World War I

Causes (Long term & Short term)

Long Term: There are five main long term causes of the First World War. These include
nationalism, militarism, imperialism, alliance systems, and economic competition.

Nationalism: There were 2 types of nationalism in the 19th century: civic pride and
aggression, e.g. wars.

Germany’s pride was established as a result of the Franco-Prussian war in 1871. In that war
Germany, under the leadership of Otto von Bismark, took Alsace and Lorraine. After 1890,
Germany became more aggressive as it tried to build its influence around the world (welt-
politiks).

France was torn apart as Germany took its lands. Thus it came together vouching that
Germany would not humiliate it again. Italian unification occurred in 1870. Under the
leadership of Giuseppe Garibaldi, an expert in guerilla warfare, made a volunteer army that
was called the “Red Shirts.” The purpose of this army was to get the territories that Italy
wanted, such as Trieste, Trentio, Tyrol, Tunis and Tripoli. This aggressive form of territorial
ambitions brought the nation together.

In Austria-Hungary, the nationalism was established when the dual monarchy was formed in
1867. When Serbia was being threatened by Austria-Hungary, Serbia allied with the
Russians in 1903.

Russia was the largest and most populous country in Europe. Its goal was to get water ports
in the Balkans. In 1870 it broke the Treaty of Paris and went to the Balkans. This was an
aggressive form of nationalism. The reason for the interest in the Balkans was due to its
location near the Mediterranean Sea. The Balkan was known as the “Powder Keg of Europe.”
In 1908 the Balkan Crisis occurred in which AH takes Bosnia. Then the 1st Balkan war
occurred in 1912, and the 2nd Balkan war occurred in 1913. In the midst of all this the
Ottoman empire declines. It was the “sick man of Europe.”

Militarism: There was a rise in military expenditures in the early 1900s.

Anglo-German naval competition: Germany and Britain fought for the best navy.
Britain had the biggest navy in the world and Germany was superior on land. In
1898 Germany issued its naval code. In response Britain increased their Navy by
2.5%. By 1906 the first dreadnought was created.

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 Arms race: All the powers increased their stocks of arms, produced more modern
weapons of war and built more strategic railways.

All the three Entente powers held secret military talks. The British and the French
naval authorities agreed that the French navy should be concentrated in the
Mediterranean and the British in the North Sea.

Germany and Austria also had military agreements.

When the First World War was fought, it was to be fought by all powers because they
had made the military plan cooperatively. As a result of the armaments race, all the
European powers were prepared for a war by 1914.

Imperialism: European nations started their expansion after 1870 into Asia, Africa and the
Pacific. Between 1895 and 1905 imperialistic expansion reached its climax. All of Africa was
being fought over except Liberia and Ethiopia. Bismark was interested in engineering the
German industry. Kaiser Wilhelm II changed this to “welt politiks.” France rivaled with Italy
over Tunis and with Germany over Morocco. All this tension led to tension between nations.
This type of colonial rivalry led indirectly to the formation and strengthening of alliances and
ententes (see Alliance Systems), and the arms forces. In effect, the 1st Moroccan Crisis
occurred in 1905 where France and Germany fought for land. The 2nd Moroccan Crisis
happened in 1913.

Alliance:

• Three Emperor’s League in 1872 (Germany, Russia, and Austria).

• 1879 the Dual Alliance with Germany and AH was made.
• 1881 – renewal of Russia into the Three Emperor’s League.
• 1882 – Triple Alliance between Italy, Germany and AH.
• After the collapse of the Three Emperor’s League, Germany made a Reinsurance
Treaty with Russia in 1887.
• In 1893 the Russo-German Alliance ended and the Franco-Russo Entente was
formed.
• In 1902 the Anglo-Japanese Alliance was formed.
• 2 years later the Entente Cordial was formed between Britain and France.
• Then in 1907 the Russian Entente with Britain was formed.
• As a result of the Entente and the alliances, France, Britain and Russia were known
as the Triple Entente Powers. Against them were the Triple Alliance Powers.
Therefore we have: Triple Entente (Britain, France, Russia) vs Triple Alliance aka
Central Powers (Germany, AH, Italy)

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Economic competition: Economic conflicts between Germany and Britain both were
competing with similar products in a world economy. There were also economic struggles
between Germany and France. The loss of Alsace and Lorraine to Germany forced France to
import. Germany and Austria also rivaled with Russia in the Balkans for commercial
privileges.

Short term:

The July Crisis of 1914 – assassination of AH Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to AH throne.

• June 28 – Assassination of Franz Ferdinand and Sophie (Black Hand).

• July 5 – “Blank Cheque” – Germany pledge Austrian support
• July 23 – Ultimatum from AH to Serbia.
• July 24 – Serbia appeals to Russia for help.
• July 25 – Serbia cannot accept demand of AH Ultimatum.
• July 26 – Russia promises to help Serbia.
• July 24-28 – Attempts at British-German mediation.
• July 27 – Kaiser proposes “Halt in Belgrade.”

July 28 – AH declares war on Serbia. Because of this declaration, Russia mobilized its troops
on July 31st. As an effect, Germany also mobilized its troops and declared war on Russia.
Acting upon the Schleiffen Plan, Germany also declared war on France. Since Germany
violated Belgian neutrality, Britain declared war on Germany. By August 4, World War 1 had
started.

Nature of the War:

Technological Developments
• Machine Guns and Flamethrowers
• Dreadnaughts and Tanks
• Gas bombs/Gas masks/Poison Gas
• Grenades and Bayonets
• Zeppelins for Bombings, Parachutes, all metal aircrafts

Tactics and strategies on air land and sea

• Germany – Schleiffen Plan
• AH – 4 armies to Russia, 2 armies to Serbia.
• France – Plans I to XVIII.
• Russia – Plan 19.
• Britain – sends troops to Maubege.
• Serbia concentrates it forces in Belgrade.

