ONE-DAY COURSE ON STRUT & TIE MODELLING OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES BY Dr. PETER GABOR 28 FEBRUARY 2011 EMPIRE HOTEL, SUBANG JAYA SELANGOR DARUL EHSAN BEM APPROVED CPD/PDP HOURS: 6.5 REF. No.: IEM10/HQ/365/C ORGANISED BY: CIVIL & STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING TECHNICAL DIVISION, IEM SPONSORED BY: CAEN CUTENCATEGHIGSNI»—- MEINHARDT (MALAYSIA) SDN BHD RIVO PRECAST SDN BHDDear Participants, Welcome to the 1-Day Seminar on Strut & Tie Modelling of Concrete Structures organised by the Civil & Structural Engineering Technical Division of the [EM and sponsored by Creative Precast Technics Sdn Bhd, Meinhardt (Malaysia) Sdn Bhd and Rivo Precast Sdn Bhd, In order to facilitate the smooth operation of the event, the Organising Committee would like to seek co-operation of the participants in the following: ~ REGISTRATION ‘The registration will start at 8:00 a.m, to 9:00 a.m, atthe foyer of the Emperor Ballroom. Partcips advised to take care of their course folders. During tea and lunch breaks, participants are also advised to take their folders along with them. In all cases, seminar folders, all valuable items sich as wallets, notes should not be left unattended and TEM will not be held liable for any loss or damage ‘ALUATION FORM An evaluation form is also included into the materials, Kindly complete the form and return it to the Secretariat at the end of the event. CERTIFICATE OF ATTENDANCE Certificate of Attendance will be given to the participants at the end of the event, NAME TAGS All participants are advised to wear their name tags at all times during the event so that they can be easily identified PARKIN Participants shall be entitled to a flat rate parking fee of RMS.00 nett per vehicle per entry, subject to a validation stamp located at the foyer of the ballroom. Parking rate is subject 10 change prior notice. MORNIN The morning and afternoo ND AFTERNOON TEA BREAKS tea breaks will be held at the foyer of the ballroom, LUNCH The lunch will be held at Kitchen Art Brasserie located at Level 2. PRAYER ROOM Prayer room is located at Level 1 of Empire Shopping Gallery, Ir. David Ng Shiu Yuen Chairman, Session 2010/2011 Civil &Structural Engineering Technical Division ‘This is a computer generated form so no signature is required.SPEAKER'S PROFILE Dr. Peter Gabor received his Masters (Civil and Structural) in 1972 and his Ph.D degrees in 1980, all from the Technical University of | Budapest. His intemational work experiences span from projects in | Hungary, Greece, Algiers, to Australia, Singapore, Malaysia, Hong | Kong, Panama and many other countries. Among his major projects in | Malaysia include the Menara Telekom, Menara Public Bank (Johor N; Bahru), UTP (Seri Iskandar, Perak) and Menara Maxis Tower. His “ other major projects include the upgrading of the Sydney Opera House, concrete structures for the Beijing Water Cube and the National Portrait Gallery in Canberra, Many of Dr. Gabor conerete design solutions are very innovative and led to several publications in international journals. He has successfully collaborated with leading intemational architects such as Norman Foster, Hijjas Khasturi, Ken Yeang, GDP and PTW architects, Dr. Gabor migrated to Australia in 1984. He is now a specialist concrete consultant well as an invited lecturer at The University of Sydney. He serves as member of the General and Strength subcommittees of the Australian Standard AS 3600 on conerete structures, TENTATIVE PROGRAMME Ce 0900am_| -| 090Sam_ 0905am | -| 1030am EN Welcoming Remarks by Session Chairman Session 1: Introduction. Description and validity of STM. Conditions of adopting STM (emis Session 2: Load Path Method (LPM) and relation with STM. Pedagogical value of STM. Visualization with STM. STM constituents (struts, ties and nodes). Lunch, Session 3: Frequently used simple STM examples. Decision about adopting and setting up STM (step by step example). Other typical details (corbels, half-joints, knee joints, voids in beam, PT anchor reinforcement details) Rees Session 4: Continuation of the typical details. STM of major | transfer structure (examples of combination of FEM and STM). ___| Future developments and research needs in STM 0430pm |-[ 0530pm | Course summary General discussions and feedback Q&A Ley 1100am_| - 1230pm_- 0130pm 0130pm_ | -| 0300pm_ CUT EREEO IY -| 0430pmAcknowledgement Strut and Tie Modelling has a long history in the reinforced concrete design. It has been used for at least 100 years, however - as a consolidated and Consistent approach - first gained wider acceptance in the early Nineties, Professor Schlaich at al. from Germany introduced the uniform design method and made it available for the wider design community. K. H. Reineck gave a course in 1990 in Australia where I learned the basics of the above method. It took 4-5 years when | first time opted to use it with the aim of achieving a safe and reliable transfer structure. The design of the