Project regarding

By B.V.L.N.KIRAN KUMAR M.Sc

Faculty in pace, the global school , Ongole. Email-vlnkk001@gmail.com

Project regarding Earthquakes

Contents: 1. Earthquakes-introduction (what?) 2. Historical views of Earthquakes 3. Causes for Earthquake (why?)

4. Earthquake prone areas in the World, India and Andhra Pradesh (where?) Significant earthquakes in and around India The Ten Largest Earthquakes since 1900 in the World

Major Earthquakes around the World, 2012

5. Measuring and locating of Earthquakes (How?) 6. Effects of Earthquakes(results) Shaking and ground rupture Landsides and avalanches Fires Soil liquefaction Tsunami Floods Human impacts 7. Prediction 8. To Do List Before An Earthquake During An Earthquake After an Earthquake 9. Bibliography

An Earthquake (also known as a quake, tremor or temblor) is the result of a sudden release of energy in the Earths crust that creates seismic waves. Earthquakes are one of the most destructive of natural hazards.

The seismic activity of an area refers to the frequency, type and size of earthquakes experienced over a period of time.

2. Historical views of earthquakes:

From the lifetime of the Greek philosopher Anaxagoras in the 5th century BCE to the 14th century CE, earthquakes were usually attributed to "air (vapors) in the cavities of the Earth.

"Thales of Miletus, who lived from 625547 (BCE) was the only documented person who believed that earthquakes were caused by tension between the earth and water.

Other theories existed, including the Greek philosopher Anaxamines' (585 526 BCE) beliefs that short incline episodes of dryness and wetness caused seismic activity.

The Greek philosopher Democritus (460371 BCE) blamed water in general for earthquakes. Pliny the Elder called earthquakes "underground thunderstorms." In European history, the earliest recorded earthquake occurred in 580 B.C. Earthquakes have been recorded as early as 1177 B.C. in China. Of course earthquakes have been a part of myth and legend since the dawn of man. In Greek Mythology, Posseidon (Neptune in the Roman pantheon) was "God of the Sea". Yet one of his powers was thought to be that of "earth shaker".

As a tsunami is often the result of an earthquake, this was an appropriate power for a sea god.

Aristotle was one of the first Europeans to create a theory about the origin of
Earthquakes. He thought that they were the result of heavy winds. Not much more study was concentrated on earthquakes until the mid-1700s when London was hit by a devastating quake and a tsunami struck Lisbon, Portugal shortly after. John Mitchell in England and Elie Bertrand in Switzerland began a comprehensive study of the timing and severity of earthquakes. Soon scientists from several countries were exchanging observations and theories on earthquakes. In the 1820's Chile became an area of interest to seismologists. After an earthquake there, it was noticed that the elevation of the coastline had changed. This was substantiated by the Captain of the H.M.S. Beagle, Robert Fitzroy. (The ship also carried Charles Darwin who was studying the flora and fauna of the coast.)

In the 1850s Robert Mallet, figured out a means to measure the velocity of seismic waves.

Meanwhile, in Italy, Luigi Palmieri invented an electromagnetic seismograph, one of which was installed near Mount Vesuvius and another at the University of Naples. These seismographs were the first seismic instruments capable of routinely detecting earthquakes imperceptible to human beings.

Electromagnetic seismograph

In 1872 a U.S. scientist named Grove Gilbert figured out that earthquakes usually center around a fault line. It was after the 1906 earthquake in San Francisco that Harry Reid hypothesized those earthquakes were likely the result of a build-up of pressure along these faults.

It was about 1910 that Alfred Wegener published his theory of plate tectonics to explain volcanic and seismic activity.

Global plate motion 2008-04-17

Since then, seismologists have continued to work at a furious pace, building better instruments, computer models, and theories and forecast to study the causes and effects of earthquakes.

3. Causes for Earthquakes:

Earthquakes are one of the most destructive of natural hazards.

The impact of the event is most traumatic because it affects large area, occurs all on a sudden and unpredictable. They can cause large scale loss of life and property and disrupts essential services such as water supply, sewerage systems, communication and power, transport etc. They not only destroy villages, towns and cities but the aftermath leads to destabilize the economic and social structure of the nation.

4. Earthquake prone areas in Andhra Pradesh, India and the World: In Andhra Pradesh:
10 mandals in Prakasam, 3 mandals in Warangal, 11 mandals in Guntur,21 Mandals in Chittoor,14 mandals in RangaReddy,13mandals in Khammam,11 mandals in Vizianagaram,10 mandals in Srikakulam,9 mandals in Medak,7 mandals in Visakhapatnam and 1 in Hyderabad. PRAKASAM-ONGOLE(most quake prone area), Kanigiri, Chimakurthi, Chinaganjam, Karamchedu, Vetapalem, Darsi, Parchur, Martur, Addanki WARANGAL-Mangapet, Tadwai, Eturunagaram, GUNTUR - Chebrolu,Guntur, Parthipadu, Phirangipuram, Narasaraopet, Ipur, Vinukonda, Chilakaluripet, Ponnur, Bapatla and Peda Nandipadu.

