Experiment (2)

Upsetting Test of Forgeability of Metal

Dr. Mohammad Al-tahat Department of Industrial Engineering. University of Jordan. Lab. Of Manufacturing Processes. Course No: 906412

1. Objective: The forgeability of a metal can be defined as its capability to undergo deformation by forging without cracking. Thus a material with good forgeability is one that can be shaped with low forces without cracking. A number of tests have been developed to measure forgeability, although none is universally accepted. One of the more commonly used tests is the upsetting test, which simulate the metals characteristics during upsetting process. The main objective of this experiment is to study and measure forgeability of metals and their capabilities to undergo deformation by upsetting process without cracking. 2. Background: For more information about the subject of the experiments, it is recommended for the student to review section 6.2 of chapter six of the text. 3. Theory Forging is a family of processes in which Compressive forces carry out plastic deformation of the work piece. This group of operation is one of the oldest metalworking operations known, and is used in making parts of widely varying sizes and shapes from a variety of metals. Forging can be carried out at room temperature (cold working), or at elevated temperatures, called warm and hot forging, depending on the temperature. Simple forgings can be made with a heavy hammer and an anvil usually, though, a set of dies and presses are required. There are three main basic categories of forging these are; Open die forging; Impression die forging; and Closed die forging. Open-die forging (Upsetting) In its simplest form, open-die forging generally involves placing a solid cylindrical work piece between two flat dies (platens) and reducing its height by compressing it (Fig1a). This operation is also known as upsetting.

FIGURE 1 (a) Ideal deformation of a solid cylindrical specimen compressed between flat frictionless dies. This process is known as upsetting. (b) Deformation in upsetting with friction at the die work piece interfaces.

Under ideal conditions, a solid cylinder deforms as shown in Fig. 1a. This is known as homogeneous deformation. Because volume is constant, any reduction

in height increases the diameter of the cylinder. For a specimen that has been reduced in height from ho to h1,
Reduction in height =
e1 = ho h1 ho
ho h1

ho h1 100% ho

(1) (2) (3)

1 = ln

With a relative velocity v between the platens, the specimen is subjected to a strain rate,
. e1 =

v ho

and 1 =

v h1

(4)

Actually, the specimen develops a barrel shape, as shown in Fig. 1b. Barreling also occurs in upsetting hot work pieces between cool dies. Is caused primarily by frictional forces at the die-work piece interfaces that oppose the outward flow of the material at these interfaces. Barreling also occurs in upsetting hot work pieces between cool dies. In barreling, the material flow within the specimen becomes non uniform, or inhomogeneous, as can be in Fig. 2.

FIGURE 2 Grain flow lines in upsetting a solid steel cylinder at elevated temperatures. Note the highly inhomogeneous deformation and barreling. The different shape of the bottom section of the specimen (as compared to the top) results from the hot specimen resting on the lower cool die before deformation proceeded. The bottom surface was chilled; thus it exhibits greater strength and hence deforms less than the top surface.

In addition to the single barreling shown in Fig. 2, double barreling can also be observed. Barreling caused by friction can be minimized by, Applying an effective lubricant, or Ultrasonically vibrating the platens. Also, The use of heated platens, or a thermal barrier at interfaces will reduce barreling in hot working

Forces and work of deformation under ideal conditions If friction at the interfaces is zero and the material is perfectly plastic with a yield stress of Y, then the normal compressive stress on the cylindrical specimen is uniform at a level Y, The force at any height h1 is then
F = A = YA1 where A1 = Ao ho (Volume constancy) h1

(5)

A1 is the cross-sectional area and is obtained from volume constancy. The ideal work of deformation is the product of the volume of the specimen and the specific energy u.
1
0

1 = ln

Work = Volume d =

Yd = Y
0

ho h1

(6)

If the metal is strain hardening, with a true stress-true strain curve given by = K n Where K is the strength coefficient, n is the strain-hardening exponent, then the force at any stage during deformation becomes F = A = Y f A1 (7) Where Yf is the flow stress The work done can be expressed as
Work = (Volum ) Y (1 )

()

Where, average flow stress, Y =

K n d
0

K1n = n +1

(8)