Telecom transfer structure was widely reported and acknowledged by the practice. It became the largest structure in the world, exclusively designed with the new design tool; STM. | would like to express my gratitude to Ranhill Bersekutu and its chairman Tan Sri Hamdan Mohamad for giving me the opportunity to be part of the structural design team of this beautiful building. Current lecture notes are based on my university lecture notes at the University of Sydney and on the related research activities within the AS 3600 Standard Committee. Current seminar has been organized as part of the continuous effort of IEM in Providing structural engineers with state of the art design methods. Personally ! wish to express my most sincere gratitude to A. Prof. Took Kowng Sooi for his extreme care and his technical comments in the preparation work. Finally | acknowledge the help of the seminar sponsors: Creative Precast, Meinhardt Consulting and Rivo Precast. Without their generous contribution the seminar would not be possible. Sydney 2011. Dr Peter GaborFailare SPtsp'c tn Desi. Design ~ Concept ~ te fe “Detriling- sa% — Matoriop s~ ah 7 Ont. Bree 10%Table of contents page 1 Introduction 2 Description and validity of STM. 3 Condition of adopting STM - a brief overview 4 Load Path Method (LPM) 5 STM constituents 6 Frequently used simple STM examples 7 Decisions about adopting and setting up STM 8 Other typical details 9 STM of major transfer structures 10 Conclusion Appendix 16 17 20 39 49 58 76 97 STM, PG1.STRUT and TIE MODEL (STM) 1. Introduction Reinforced concrete structures have been built for more than a century. The concrete itself is a much older building material. It was used in form of lime mortar around 200 BC. Some of the structures built that time proved to be sustainable enough and are still in service. 500 years later the Romans discovered another material with high cementitious content; the volcanic ash, which mixed with lime mortar, resulted in a much stronger concrete. One of the surviving historical examples is in Rome. The Pantheon with its 43 m diameter dome became for a long period; until the 19" century, a record spanning structure. During the centuries the concrete became a material of secondary importance. Masonry structures and stone structures considered to be the most favourable solutions. Their superior compressive characteristics were cleverly coupled with the long known structural forms of arches and other forms, providing straightforward compressive load path. The relatively high tensile strength of the concrete ~compared to the masonry structures- were only utilised in those cities, where the presence of the concrete constituent materials was evident. In 1850 a French gardener Monier has built a few planter boxes and placed reinforcement in the concrete, close to the extreme tensile fibre, thereby substituting the missing, or negligible tensile strength of the concrete. This kind of concrete strengthening became possible due to the almost identical thermal coefficients of the two basic constituent materials; concrete and reinforcing steel. While the tensile strength of concrete has been consistently neglected in flexural strength calculation, shear resistance, bond strength and force transfer at anchorages and at reinforcement laps are largely influenced by the above concrete property. In case of plain concrete, tensile strength of the homogeneous material - concrete becomes equally important. Codes are highly empirical in their definition of the tensile strength and related shear and bond resistance, load transfer, aggregate interlock or dowel action. As a result, their suggested design procedures became highly inconsistent and messy. STM, PG 2Fig.1.1: Truss model by Ritter from 1899 Abb, 219. Abb. 224. Abb. 221. Abb, 222. Fig.1.2: Truss models by Nérsch STM, PG3MacGregor * summarises this inconsistency the following way: “Current design Practice for reinforced concrete structures is a curious blend of elastic analysis to compute forces and moments, plasticity theory to proportion cross sections for moment and axial load, and empirical mumbo-jumbo to proportion members for shear.” As expected from the above statement the extension of the plasticity theory to the shear, torsion and bearing design would markedly increase the level of consistency in reinforced concrete design. In fact it is highly expected that a consistent design method could be equally applicable for reinforced, partially prestressed and fully prestressed concrete structures. While in many ways this could be achieved, author of these notes doubts that in case of partially or fully prestressed members - where proportioning and strand profiling are based on the load balancing method - could fully benefit from the offered increased Consistency. The introduction of the definition; structural concrete, comprising the above categories might express a sort of uniformity, however the resistance of the codes towards this new category