In India:
On the basis of the intensities or the destructiveness of the earthquakes a map of India has been published by the Meteorological Department in collaboration of the Indian Standard Institution. The map shows the five seismic zones based on modified Mercalli Scale. Zone I: Intensity V or below (instrumental, feeble, slight, moderate rather strong) Some areas of Punjab and Haryana Plains of Uttar Pradesh Coastal plains of Maharashtra and Kerala, Certain parts of the plains of Bihar and West Bengal, Certain areas in Rajasthan and major part of Gujarat except Kutch. Zone II: Intensity VI (Strong) Southern Punjab and Haryana Certain parts of the plains of Uttar Pradesh, eastern Rajasthan Coastal areas of Orissa and TamilNadu( low damage risk zone). Zone III: Intensity VII (Very Strong) Covers southern and Southeastern parts of Rajasthan Larger parts of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Jharkhand Northern, northwestern part of Orissa. Zone IV: Intensity VIII (destructive) Zone Represents areas where there is high damage risk by destructive earthquakes. This zone comprises the State of Jarnmu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, northern part of Punjab and Haryana, Delhi, eastern Uttar Pradesh, tarai and bhabar regions, the Himalayan areas of Uttaranchal, Bihar and Sikkim. Zone V: Intensity more than VIII (disastrous, catastrophic) Represents areas of the most destructive and catastrophic earthquakes where there is extremely high damage risk. The following areas fall into this zone: certain parts of Jammu and Kashmir, parts of Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Monghyr and Darbhanga districts of Bihar, northern part of India and Kutch region of Gujarat.

In the World:

The Ten Largest Earthquakes since 1900 in the World

S. No
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Location
Chile Prince William sound Alaska Andrean of Islands Japan Kamchatka Off western coast of Sumatra, Indonesia Off the coast of Ecuador

Date
March 22,1960 March 28,1964 March 9,1957 March 11,2011 Nov 4,1952 Dec 26,2004 Jan 31,1906

Magnitude
9.5 9.2 9.1 9 9 9 8.8

Major Earthquakes around the World, 2012

S. No
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Location
Sumatra, Indonesia Vanuatu Ometepec, Mexico Talca, Chile Aceh Province, Indonesia Aceh Province, Indonesia Baja California, Mexico Northern Italy

Date
11-Jan 2-Feb 20-Mar 25-Mar 11-Apr 11-Apr 12-Apr 21-May

Magnitude
7.2 7.1 7.4 7.1 8.6 8.2 7 6

5. Measuring and locating of Earthquake:

Earthquakes can be recorded by seismometers up to great distances, because seismic waves travel through the whole Earths interior. The absolute magnitude of a quake is conventionally reported by numbers on the Moment magnitude scale (formerly Richter scale, magnitude 7 causing serious damage over large areas), whereas the felt magnitude is reported using the modified Mercalli intensity scale (intensity IIXII). Every tremor produces different types of seismic waves, which travel through rock with different velocities: Longitudinal P-waves (shock- or pressure waves) Transverse S-waves (both body waves) Surface waves (Rayleigh and Love waves)

Propagation velocity of the seismic waves ranges from approx. 3 km/s up to 13 km/s, depending on
the density and elasticity of the medium.

6. Effects of Earthquakes:
Shaking and ground rupture

Shaking and ground rupture are the main effects created by earthquakes, principally resulting in more or less severe damage to buildings and other rigid structures. The severity of the local effects depends on the complex combination of the earthquake magnitude, the distance from the epicenter, and the local geological and geomorphological conditions, which may amplify or reduce wave propagation.The ground-shaking is measured by ground acceleration

 Landslides and avalanches:

Earthquakes, along with severe storms, volcanic activity and coastal wave attack, and wildfires, can produce slope instability leading to landslides, a major geological hazard. Landslide danger may persist while emergency personnel are attempting rescue.

Fires:
Earthquakes can cause fires by damaging electrical power or gas lines. In the event of water mains rupturing and a loss of pressure, it may also become difficult to stop the spread of a fire once it has started. For example, more deaths in the 1906 San Francisco earthquake were caused by fire than by the earthquake itself.

 Soil liquefaction:

Soil liquefaction occurs when, because of the shaking, water-saturated granular material (such as sand) temporarily loses its strength and transforms from a solid to a liquid.

Soil liquefaction may cause rigid structures, like buildings and bridges, to tilt or sink into the liquefied deposits. For example, in the 1964 Alaska earthquake, soil liquefaction caused many buildings to sink into the ground, eventually collapsing upon them.

 Tsunami:
Tsunamis are long-wavelength, long-period sea waves produced by the sudden or abrupt movement of large volumes of water. In the open ocean the distance between wave crests can surpass 100 kilometers (62 mi), and the wave periods can vary from five minutes to one hour.

