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UNIT II -- 1763-1800
I. Subtle Changes Within Colonial
Society After a Century of Salutary
Neglect
A. Navigation Acts
Some friction had resulted from these trade acts,
although they were laxly enforced so that they
presented no real burdens for the colonists.
These acts did stifle economic initiative and left the
colonists with annoying liabilities.
c. Whigs - Parliament
controlled and the crown
ruled in cooperation with
them.
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In North America there were six Colonies that
remained loyal to Britain.
The colonies included: Province of
Quebec, Province of Nova Scotia,
Colony of Bermuda, Province of
West Florida and the Province of
East Florida. In 1765 however, the
colonists still considered
themselves loyal subjects of the
British Crown, with the same
historic rights and obligations as
subjects in Britain.[15]
The British did not expect the colonies to contribute
to the interest or the retirement of debt incurred
during the French and Indian War, but they did expect
a portion of the expenses for colonial defense to be
paid by the Americans.
Estimating the expenses of defending the continental
colonies and the West Indies to be approximately
£200,000 annually, the British goal after the end of this
war was that the colonies would be taxed for £78,000
of this needed amount.[16]
The issues with the colonists were both that the taxes
were high and that the colonies had no representation
in the Parliament which passed the taxes.
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taxation without representation" became popular in
many
American circles.
Virtual Representation
London argued that the Americans were represented
"virtually"; but most Americans rejected the theory
that men in London, who knew nothing about their
needs and conditions, could represent them.[19]
After the
demands were not met, a Delaware
Prophet and visionary from the upper
Ohio and his disciple, Pontiac (1720-69),
chief of the Ottawa.
Delaware Prophet
Chief Pontiac
A betrayed plan
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Although Pontiac remained loyal to the British after
his surrender, he was murdered in 1769 by a
Kaskaskia Indian, who had been bribed by an English
trader.
B. Parson's Cause
Anglican ministers in
Virginia were paid in
tobacco.
Because of a crop
failure (1755), the
legislature agreed to
pay in currency, but the Privy Council
disallowed this action after complaints were
made by the Virginia clergy.
The clergy then sued for
their back pay.
In one case involving Rev.
James Maury in Hanover
County Court, the jury was
swayed by young Patrick
Henry who argued that by nullifying the act, the king
had broken the compact between the governed and
the ruler and thus had "forfeited all rights to his
subjects' obedience."
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Patrick Henry argued that
there exists a
contract/compact between
the king and his subjects or
the government and the
governed.
He claimed that the King
had granted the colony of
Virginia the authority to create an Assembly to make
laws and to govern itself on local matters.
Patrick Henry
argued that by
nullifying an act of
the Virginia
Assembly, the King
and his Privy
Counsel had violated
the Virginia Colonial
Charter/Contract.
His logic then follows that if when one party violates
the terms of a contract that the entire contract then
becomes null and void. If the Virginia Charter is null
and void, then the citizens of Virginia are no longer
legally required to be obedient to the King.
The General Court ruled against the clergy and was
backed by the Privy Council 1766.
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Paxton Boys in Frontier Pennsylvania
Insecurity in the
Pennsylvania frontier led to
a raid on Indians by men
from Paxton and Donegal
The Paxton Boys felt that
the government of colonial
Pennsylvania was negligent
in providing them with protection.
The Paxton Boys decided
to take matters into their
own hands. As the
nearest belligerent
Indians were some 200
miles west of Paxton, the
men turned their anger
towards the local
Conestoga (or Susquehannock) Indians—many of
them Christians—who lived peacefully in small
enclaves in the midst of white Pennsylvania
settlements.
(The Paxton Boys believed
or claimed to believe that
these Indians secretly
provided aid and
intelligence to the hostile
Indians.)
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On December 14, 1763 a group of more than fifty
Paxton Boys marched on an Indian village near
Millersville, PA, murdered the six Indians they found
there, and burned
the bloody cabin in
which the killings were
done.
Later, colonists looking
through the ashes of the
cabin, found a bag
containing the
Conestoga's 1701 treaty
signed by William Penn, which pledged that the
colonists and the Indians "shall forever
hereafter be as one Head & One Heart, &
live in true Friendship & Amity as one
People."
The Pennsylvania Assembly ordered the arrest of the
"Paxton Boys" who proceeded to march east toward
Philadelphia.
About two-hundred and fifty Paxton men then
marched on Philadelphia in January of 1764, where
only the presence of British troops and Philadelphia
militia prevented them from doing more violence.