has Proved that a certain level of distinction between reinforced and prestressed concrete had to be maintained. In the coming chapters we will further elaborate on this issue. Here at this stage it is prudent to say that there might be another category where load balancing is not used and reinforcement is Substituted with prestress application, utilising primary the higher strength of the material and secondary the confining effect of the applied P/A, where P is the effective prestress force after the losses and A is the cross-sectional area of the concrete. Consequently STM can be applied in those structures, In the early age of modern concrete history Ritter in 1899 and Morsch in 1912 developed the truss analogy to understand and visualise the internal load path in a reinforced concrete member between the point(s) of action and reaction. Reineck’ in his lecture notes shows facsimiles of different early truss models by Ritter and Morsch which are on figures 1.1 and 1.2 respectively. The primary concern regarding Ritter’s model is the simplified load path from the location of the load to the supports. The set of diagonal struts and vertical hanging reinforcements, representing the ties, are providing answer to the load path. The model seems to be inconsistent since the horizontal tensile reinforcement, sale Gregor J. G.: Challenges and changes in the design of concrete structures. Concrete Inst. Febr. 1984, p 49-53 2 Reineck, K. H.: Structural Concrete Design For Constructability. Lecture Notes 1990, STM, PG42 - a x baad transfer from M4 to8H2 Ra fey r Jowr C& Bm/— By bus VIEW c Co Bae HF yper choral compression 4 © Tae x SL, FO fewer charot Yansron A Per oF ayi- aad By. wee Fig 13: Hodel of indirectly supported beant afrer Leonharolé STM, PGSRepresenting the ties is included while the horizontal concrete strut at the extreme compressive fibre has been omitted thereby creating the impression of internally unbalanced beam sections. Morsch is correctly showing the horizontal concrete struts and the horizontal reinforcement representing the ties. The load path is provided by the overlapping set of diagonal struts and diagonally bent up reinforcements, very much characteristic to the early European detailing. Shear and torsion had yet to be included to the truss analogy. Subsequent models by Rusch, Leonhardt and others started to rectify this shortcoming. Accuracy - as far as the empirical methods allowed - in shear and torsion resistance became of paramount importance and concrete contribution due to aggregate interlock started to be considered as well. Figure 1.3 shows a model of an indirectly supported beam connection after Leonhardt®. It is a good example for the visualisation of the truss analogy. Figure 1.4 shows the crack formation and the appropriate detailing, including the hanging reinforcement which lifts up the supported beam load for distribution in the primary beam. Ge Brmeaton Haweing ~ettvorceemye pat Rig l4: (notirect support earxrls 3 Leonhardt, F,, Monnig, €.: Vorlesungen uber Massivbau ~ Dritter Tell Springer Verlag 1977, STM, PG6Figures 1.5 and 1.6 are showing the application of truss analogy in case of twisted prismatic and cylindrical members respectively. REINFORCED TENT. eR EMCORLEHANT, 243, Our 2S Bastwer Pla. oS! TRUSS MODEL OF TwrSreD PRIS 3 PL PL W-]e a a |yenipa a = yarify 82 eo? rei c a uys-ife 4 B Le 77. A c IF 4 o 3a 2 : E cs - oS ie - 3 B 2 |¥e-3 a . [36-97 bd B Courressow Tawstou, ABC. Panne 9 Rovere ex Sreers 2 ries STM, PG7The truss analogy has been significantly widened by the work of Collins and Mitchell, who included in their proposal shear and torsion to the model. Subsequently the Canadian code* adopted the new method. The essence of the method is the revised sectional analysis, based on the equilibrium, compatibility and stress-strain equations. Juravsky indicated with his well known formula that the shear distribution in a cross-section is variable. ved TS hb Furthermore the principal compressive stress trajectories change directions along the depth of the beams. The simplification proposed by Collins et al. Suggest an average uniform shear stress distribution and a constant compressive trajectory angle. These lecture notes do not have the primary scope to discuss in details the improved truss analogy. Instead we refer the reader to the research of Collins, Mitchell and others and to the Canadian code itself. Truss analogy is applicable for cracked concrete structures, where the compression is carried manly by the concrete and the tension entirely by the reinforcement. The improved truss analogy provides a rational approach to the design of reinforced concrete structures. It has certain advantages; among them the universal application in the design for bending, shear, torsion and * CSA Standard CAN3-A23,3-M84 Design of Concrete Structures for Buildings. STM, PG8bearing is most significant. Visualisation of the load path, better understanding and conclusively better