Such tsunamis travel 600-800 kilometers per hour (373497 miles per hour), depending on water depth. Large waves produced by an earthquake or a submarine landslide can overrun nearby coastal areas in a matter of minutes. Tsunamis can also travel thousands of kilometers across Open Ocean and wreak destruction on far shores hours after the earthquake that generated them.

Ordinarily, subduction earthquakes under magnitude 7.5 on the Richter scale do not cause tsunamis, although some instances of this have been recorded. Most destructive tsunamis are caused by earthquakes of magnitude 7.5 or more.

 Floods
A flood is an overflow of any amount of water that reaches land.

Floods occur usually when the volume of water within a body of water, such as a river or lake, exceeds the total capacity of the formation, and as a result some of the water flows or sits outside of the normal perimeter of the body.

However, floods may be secondary effects of earthquakes, if dams are damaged.

Earthquakes may cause landslips to dam rivers, which collapse and cause floods.

 Human impacts
An earthquake may cause injury and loss of life, road and bridge damage, general property damage (which may or may not be covered by earthquake insurance), and collapse or destabilization (potentially leading to future collapse) of buildings. The aftermath may bring disease, lack of basic necessities, and higher insurance premiums.

7.Prediction:
Many methods have been developed for predicting the time and place in which earthquakes will occur. Despite considerable research efforts by seismologists, scientifically reproducible predictions cannot yet be made to a specific day or month. However, for well-understood faults the probability that a segment may rupture during the next few decades can be estimated. Earthquake warning systems have been developed that can provide regional notification of an earthquake in progress, but before the ground surface has begun to move, potentially allowing people within the system's range to seek shelter before the earthquake's impact is felt.

8. To Do List Before An Earthquake!

Develop a plan of action in the event of an earthquake. Agree with friends and family on a contact point that is outside of the quake zone. With one contact point, you will avoid tying up phone lines, andfriends and family can go to one safe source for news about you and othersin the zone. Locate the safe and the dangerous spots around your home and office so that you can act quickly should the need arise. Check your house to make sure it is up to earthquake codes. Is the foundation bolted to the house? Is your hot water heater bolted down? Know how to shut down utilities at their source to ensure quick closing of gas and water leaks and to secure electrical lines. Protect fragile valuables with latched cupboards, cushioning, etc. Make sure you have a kit that includes a jackknife, a flashlight, a GPS device, a waterfilter, and a solar/windup radio. Make sure there is always plenty of gas in your vehicle. Store flammable liquids outside of the house.

Prepare a package of emergency suplies that includes food, water, a first-aid kit, and cash. It is best to have this cache be capable of lasting the entire family for at least three days. Back up personal and business records periodically and store outside the earthquake zone.

To Do List - During An Earthquake!

Do not panic. Take care of the basics first, get under a large, stable piece of furniture like a table and hold on to it to keep it from moving away from you. If outside, get your feet on the ground and duck to avoid flying debris. If you are inside do not try to rush out of the building. Shattering glass and falling bricks can be a great hazard for anyone leaving a building. Do not try to take elevators or stairs during the quake. Avoid windows and glass doors, planters, bookcases, furniture on wheels, chimneys, kitchens and shopping mall walkways. If you are outdoors when the quake strikes, stay away from buildings, dams, gas and water mains, power lines, trees, fuel tanks, vehicles, or anything else that could fall on you or roll over you. If you are driving, pull off the road and stay clear of bridges, overpasses and parking garages Avoid smoking or using an open flame in case of a gas main leak. Prepare for aftershocks If you are on a waterfront head for high ground immediately; earthquakesoften create huge waves capable of incredible damage.

 To Do List - After An Earthquake!

Make sure you get your shoes on, there may be considerable glass shards and other object that could injure your feet. Medical attention may not be immediately available, so this is a bad time to hurt yourself through negligence. Do not move anyone who is seriously injured unless other danger is imminent. If possible, let trained medical personnel make this judgement. If you join rescue work, tread warilly as building foundations will be weak and there is the possibility of an aftershock. If you think that there may be damage to utilities then shut them off. Use your radio to find out information about the quake, what other dangers might be lurking and what to do about them. Avoid tying up communication lines. Unhung phones can cause systems to shut down, so be sure to hang up all phones. Be judicious about leaving your present location to search for loved ones or to travel home. Moving about just after an earthquake can bring you up against unexpected hazards like broken gas mains, unpassable roads and downed power lines. Remember to preserve your water supplies (toilet tanks, hot water heaters). Don't trust unknown water sources, make sure you boil the water or chlorinate. Watch out for looters, some may be armed and dangerous. Police and military personnel may be sent into the area. Be sure you do not appear to be a looter to them. Finally, do not panic. There will be plenty to do and to worry about. Take care that children are reassured. Remember, help is on the way.

Bibliography
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake#Historical_views http://www.readinessinfo.com/eqafter.shtml