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Benjamin Franklin
persuaded them to forgo
battle, allowed them to
issue a formal complaint
and obtained greater
representation for frontier
settlements in the
legislature.
III.Other Legislation
Which Caused
Friction
A. Proclamation Line
of 1763
After the French began to
abandon their frontier forts
in the Ohio Valley, an influx
of new English settlers
began to create unrest with
western Indian
Pennsylvania agreed in the
Treaty of Easton not to settle west of the Alleghenies
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b. Indian Commissioners,
appointed by the crown,
forbade settlement west of
the mountains but it was
largely ignored.
William Petty, Lord
Shelburne , head of the
Board of Trade, formulated
a policy regarding the newly
acquired lands as a result
of the Treaty of Paris 1763,
in an effort to simplify
relations with the Indians
and to foster orderly colonial growth.
His recommendation was that the Appalachians be the
dividing line between English settlers and Indian
reservation.
b. A colonial settlement was
allowed in the upper Ohio
with Indians settling east of
the line.
c. Without infringing on
already existing colonies,
three new provinces would
be created - Quebec, West
Florida, East Florida.
The final form of this
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proclamation was shaped by the Earl of Hillsborough.
a. No Ohio valley settlement
was allowed, but the entire area
north of Spanish Florida and
South of Quebec as far as LA,
was under military jurisdiction
with troops stationed there
b. Settlers west of the
Appalachians were ordered "to
remove themselves."
c. Land purchases from Indians
east of the line were forbidden.
d. Attempts to control Indian
affairs through agents not directly responsible to
colonial legislatures further angered the colonists.
e. Trails westward were clogged in defiance.
B. Currency Act 1764 -- aimed mainly at
Virginia
This action forbade the
issuance of legal-tender paper
currency by all American
colonies.
It nullified all acts of colonial
assemblies which were contrary to its terms and fined
any governor who went along with such colonial
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actions.
The colonists soon
opposed this action.
a. Massachusetts led with a
town meeting in Boston in May,
denouncing taxation without
representation and called upon the colonies to unite
in opposition.
b. Boston merchants agreed to do without English
lace and ruffles while the town's mechanics agreed
not to wear any leather work clothes not of
Massachusetts make.
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in which to try cases.
William Pitt
Colonial agents
testified before
Parliament as a
committee of the
whole.
a. Agent Benjamin
Franklin reminded
Parliament that
colonial legislatures
also had incurred
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heavy expenditures during the French and
Indian War, faced continued expense from
Indian wars and lacked sufficient specie to
pay the tax for even 1 year
b. Franklin warned that the use of troops
could lead to open rebellion, endorsed
Dulany's distinction between internal
and external taxes, and called for the
act's repeal.
A bill for full repeal passed the House of Commons
272-167, and after pressure was brought by the
Crown, it passed the Lords in March, effective 1 May
1766.
Word reached New York on April 26, where non-
importation was immediately abandoned, and statues
in honor of King George and William Pitt were
authorized.
Repeal of the
Stamp Act. Picture
depicts a mock
funeral for the
Stamp Act
G.
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H. Declaratory Act
1766
Parliament also asserted its
authority over the American
colonies with a statement
enacted into law on the
same day that the Stamp
Act was repealed, which
declared that Parliament
had full authority to make laws binding the American
colonists in all cases whatsoever .
Because of the mounting opposition to the Stamp Act,
this action was overlooked.
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1763-177
General Gage
b. A clash between British soldiers and citizens in
August 1766 resulted in the wounding of Issac Sears,
a leader of the Sons of Liberty.
c. As a result the NY Assembly did not appropriate any
funds for Gage's troops for which Parliament
suspended its legislative powers, effective October
1767.
d. New York finally allocated limited funds in June
1767, although the Board of Trade upheld Parliament's
suspension of their Assembly.
B. Townshend Acts
Charles Townshend became Chancellor of the
Exchequer in August 1766.
a. He attacked the American distinction between
internal and external taxes.
Charles Townshend
b. He unveiled new revenue plan
for America, necessitated in part
by a reduction in the British
land tax which reduced the
British government's home
revenue.
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He conformed to the American distinction, however,
by imposing only external taxes.
a. New import duties paid at American ports were
placed on glass, white lead, paints, paper and tea, to
pay for the defense of the colonies, defray costs of
administering justice and support civil gov't.
b. To efficiently collect the new duties, Townshend
also clearly affirmed the power of superior courts to
issue writs of assistance, established new vice-
admiralty courts, and set up an American Board of
Commissioners of the Custom to Boston, directly
responsible to the Treasury Board.