dimensioning of the structures are added benefits. However the same rational approach cannot be used along the whole structure, since certain parts cannot be covered by the truss analogy. Based on Leonhardt’s extensive research Schlaich et al. proposed the consistent Strut and Tie model. (STM)® 2. Description and validity of STM Close to geometrical and/or load discontinuities STM should be applied in the design and detailing of structural members, which extends the rationality of the truss analogy to those areas where otherwise mostly empirical models have been used previously. The empirical models in the early stage of the structural concrete design served the purpose, even if their accuracy was doubtful and definitely lower than the accuracy of the truss analogy. The combination of the two methods was not consistent and from time to time some rectification was needed in the code regulations. This balancing act however often created an under balanced situation in areas, where previously over balance has been experienced. As a result, structures built in different decades exhibited different characteristic short comings, like certain problems in ultimate capacities or inappropriate response in the serviceability design stage. Being a bit more specific; punching shear, ductility issues, missing hanging reinforcement, lack of appropriate crack control, excessive deflection, were among the most frequently identifiable problems. The STM differentiates between B and D regions. B means in this case Bernoulli or Beam region, referring to the length where well established accurate truss analogy provides the rational model and it refers to the Bernoulli Hypothesis which states that plane sections remain plane after loading and simuitaneous bending. ‘As a consequence linear strain distribution becomes valid for all the loading stages, including the ultimate load combination as well. D regions are discontinuity or detailing regions. Stress distribution in these regions is nonlinear. Stress flow in B region is very regular and predictable. In the D region the opposite happens and the stress flow becomes irregular and 5 Schlaich, J, Schafer, K,,Jennewein, M.: Toward a Consistent Design of Structural Concrete ~ PCI Journal May/June 1987 vol. 32. No.3 STM, PG9B Bernoull (Bean 2 Discontavity {retaitng) region B 45 2 Load! eteontimuriie Cand load discoatonfy etrical otis con tinct disturbed, requiring highly complex design and detailing. Geometrical discontinuities include sudden section changes, voids or other types of openings, corners, corbels, steps, up-stands, close proximity to supports. Load discontinuities include the singular points of actions and reactions at the supports. The close proximity of the geometrical and load discontinuities means that certain structural members like deep beams or pile caps are non- flexural members and STM is applicable on the entire structure. Figure 2.1 shows a portal frame with the appropriately divided B and D regions. On the same figures the most frequent geometrical and load discontinuities are presented as well, while Figure 2.2 shows some other examples of discontinuities. STM utilises the lower bound theorem of plasticity. According to this theorem a set of internal forces being in equilibrium with the external loads - including applied loads and reactions — and the same time the yield criteria have not been violated anywhere along the structure, the applied load will always be smaller than, or equal to the collapse load. The other requirement of the lower bound theorem is the presence of adequate ductility along the whole structure. When applying the load, a series of plastic hinges will develop. As long as those hinges are able to exhibit the yield moment capacity, while the STM, PG 10last one ~ critical in reaching a mechanism — forms, the design load will be less than the real collapse load, so the structure is considered to be safe. In a more simplistic way the prerequisite of a safe structural behaviour is that the concrete crushes, before the reinforcement yields. Since the load path of STM more or less coincides with the principal tensile trajectories, or at least with their components, reinforcement in the above statement means both flexural and shear reinforcements. \ deee fear Pile cap plane ¥. Other geametrical and load STM, PG 11The expression “stirrup” is actually not used in the new AS 3600 instead the more general “fitment” has been adopted. No matter which expression we use, when discussing STM, it is prudent to clarify: stirrups or fitments include any forms of hanging reinforcement or reinforcement transverse to the strut axis. It is worthwhile to summarise the constraints, affecting the validity of any chosen STM: * Equilibrium between internal and external forces * Tension in concrete is negligible * Strut and tie axis’s coincide with the compression/tension force resultants. * External forces and reactions act on nodes only. * Ties connecting two nodes should be