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Air
• Hotair balloons
• Synchronized machine guns
• Use of Zepplins and Flying Aces
• Wireless Telegraphy

Land
• Trench warfare
• Tunneling
• Infiltration
• Flamethrowers
• Gas warfare
• Tank attacks
• “Nomans land” between bases

Sea
• Germany – war of attrition
• French – Protect North African Territory; destroy Australia and Italy
• Britain blocks the coast to prevent contraband; assist the French
• Development of dreadnaughts

The Home Front:

• Labor Shortage – women took over for the most part

• Food supply does not meet demand – result in externalities
• Increased taxes
• Centralized economy as opposed to liberal (no opportunity to sell skills)

• Germany has its Winter Crisis of 1916-1917(there is a shortage of food)

• Russia – horrible infrastructure, lack of social democracy led to riots and distrust in
the Czar. As a result the Bolsheviks took advantage of the disorder and overthrew
the govt. of Russia.
• Italy – Northern economy is better than southern economy. Consequently there is
inefficient war production maintenance. To fix this, there was an increase in the
mechanical and automobile industry, however it created an unbalanced economy.
• France – most of the war was fought on their territory (it was ruined).

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Women’s role
• Took over all jobs
• Worked in battlefields (nurses, telephone operators, entertainers, volunteers,
journalists, soldiers in disguise)
• On the Home Front (worked in munitions factories, assembled guns, and bombs)
• Performed tasks that men usually did.

The Russian Revolution began 1917. It was based on Marx’s Das Kapital and Engels’s The
Communist Manifesto.

A women’s movement began in 1915 when women from all of the involved countries of the
War gathered to form the Int’l Women’s Peace Party. Here they discussed ways of ending
the war. Feminist movements like this started to occur all over Europe.

Effects and Results of the War:

Treaties
• Treaty of Brest Litovsk (March 1918) – Between Germany and Russia
• Treaty of Versailles (June 1919) – Between Germany and Allies
• Treaty of St. Germain (October 1919) – Between Austria and Allies
• Treaty of Neuilly (November 1919) – Between Bulgaria and Allies
• Treaty of Trianon (June 1920) – Between Hungary and Allies
• Treaty of Sevres (August 1920) – Between Turkey and Allies

Political repercussions
• Changes in types of Govt. (from Monarchies to Republic Govt.)
• Boom in Socialist Ideas (Karl Marx – Das Kapital, Engels – The communist Manifesto)
– this led to industrialization and bad working conditions for workers in effect the
Russian Revolution in 1917.
• Govt. increased its interference with the public (ex. education, health)
• Germany Blames its Govt. (November Criminals)
• World Trade Develops
• Creation of League of Nations, Int’l Labor Org., and a shift away from Europe of
World Affairs occur.
• A growth in Single Party states occurs (Russia becomes soviet Union, Germany has
Nazi, Italy with the aid of Mussolini develops the Fascist Party, and an authoritarian
state develops in Japan).
• Growth of liberal states
• Total blame of war is given to Germany (war guilt clause, Article 231 in the Versailles
Treaty). It was to reduce its army to a defensive army only.

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Territorial Changes
• Collapse of Ottoman Empire – the Treaty of Versailles made free, independent states
under the world powers as mandates(Turkey, Adalia, Rhodes, Syria, Lebanon,
Palestine, Iraq, and Jordan)
• The collapse of Russia and AH led to the creation of Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia,
Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland.

Social and cultural effects

During the war many young men had died. 1013 million were killed (about 1/3 were
civilians). A fall in the birth rate occurred, however after the war there was a baby boom. By
the 1930s there was a shortage in man power, social barriers were undermined and there
was national unity. When soldiers see their superiors making mistakes, the trust level went
down. Disillusionment was taking place. People no longer respected authority since there
were incompetent leaders in the upper class.

Changes in the status of women

Women were given the right to vote. In 1918, women could vote in AH, Ireland, the Soviet
Union, and in U.K. (30+). In 1920 American women were allowed to vote. In France this
took place in 1944 and in Italy in 1945.

Post war economic problems

The over all goal was to become economic self sufficient and less dependant on others.
Britain was the first to lead in this pursuit. Germany and the U.S. followed in its footsteps.
The main reason for this type of self sufficiency was mainly because they all owed the U.S.
$10 billion. However a few positives did arise. Some of this was in the form of technological
advances (automobiles, radios, chemicals, and planes). One of the main reasons why Hitler
received the support he did was due to the fact that he had a plan full of economic policies
to bring Germany out of its depression. The discovery of mass production came about. Many
savings were diminished. In 1923, the value of the Marx was 4.6 million to 1 dollar. 6
months later it was 4.2 trillion to 1 dollar. Clearly the economic problems were devastating
in Germany.

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Historiography:

Different interpretations
• All the European countries were responsible in the outbreak of the war.1
• The British who were in great part responsible for the magnitude of the error called
World War I.2
• Germany was to blame for the outbreak of the war.3
• The responsibility for starting the conflict in July and August must rest primarily on
the shoulders of Germany.4
• It is the world power leaders that made their own goals into foreign policies.5

Authors 1. Fay, Sydney Bradshaw. The Origins of the World War.

2. Ferguson, Niall. The Pity of War.
3. Fischer, Fritz. Germany’s Aims in the First World War.
4. Grenville, J.A.S. A History of the World.
5. Stoessinger, John G. Why Nations go to War.