C. Colonial Reaction to the Townshend Acts
A Revival of
Nonimportation
a. Several towns drew up lists of
items which its citizens were
encouraged not to buy.
b. Plans were drawn up to
promote domestic industry and
employment
Farmer's Letters
November 1767
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Farmer's Letters
November 1767
John Dickinson wrote a
series of letters in the
Pennsylvania Chronicle
which was the most
significant statement of the
constitutional basis for
opposition.
b. These 14 essays were
widely distributed as
pamphlets in the colonies
and in Britain
(1) Again, Parliament's right to regulate trade was
conceded, but not its right to tax in order to raise
revenue in America.
(2) The Townshend Acts were declared
unconstitutional.
(3) The suspension of the New York Assembly was
hailed as a blow to the liberties of all American
colonies.
Massachusetts Circular
Letter February 1768
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a. The Massachusetts General Court denounced The
Townshend Acts in violation of the principle of no
taxation without representation, reasserted that
the colonies were not represented adequately in the
British Parliament and attacked the Crown's attempt
to make colonial governors and judges independent
from the people.
b. Samuel Adams drew up a letter to the other colonial
assemblies to inform them of the steps taken by the
Court and to seek advice on how to proceed
Samuel Adams
c. The Letter was attacked as
seditious by the Massachusetts
governor, Francis Bernard, who
then dissolved the General
Court.
d. Lord Hillsborough, Secretary
of State, denounced the letter in
a dispatch in April to all colonial
governors, ordering that their
respective assemblies be
prevented from endorsing it, by dissolution if
necessary, but this order was too late.
(1) NH, NJ and CN had
already commended
Massachusetts.
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(2) Virginia drafted its own circular letter in support of
Massachusetts.
e. When the Massachusetts House of Representatives
refused to rescind the letter, the General Court was
dissolved by Bernard in July, although 17 had voted
to rescind.
f. These 17 "Rescinders" came under heavy attack
from the Sons of Liberty and seven lost their seats in
the May 1769 Election.
Virginia Association
Patrick Henry and Richard Henry Lee drew up an
address to King George III.
Later the Royal Governor
dissolved the Assembly,
after which the Assembly
met informally and formed
the Virginia Association, a
non-importation agreement
banning the importation of goods on which a duty had
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been paid, of slaves and of several types of European
luxuries.
F. Effects of Non-
Importation
Losses of colonial imports were
significant, although partially offset
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by an expanding market for British goods in Europe.
The Board of Trade as early as May recommended
modifications to the Townshend duties be considered.
Boston Massacre
March 1770
a. After the troops arrived in
1768, minor clashes erupted
in Boston between soldiers
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and citizens, some of which were ended only when
soldiers fired shots into the air
b. A fist fight between a soldier and a worker escalated
into a small riot on 5 March.
c. When a swelling mob pressed upon a detachment
of soldiers, the troops fired into the crowd, killing 3
instantly and 2 more were wounded mortally
(including Crispus Attacks , black bystander)
d. Captain Preston and six
others were arrested, but
were defended by two
patriot lawyers, John
Adams and Josiah Quincy .
e. At the October trial,
Preston and four others
were acquitted and two
were found guilty of
manslaughter.
H. Repeal of the
Townshend Duties
April 1770
After the sudden death of
Townshend and Lord
Frederick North was Chancellor of the Exchequer in
January, the move to repeal the Townshend Acts
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gained momentum.
I. Additional Agitation
Although some attempts were made to exploit the
unrest in Boston, only compacts against the
importation of taxed tea remained as the sole
significant cause of conflict.
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2. Administration of
Justice Act
Protected Crown officials in
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Massachusetts from major suits before hostile
provincial courts, by transferring the trials of officials
to London, if it appeared that a fair trial could occur in
Massachusetts;
4. Quebec Act
(1) It provided a permanent,
highly centralized civil
government for 60,000
French-Canadians.
(2) Granted Catholics
religious toleration and civil
rights.
(3) Permitted only purely local taxation with all other
tax measures reserved
for the British
Parliament.
(4) Extended the
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boundaries of Quebec to the Ohio River, to include
territory claimed by Massachusetts, Virginia and
Connecticut.
5. A New Quartering Act in June applied to all
colonies and legalized the quartering of troops
also in occupied dwellings, which expanded the
earlier act.