The slab method for Analyzing stresses and loads in forging On of the simpler method of analysis, this method requires the selection of an element in the work piece and determination all normal and frictional stresses on the element. a) Forging of a rectangular work piece in plane strain. Let's take the case of simple compression with friction (Fig. 3), which is the basic deformation in forging. As the flat dies compress the part, it is reduced in thickness and, as the volume remains constant, the part expands laterally. This relative movement at the die-work piece interfaces causes frictional forces acting in opposition to the movement of the piece. These frictional forces are shown by the horizontal arrows in Fig 3. For simplicity, let's also assume that the deformation is in plane strain; that is, the work piece is not free to flow in the direction perpendicular to this page. Let's now take an element and indicate all the stresses acting on it (Fig. 3.b). Note the correct direction of the frictional stresses. Also note the difference in the horizontal stresses acting on the sides of the element; this difference is caused by the presence of frictional stresses on the element. We assume that the lateral stress distribution x is uniform along the height h.

The next step in this analysis is to balance the horizontal forces on this element, because it must be in static equilibrium. Thus, assuming unit width,

FIGURE 3 Stresses on an element in plane-strain compression (forging) between flat dies. The stress x is assumed to be uniformly distributed along the height h of the element. Identifying the stresses on an element (slab) is the first step in the slab method of analysis.

( x + d x )hw + 2 y dxw x hw = 0
d x h + 2 y dx = 0

for unit width (w = 1)

d x +

2 y dx
h

=0

(9)

Note that we have one equation but two unknowns: x and y. We obtain the necessary second equation from the yield criteria as follows. As shown in Fig 3c, this element is subjected to triaxial compression in plain strain. 1 In general 2 = [ 2 ( 1 + 3 )] E The maximum value for v (or that value for which volume change is zero) is 0.50 i.e. (In the elastic range 0< < 0.5 and there is a volume change). Since we have plain strain state, then we can write 2=0, there we obtain z = 0.5( x + y ) as seen in figure 3.c (10) According to the distortion-energy criterion for plane strain, we have
y - x =
' 2 Y =Y 3

(11)

d y = d x
(12)

. We now have two equations. Substitute equation 12 in equation 9 we obtain

d y +
or

2 y dx
h
=

=0

(13) (14) (15)

d y

2 dx h
2 x h

y = Ce

The boundary conditions are such that at x = a, x = 0, and thus y = Y` at the edges of the specimen. (All stresses are compressive, so we may ignore negative signs for stresses, which are traditional in such analyses.) Hence the value of C becomes

x = a x = 0 from equation 3.12 y = Y`

2 a h

Y `= Ce

C= e

Y`
2 a h

C = Y `e

2 a h

(16)

Substitute equation 16 in equation 15 we obtain

y = Ce

2 x h

2 a 2 x a 2 x 2 (a x) 2 h h h h = Y `e = = Y `e h Y `e e 2 (a x) h

Therefore the compression pressure, p, which is equal to y can be expressed as:

p = y = Y `e

(17) (18)

ax) 2 (h and x = y Y `= Y `e 1

Equation (17) is plotted qualitatively in Fig. 4 in dimensionless form. For a strain-hardening material, Y' in Eqs. (17) And (18) is replaced by Y`f. Note that the pressure with friction is higher than it is without friction. The area under the pressure curve in Fig. 4 is the upsetting force per unit width of the specimen. This area can be obtained by integration, but an approximate expression for the average pressure pav is
FIGURE 4 Distribution of die pressure in terms of p/Y`, in plain-strain compression with sliding friction. Note that the pressure at the left and right boundaries is equal to the yield stress in plane strain, Y'. Sliding friction means that the frictional stress is directly proportional to the normal stress.

a pav Y `1 + h

(19)

The forging force F is the product of the average pressure and the contact area; that is, F = ( pav )(2a )(width ) (20)

b) Forging of a solid cylindrical work piece Using the slab method of analysis, we can also determine the pressure distribution in forging of a solid cylindrical specimen (Fig. 5). We first isolate a segment of angle d in the cylinder of radius r and height h, take a small element of radial length dx, and place on this element all the normal and frictional stresses acting on it. We then balance the forces on this element in the radial direction. Thus,

FIGURE 5 Stresses on an element in forging of a solid cylindrical work piece between flat dies.

