 6(1.0087)= 6(.00055)= 6.0438amu 6.0522amu .0033amu

Massofthesumoftheparts=12.0993amu Massofthewholeatom=12.0000amu 12.0993subtractedfrom12.0000amu= Massofthedefect=.0993amu Massdefect:masslostwhenprotonsandneutronscombinedtoforma nucleus. *eachhastogiveupitsmass. E=mcconvertsintoenergy. 13

 C. Nuclearbindingenergy=energyneededtoholdthenucleustogether. Whyisthenucleusstable? C12nucleus Nuclearbindingenergyactsasfuelforstrongnuclearforce. 3. Strongnuclearforceattractiveforcewhichactsbetweenprotonsand protons;actsbetweenneutronsandneutrons;actsbetweenprotonsand neutrons. 4forceinnature 1. 2. 3. 4. GravityNewton;Early1700s ElectromagneticMaxwell;mid1800s. Weaknuclearforcemid1900s. Strongnuclearforcemid1900s *shortrangeforces.

*Repulsiontheprotons=strongnuclearforces Stablenucleus(nonradioactive) Or Unstable(radioactive)

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 A. Natureoflight (Wavetheoryvs.particletheory) 1. 1700Huygen&Hooke:proposedthatlightisaseriesofwaves. 1stwavetheorycouldexplain:reflectionandrefraction. Refractionbendingoflight. Wavetheoryrequiredatthespeedoflightintheairwasgreaterthanthe speedoflightinthewater. 2. 1700Newtonproposethatlightwas1stastreamofparticles(1stparticle theory). 1stParticletheory:requiredatthespeedoflightintheairwaslessthanthe speedoflightinthewater. 3. Early1800sSirThomasYoung;proposethatlightexcavatesintoforce (waveproperty). 4. Mid1800sFoucaltmeasuredspeedoflightintheairandH2O. 5. Mid1800sMaxwellcreatedthetheoryofelectromagneticwaves. Allelectronmagneticwavesinavacuumhasthespeed3.0x10m/s=C= speedoflightinavacuum. Lightiselectronmagneticwaves. 6. Late1800sHertz;experimentallyverifiedMaxwell'stheory.Also, experimentallydiscoveredthephotoactiveeffect.

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 VI.Wavelengths. B. 1. Amplitude(A):maxheight. 2. Wavelength():peaktopeakdistance. 3. Frequency(forV):numberofwavelengths,passingagivenpointeach second. 4. Speedofawave(voru):productsoffrequencytimeswavelength. 5. Lightisanelectricmagneticwave(EM). PropertiesofEM a. Maxwell'stheory;alwaysbeenavacuumhaveaconstantspeed=3.0x 10m/s=C=speedoflightinavacuum;itmeanstheproductsof frequencyofawavelength=3.0x10m/s. b. Frequency+wavelength;inverselyproportional. c. Energyandfrequencyaredirectlyproportional. d. Energyandwavelengthareinverselyproportional. EMspectrum(page204)

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 Visiblelight;ROYGBIV RED,ORANGE,YELLOW,GREEN,BLUE,INDGO,VIOLET 2.6x10m3.8x10m Angstrom=1=1017600 C. Atomspecticrocopy=interactionbetweenlightandmatter. 1. Continuousspectrum:Newton1700s Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet differentwavelengthsbendatdifferentangles; Red=bendsleast Violet=bendsthemost 17

 2. Absorptionspectrum. Mid1800sFraundhfer,Bunson,Kinchoff Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet *darklinesonacontinuousbackground. *gapsinthecolor. *thepatternsonthedarklineswereuniqueforeachgas(fingerprint=gas) 3.Emissionspectrum(brightlines) Mid1800sFraundhfer,Bunson,Kinchoff Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet *brightcolorlinesandadarkbackground. *patternofbrightlinesarealsouniqueforeachgas. *photographicnegativesofeachother. *couldnotexplainanyofthis. 18

 D. Blackboardradiation(1900). Blackboardradiation;Interactionbetweenlightandsolids(Knownobjectsglow withacertaincolor,dependingontheirtemperature). 1. Allearlyattemptstoexplainitstreatedenergyasbeingcontinuous;all failed. 2. 1900Planks,explaineditbytreatingenergytobediscrete,justlikematter (quanta).*Thisideawasnotaccepted,verywellnotevenbyPlank. *Quantaparticlesofenergy. E=hf Planksconstant(very,verysmallnumber) *basesofallmoderedchemistryandphysics E. Photoelectriceffect(late1800sHertz) Allearlyattemptstoexplainit,treatslightaswavelike,andallfailed. 1905Einstein 1. Explainthephotoelectriceffect(nobleprize) 2. Theoryofspecialrelativitychangescientistviewofspaceandtime. 3. ExplainedBrownionmotion(usingtheatomictheoryofmatter)convinced scientiststhatatomswerereal.Atomswereacceptedworldwide. 19

 Islightwavelikeorparticlelike?Itisbothandneither.(wavicle) SummarizestheBohrprincipleofcomplementarylightsometimesbehaves asawaveandsometimesbehavesasaparticle.Butneverbothareatthe sametime.

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