B. Colonial Response –
First Continental Congress (5
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Continental
Association 18
October –
a. Delegates pledged to
(1) cease all importation
from Britain effective 1
December;
(2) stop the slave trade
entirely;
(3) not consume any British
products or a number of
foreign luxury products;
(4) stop all exports to Britain, Ireland and the British
West Indies by 1 Sept 1775;
b. A committee was
formed in every
county, town or city
to execute the
Association.
(1) Violaters would
be punished with
publicity and
boycott;
(2) Any province
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which did not keep the Association was to be
boycotted.
c. By April 1775, all twelve colonies were participating
and Georgia adopted a modified version.
Congress adjourned 26 October after addressing a
letter to the King and the British and American
peoples, resolving to meet again 10 May 1775 if
grievances were unresolved.
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James Wilson
b. Thomas Jefferson whose
Summary View of the Rights of
British America appealed to
George III to listen to "liberal and
expanded thought;"
Thomas Jefferson
Dominion Theory
Mass. NY NJ VA MD Penn GA NC SC DE
Assemb Parliam Assembl Assembl Assemb
ly Assembl Assembl Assembl ent Assembl Assembl y y ly Assembl
y y y y y y
Lord North
b. Parliament also rejected his plan of
conciliation which embraced
(1) the recognition of the Continental
Congress;
(2) a promise of no tax measures without the consent
of the provincial assemblies;
(3) American recognition of the "supreme legislative
authority" of Parliament;
(4) the Continental Congress voting a revenue for the
Crown.
Both
Houses of
British
Parliament
declared Massachusetts to be in
rebellion.
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d. Lord North managed to
get royal approval and
eventually Parliamentary
approval that promised to
levy only regulatory taxes
on any American colony
that taxed itself for the
common defense, and for
the cost its own judicial
and civil government.
New England Restraining Act (March)
a. Parliament forbad the
New England colonies from
trading with anyone except
Britain and the British West
Indies.
b. New Englanders were
barred from the North
Atlantic fisheries after 20
July.
c. The act later included New Jersey, Pennsylvania,
Maryland, Virginia, and South Carolina after it was
learned that they agreed to join the Continental
Association.
General Thomas Gage as
commander-in-chief of
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British troops in North America warned London that
the colonists disliked the presence of British troops,
requested that additional troops be sent for security
reasons and also advised the king to suspend the
Coercive Acts.
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Revolutionary War - Lexington and Concord
Actions by General Gage - Pre-Revolutionary
Commander of British North American Troops
General Gage
On 14 April 1775, Gage was ordered
in a letter from Lord Dartmouth,
Secretary of State for the Colonies,
to execute the coercive acts, using
force if necessary and to strike at
once before the rebellious faction
had time to organize, even if it
meant bringing on
hostilities.
c. The Americans
returned only a few
shots and suffered
8 dead and 10
wounded.
d. After destroying
some supplies in
Concord, Smith
reformed his men
to return to Boston,
but was met by steadily swelling American forces who
killed 14 soldiers.
e. Smith avoided
complete disaster
only with the help of
reinforcements at
Lexington, but
American snipers
continued to inflict
damage on
retreating British
troops until
Cambridge, where they were protected by the British
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men-of-war in the harbor.
Battle of
Lexington and
Concord
Total Casualties:
British - 73 killed,
174 wounded, 26
missing.
Of almost
4,000
Americans
who saw
action, 93
were dead,
wounded or
missing
g. The Massachusetts Provincial Army
laid siege to Boston.
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Washington Took Command
July 3, 1775
Capture of Fort
Ticonderoga 10
May 1775
Fort Ticonderoga
In April the Massachusetts
Committee of Safety
authorized Benedict Arnold
(1741-1801) with 400 men to
attack a strategic post full
of artillery and other military supplies, Fort
Ticonderoga in western Massachusetts.
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He clashed with Ethan Allen
who also raised forces for
the same attack but without
command
Arnold and Allen with 83
men surprised the British
garrison who yielded.
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pardon to any American returning their allegiance to
the Crown (except John Hancock and Samuel Adams),
else, any American in arms or anyone who aided them
would be considered a rebel and traitor.
The Committee of
Safety made a counter
move against Gage (15
June), taking the high
ground on Charlestown
peninsula overlooking
Boston, moving to
construct a redoubt on
Breed's Hill.
When the American
position was
discovered, they
immediately came
under fire from British ships in Boston harbor but
Gage had to wait for a favorable tide before landing.