r x.d .h + 2 hdx

d 2 z xd .dx ( r + d r )( x + dx).d .h = 0 2

Following the same procedure as before, we obtain the expression for the pressure p at any radius x as

p = z = Ye

2 (r x) h 2 (r x) h 2 (r x) = Y 1 + e h

(21) (22)

and r = Y + z = Y + Ye 2 r pav Y 1 + 3h

The average pressure Pav can be given approximately as (23) (24)

The forging force F is

F = ( pav ) r 2

( )

For strain-hardening materials, Y is replaced by the flow stress Yf. c) Forging under sticking condition. The product of and P is the frictional stress (surface shear stress) at the interface at any location x from the center of the specimen. As P increases toward the center, P also increases. However, the value of P cannot be greater

than the shear yield stress k of the material. When P = k, sticking takes place. (In plane strain the value of k is Y'/2. Sticking does not necessarily mean adhesion at the interface; it reflects the fact that, relative to the platen surfaces, the material does not move. For the sticking condition, the normal stress distribution in plane strain can be shown to be

a x p = Y `1 + h

(25)

The pressure varies linearly with x; the normal stress distribution for a cylindrical specimen under sticking condition can be shown to be

r x p = Y 1 + h

(26)

Example: Upsetting Force A cylindrical specimen made of annealed 4135 steel is 6 in. in diameter and 4 in. high. Open-die forging upsets it with flat dies to a height of 2 in. at room temperature. Assuming that the coefficient of friction is 0.2, calculate the force required at the end of the stroke. Use the averagepressure formula. The force at the end of the stroke? F = ( pav ) r 2 , r at the end of the stroke.

( )

2 r f 2 r pav Y 1 + 1+ = Y 3 h 3h f

Annealed 4135 steel, is a strain hardening material, therefore Y should be replaced by Yf, noted that Yf is the flow stress corresponding to 1 as shown in the figure bellow.

To determine Yf, we have to know 1 and the equation of the shown true stress-true strain curve.

 ho hf = Simply 1 = ln ln h h o f

(compression)

1 = ln = 0.693
The general formula of the curve in the figure shown is = K n , at 1 = Yf, thus,
Y f = K1n = K (0.693) n

4 2

From tables for annealed steel 4235, K=1015 Mpa=147psi, and n=0.17,
Y f = K1n = (147,000 )(0.693) (0.17 ) = 138,000

2 r f pav Y f 1 + 3h f
Vo = V f

2(0.2 )rf = (138,000 )1 + 3(2 )

rf = 4.24in.

We need to find rf , from volume constancy

62
4 .4 = rf2 2

2(0.2 )(4.24 ) pav (138,000 ) 1 + = 177,000 psi ( ) 3 2 2 F = ( pav ) r 2 = (177,000 ) (4.24 ) = 10 7 Ib.

( )

4. Materials: Cylindrical specimens made of lead (98% lead). 5. Equipments: Pressing machine, Flat die, and vernier caliper and measuring tools are required. 6. Procedures: 1) Set the flat die on the pressing machine. 2) Set the press for operation. 3) Measure the diameter of the specimen before and after upsetting at various heights. 4) Measure the height of the specimen before and after upsetting. 5) Perform the upsetting operation by putting the circular lead specimen on the lower half of the flat die and then press the specimen to the required height by upper half of the flat die. 6) Repeat the upsetting sequence for different specimens for friction and frictionless cases at the inner surfaces between the die and the specimen. 7. Requirements: 1) Describe the upsetting process. 2) Sketch all the used dies, tools, and specimens. 3) Find the ratio of billet final height to final mean diameter to give uniform upsetting deformation. 4) Draw the contour patterns of the outer surface for all upset specimen.

8. Questions. 1) Why and how Barreling occurs in upsetting hot work pieces between cool dies. 2) Define and explain the term double barreling? 3) Discuss forging methods and forging defects? 8. References 1. Kalpakjian Schmid, 2003. Manufacturing processes for Engineering materials, fourth
edition, Prentice hall international ISBN 0-13-040871-9. 2. George Tlusty, 2000. Manufacturing Processes and equipment, Prentice hall international. ISBN 0-201-49865-0 3. Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid, 2003, Manufacturing engineering technology, fourth edition Prentice hall international. ISBN 0-13-017440-8. 4. Mikell P. Groover, 2002, Fundamentals of modern manufacturing materials, processes, and systems. John wiley and sons, Inc. ISBN 0-471-40051-3.