Gen. Howe with
2,400 British troops
engaged the 1,600
Americans under
COL William
Prescott who twice
repelled the British
troops.
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Only when their supply of powder gave out did the
Americans retreat to Bunker Hill before being routed
by the British, who decided not to proceed to
Cambridge.
Although
technically a British
victory, they lost
1,054 casualties,
including many
officers, while the
Americans suffered
100 dead, 267
wounded and 30
taken prisoners.
The Battle of
Bunker Hill was a
Pyrrhic Victory for the British and it influenced the
way the British fought the American Revolutionary
War
A Pyrrhic victory is a victory with devastating cost to
the victor.
The phrase is named after King Pyrrhus of Epirus,
whose army suffered irreplaceable casualties in
defeating the Romans at Heraclea in 280 BC and
Asculum in 279 BC during the Pyrrhic War. After the
latter battle, Plutarch relates in a report by Dionysius
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I. Expedition Against
Quebec (28 August-
31 December 1775)
Upon hearing that Sir Guy
Carelton, British
commander in Canada,
planned to invade NY,
Congress authorized GEN
Philip Schuyler to seize any
points in Canada vital to
American security.
Schuyler advanced with
1000 men before turning
command over to BG
Richard Montgomery (1738-75) who forced Carleton to
withdraw to Quebec, enabling the Americans to
capture Montreal.
Arnold with 1,100 volunteers moved on Quebec
through Maine beginning 12 September and reached
Quebec with 650, joining with Montgomery's 300 men
(3 December).
The combined assault on 31 December met with
disaster when Montgomery was killed, Arnold
wounded, 100 casualties, 300 Americans taken
prisoner, leaving Arnold with only the ability to
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maintain a weak cordon around the city through the
winter.
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L. France
Aids the
American
Colonists
Count Vergennes,
French Foreign
Minister,
ascertained from
the Spanish
minister that Spain was receptive to jointly secretly
aiding the American colonies.
In May 1776 Louis XVI ordered 1
million livres' worth of
munitions be supplied to the US
via a fictitious company
(administered by Pierre de
Beaumarchais ) and Spain made
a like arrangement.
The Americans received over
80% of the gunpowder through
these sources (1776-77).
Before Congress knew of these arrangements, it
authorized Silas Deane (1737-89) to act as a munitions
agent in Europe.
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Congress opened US ports
to ships from all nations
except Britain (6 April).
M. Military Balance Sheet
American Forces
a. Strengths
(1) Widespread
acquaintance with firearms
(2) A superior rifle in range
and accuracy over the
smoothbore British
muskets
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b. Weaknesses
(1) Conflicts with state
militias occurred.
(2) Short-term
enlistments
(3) A shortage of shelter
and supplies both
military and medical
(4) One-third of the
colonists were loyal to
Britain, especially in the
South
(5) Women accompanied
the soldiers, cooking and
washing, but also requiring food, shelter and
protection.
(6) No efficient navy
British Forces
a. Strengths
(1) Well equipped, well
trained well disciplined
fighting force
(2) A strong navy to land
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and transport troops, guard communication and
supply lines;
(3) A huge war chest which could be used to hire
foreign mercenaries;
(4) Many loyalists
b. Weaknesses
(1) The great distance between London and various
British units in North America.
(2) Unfamiliarity
with the North
American
geography which
was not like the
European
battlefields -- vast,
varied, and no clear
cut roads;
(3) Did not adapt to the activities of Americans who
used unconventional warfare, (like modern guerillas) -
behind trees, when normally troops were wintered,
etc.
(4) Unclear war aims kept them from mobilizing the
loyalists in the South and kept them fearful of
inflicting too much damage because this was British
fighting British
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(5) Poor recruiting was hampered because of low
unemployment, and because of uncertainty over why
the war was being fought, no outbursts of patriotism
occurred
(6) A low estimate of American forces, gained during
the French and Indian War, made the British
overconfident that their valuable experience from the
war with France would cause no difficulty in beating
an unskilled, poorly-disciplined Continental Army.
b. Selecting a Virginian
illustrated that this was not
an isolated struggle
involving the New England
colonies, but was a broad
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colonial struggle to keep colonial rights.
Six companies of riflemen from PA, MD and VA were
authorized to march to New England and $2 million in
bills of credit were issued to be repaid by the 12
"confederated colonies;"
Artemas Ward, Charles Lee, Philip Schuyler, and Israel
Putnam were appointed major generals.
C. Olive Branch Petition (5 July)
Congress adopted a series
of petitions written by
John Dickinson which
expressed colonial
affection for George III,
expressed hope for a
restoration of harmony,
and begged the king to
prevent further hostilities
until a reconciliation could
be found.
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die than be enslaved, and hinted that foreign aid
would be sought in the struggle if needed.
The King (23 August) declared the American colonies
to be in open rebellion and widened the breach (23
December) by closing American colonies to all
commerce effective 1 March 1776.
D. Congress Reconvened
(September - December)
Georgia's presence on 12
Sept made this truly
representative of all thirteen
colonies.
Congress authorized a navy after Washington
authorized COL John Glover of Massachusetts to
convert fishing vessels into armed ships.
a. Congress resolved to raise two battalions of
marines, made plans to intercept British ships with
military stores aboard, and declared formally on 25
November that British vessels were open to capture in
retaliation for British raids on coastal towns.
In December
Congress
commissioned
officers for four
Continental ships
and named Eskel
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Hopkins from Rhode Island as commodore.
After being informed on 9 November that George III
had rejected the Petition they said they were not
denying the sovereignty of the Crown, but would not
obey Parliament.
In November Congress appointed a 5-man Committee
of Correspondence to seek aid from "our friends"
abroad and received word from a French agents that
France would welcome ships from America and might
even offer material aid to Congress.
Government
a. Most Americans believed that true liberty
was only possible with a balanced
government like Britain's - Monarchy, House
of Lords (Nobility), House of Commons (the
people).
b. American colonists, fearing this loss of balance,
were reluctant to seek independence.
c. But in one year, they declared independence and
sought full freedom from Britain.
Reasons for the Colonial Change of Attitude (1775-76)
a. King's response to the Olive Branch Petition
(1) King George III had declared the colonists to
be in rebellion, but unfortunately he assumed
that the colonial trouble was the result of
"Boston" rabble;
(2) King George III
believed a simple
show of force
would cause New
Englanders to back
down, and the
"better" colonists
in the Middle and
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Southern colonies would back the Crown.
(3) George III hired 18,000 Hessian
mercenary soldiers who had a reputation as
ruthless plunderers, which made this more
than just a "family quarrel"
(4) His Prohibitory Act (December 1775)
barred trade in rebellious colonies.
b. Thomas Paine's Common Sense (January
1776)
Common Sense
Paine issued the first call for independence
in a pamphlet printed in Philadelphia
Thomas Paine
(2) He pointed out the
absurdity of having a
continent governed by
an island.
He attacked George III,
the "royal brute of
England" for troublesome
measures against the colonies.
Paine attacked the monarchical
system of government and
demonstrated that a balanced
government could be achieved
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without a king or a noble class, which America did not
have any way.
(3) His convincing arguments provided momentum for
the shift toward independence which led to the writing
of a document justifying a break with England.
a The Declaration of
Independence.
a. The committee let
Jefferson write the draft of
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the Declaration.
b. Adams and Franklin made a few changes before
presenting it to Congress on 28 June.
c. Jefferson drew upon the prevailing current natural
rights philosophy.
C. Declaration of
Independence -- Addressed
to King George III
The document compiled a
long list of despotic abuses
and usurpations by the
king.
Parliament received no
direct mention.
It asserted the right and
duty of the American people
to dissolve their tie to Britain and declared the United
Colonies free and Independent states
Congress took a final vote for independence (2 July),
twelve for (New York abstained)
Congress debated the final form of the Declaration
making several changes before approving the final
version without dissent
(New York again abstained).
Copies were prepared for all
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the states and it was first publicly proclaimed on 8
July in Philadelphia and on the following day, the New
York Assembly voted to endorse it.
Having been engrossed on parchment, signatures
were affixed on 2 August.
a. Most of the 55 delegates signed it.
b. Matthew Thornton (NH), although not a member of
Congress when the Declaration was adopted, added
his name in November.
A Diplomatic Commission Appointed -- Congress
appointed three commissioners (Silas Deane, Franklin
and Arthur Lee Jefferson having declined) to
negotiate treaties of amity and commerce with foreign
nations (September) and with authority to borrow up
to $2 million.
X. Revolutionary War
A. Phase One of the War 1776-77.
Background
a. After evacuating Boston, Britain planned to use NY
City as a base of operations, amassing 32,000 men
including 9,000 German mercenaries on Staten Island
(August 1776)
b. Battle of Long Island (27 August) cost the
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Americans hundreds of casualties before Washington
skillfully withdrew his forces to Manhattan Island.
Battle of Long
Island
c. Both Gen.
Gage and
Admiral Howe
made peace
overtures,
offering pardons
to all who
returned to
crown
allegiance when
all extralegal
congresses and
conventions
were dissolved
d. A fruitless
peace
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conference was held on Staten Island on 11
September between Howe and congressional
appointees, Franklin, John Adams and Edmund
Rutledge
e. Howe permitted no negotiations until the
Declaration of Independence was revoked.
f. Washington abandoned Manhattan Island, rather
than risk being trapped, and the British occupied New
York City in mid-September.
(1) No assault on the American position was made,
causing a 3-week lull in activity
(2) A fire in New York City destroyed nearly 300
buildings.
(3) Nathan Hale (1755-76) was executed on 22
September as an American spy, stating I regret that I
have but one life to give to my country.
Nathan Hale
g. Washington again slipped
away after the Battle of White
Plains in October.
h. British troops captured Fort
Washington, taking 2,818
Americans prisoners.
i. American troops wintered in
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New Jersey (Greene) and Pennsylvania (Washington).
j. Howe's troops wintered in New York, but left
garrisons at Trenton, Princeton, Bordentown, Perth
Amboy and New Brunswick.
(1) Washington learned that
the Hessian garrison at
Trenton under COL Johann
Rall was unprepared for an
attack, crossing the ice-
choked Delaware on
Christmas.
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Washington occupied
Trenton by the end of
December.
k. Howe reacted to the
taking of Trenton and sent
Cornwallis to engage
Washington, but
Washington surprised
Corwallis and forced a withdrawal, leaving only
eastern-most New Jersey clear of the enemy and
restoring the shattered patriot morale.
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If they promised not to
fight again in the war,
they victory gave
Americans a much
needed morale boost,
proved they could
withstand the best
England had to offer
and forced Britain to
seriously reflect on the war
20-year-old Marquis
de Lafayette as a
major general,
volunteer without
pay.
b. The veteran "Baron"
Johann de Kalb also
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received a commission as Major Gen.
Congress resolved (14 June) that the US flag would be
thirteen stripes alternate red and white, that the Union
be thirteen stars white in a blue field.
Congress
was forced
to flee
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(3) Neither could conclude a truce or peace with
Britain without the other's consent
Lord North, to stop the ratification of this treaty,
offered terms to the US, including
a. repeal the Tea and Coercive Acts;
b. a pledge that Parliament would impose no revenue
taxes on the American colonies;
c. the appointment of a peace commission to
negotiate with Congress.
d. North was even willing to suspend all acts back to
1763 involving the colonies.
The US Congress replied that the only negotiations
would center on the withdrawal of all British troops
and the recognition of US independence.
a. One British commissioner tried to bribe three
members of Congress.
b. Two others appealed to the people over the heads
of Congress, threatening great destruction if
Americans did not abandon their French allies and
make peace with Britain.
War at Sea
a. The US navy was no match for Britain's, but
individual ships run by American privateers did on
occasion successfully raid British possessions in the
Atlantic.
b. The revival of American exploits at sea in 1778 was
underscored by the actions of CPT John Paul Jones
who commanded the Ranger out of Portsmouth NH.
(1) Jones commanded
an old French vessel
which he refitted and
named the USS
Bonhomme Richard in
Franklin's honor;
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BONHOMME RICHARD and
HMS SERAPIS
(4) After US
marksmen inflicted
heavy casualties, the
British surrendered.
War in the Middle
Colonies and the
West
a. Battle of
Monmouth (late
June) - Washington's
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advanced forces led by Gen Charles Lee at Monmouth
Court House, engaged Clinton, retreating from
Philadelphia.
b. Lee was forced to retreat when British
reinforcements arrived.
c. Washington arrived and withstood Clinton's
repeated attacks, his troops having been sufficiently
disciplined at Valley Forge, before Clinton stole away
at night.
d. The British planned a series of raids in NY and
through Pennsylvania's Wyoming Valley, terrorizing
many settlements and massacring many settlers who
had surrendered.
e. In the spring George Rogers Clark (1752-1818) with
175 men traveled to the Ohio River, occupying
Kaskaskia and other posts in the northwestern Ohio
Valley.
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commissions for three sons from a previous marriage,
and after 1783 and annual 100 pound stipend for
Peggy's five children, but he was forced to live the
remainder of his life in England, shunned by family
and friends.
February 1780
a. After Britain attempted to
blockade France and Spain
on the continent, Catherine
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II stated that the Russian navy would be used to
protect the neutral Russian trade, a blow to Britain
because Russia refused to recognize naval stores as
contraband.
b. Catherine led other neutral European states to join
a League of Armed Neutrality
Denmark and
Sweden joined
immediately.
Netherlands,
Prussia,
Portugal,
Austria and
Kingdom of
the Two
Sicilies joined
within 2 years
(3) England
declared war with the Netherlands in December 1780.
(4) Although the League did not aid the Dutch, it
hampered British naval efforts against the Allies.
c. Although the US sent a minister to Russia, Francis
Dana, he was not received.
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(1) On the advice of the French Foreign minister,
Congress placed peace negotiations in the hands of
five men, rather than Adams alone;
(2) Added were John Jay, Benjamin Franklin, Henry
Laurens, and Thomas Jefferson.
(3) Instructions were modified to stress that only US
independence and sovereignty were essential, leaving
all other matters at the discretion of the
commissioners.
War at Sea
a. US privateers reached a high of 449 in 1781
b. The US navy captured or destroyed 196 enemy
ships during the war.
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attack on New York, moved their armies
across New Jersey toward Virginia.
War in the South
a. Conflicts against Cornwallis, led by the
forces of Greene, successfully pushed the
British into North Carolina.
b. Greene's forces were strengthened to
4,000 and he met Cornwallis at the Battle of
Guilford Courthouse, technically a British
victory, but with heavy casualties.
c. By the fall 1780, Britain only effectively
controlled Charleston SC and its nearby
vicinity
d. Cornwallis decided to destroy the
American training and supply bases in
Virginia, moving northward from Wilmington
in April with 1,500 men.
(1) Reinforcements brought the British troop
strength up to 7,500.
(2) Although failing to capture Jefferson and
the legislature at Charlottesville, Corwallis
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established a base at Yorktown in August, in
order to keep open communications by sea
between him and Clinton's forces in New
York.
Surrender at
Yorktown 17
October
1781
a. When De
Grasse
blockaded on
the York River
and engaged
the British
fleet,
Cornwallis was hemmed in on land by Layfayette's
and American forces, leaving the French in control of
the sea off Yorktown
b. The Allied army at Williamsburg swelled with 9,000
additional troops and 7,800 French troops, and the
seige of Yorktown began in late September;
c. When Corwallis realized he was doomed, having
lost three key points around Yorktown, he entered
negotiations to surrender on 17 October.
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d. Clinton's arrived
with 7,000 but,
learning of the
surrender, returned
to New York.
e. The Americans
suffered 262
casualties to the
British 552.
Lord North's
government
collapsed March
1782
a. As a result of this
second major
surrender of British
forces, dashing
British hopes for
victory, North's
government was
replaced by
Rockingham.
b. French victories in the West Indies in late 1781 -
early 1782 forced Britain to seek peace.
c. Sir Guy Carelton became commander-in-chief of
British North American forces.
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(1) With plans for continuing the was abandoned, he
concentrated all British forces on the seaboard at New
York.
(2) A skirmish at Combahee River SC was the last land
action on the seaboard.
b. US Concessions to Britain
1) All debts owed to Britain subjects by US citizens
(would still be paid
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(2) A full restoration of rights and seized property
returned to all Loyalists by the states.
c. France, although miffed because they were not
included in the treaty negotiations, did approve the
terms of this agreement, so that this was not really a
separate treaty.
d. On 20 January 1783, Britain signed preliminary
articles of peace with France and then with Spain
before proclaiming a cessation of hostilities on 4
February.
e. Articles of Peace were ratified by the US Congress
on 15 April and the treaty was formally signed on 3
September.
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(3) This letter had the backing of several civilian
leaders who hoped to force the states to cede more
power to Congress.
(4) George Washington, however, skillfully blunted the
movement on March 11, when he forbade the
unauthorized meeting called for in the address,
proposing a discussion of the grievances at the
regular officers' meeting instead.
(5) He spoke to the regular meeting, condemned the
defiant tone of the addresses, expressed confidence
that Congress would do the right thing, asked for
patience and advised that “no action be done to
lessen the glory won on the battlefield.”
(6) The officers then adopted resolutions which
affirmed their patriotism and confidence in Congress
and disavowed the "anonymous" addresses which
had circulated among them
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Tories had been disenfranchised, and all had been
expelled from state offices and doubly taxed.
(3) A commission functioned until 1790 to recover lost
property or compensation for these.
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