fully developed at the nodes, meaning the tie anchorage should be fully adequate. However over Providing the reinforcement would allow a proportional reduction in individual anchorage or bond capacities. * Prestressing should be treated as singular loads, acting on nodes. Author of these notes find the STM of anchorages extremely useful however has some serious reservations regarding attempts to include prestressing, as a balance load case, to any STM. It should always be remembered that STM is not ideal for serviceability design. More about this topic will be discussed in the following chapters. As a counter balancing statement to the above constraints, we have to mention already at this point the relative ease and freedom in the design Process. Various STM-s could be set up, some of them with correct assumptions, some others under wrong conditions. As long as there is one which is working, the structure is considered to be perfectly safe. This advantage has not much to do with the STM itself rather it reflects the concrete’s ability to redistribute the internal forces until a workable solution has been found. Some useful tips will be discussed in the future chapters enabling the design engineers to quickly arrive to the right STM-s. STM, PG 12Once the B and D regions have been identified, it is important to establish the extent of the regions. In complex cases a combination of a linear elastic finite Ae Hem lengdhi fe P/a } = —¥ ce ~ Sys Fry. 2.3[4) Beam end face badel Fig 2.3, Determinarion of B ¥ oO regions STM, PG 13element analysis and STM would give the clearest or the most readily available results for efficient detailing. 'f a finite element run has been completed, it becomes fairly straight forward to decide about the border lines between different regions. Trajectories have fairly uniform, smooth distribution in B regions opposite to the busy, almost irregular trajectory directions in D regions. The visual differences provide an unmistakable border line position. However FE analysis is not always available and in these cases some other methods have to be used. First of all Saint Venant’s principle has to be remembered: “The stress distribution at sections far_removed from the point of application of concentrated forces depends Purely on stress resultants and not on the actual distribution of forces.”° From the above principle the word “far” has to be further defined. On the surface a self-equilibrating force- system develops. The “far distance” roughly equals to the maximum length of that equilibrating force-system. (Fig. 2.3) The application of Saint Venant’s principle does not necessarily gives an accurate answer but at least it gives a good starting point. Borderlines between B and D regions on Fig. 2.1 are based on the above principle. In reality the extent of the D region in complex cases could elongate up to 50%, as Foster et al are suggesting.” The practical process of finding the B and D region’s borderline could happen two ways. The first one has been mentioned earlier; if a linear elastic FE analysis with the principal trajectory direction is available, the process is very simple and almost automatic. Visual separation of disturbed and beam regions is self explanatory. The other way of setting up the regions is based on the principle of superposition. Fig. 2.4 — developed by Schlaich et al - shows first the real structure with the real loads. The next picture shows a fictitious structure which satisfies load equilibrium and Bernoulli's hypothesis. The fictitious structure represents a single B region. It means that the trajectories have no angle changes along the entire beam therefore the model does not differentiate between B and D regions. With other words the denial of the existence of D regions violates the boundary conditions. To rectify this situation we superimpose another model to the fictitious one which introduces both self equilibrating external forces (loads and / or reactions) and internal 6 Marshall & Netson’s structures ~Longman Group UK Ltd 1990. 7 Warner, RF. Foster, S.l, Kilpatrick, A.€.: Reinforced Concrete Basics- Pearson, Prentice Hall 2007 STM, PG 14forces at the two ends where both geometrical and load discontinuity apply. The resultant of the two superimposed model components is the final model with the real loads, reactions, correct regions and consequently with the right boundary conditions. a Pp < — < Pe Whe rt + sigh: CompressiY@ forte reat _. ficditrous self till read sift SwelNe ‘Sérvcture ‘reshiey SAF. Yecth Ba repint Fip 24 Leder mination of BPD regions after Scalaich STM, PG 153. Conditions of adopting STM — a brief overview In the following chapters we will discuss the different components of the STM. However before doing that it is prudent to briefly review in a systematic way the STM itself together with the relevant conditions when its use becomes beneficial. STM becomes the preferable method once the concrete becomes cracked. It is mostly used in individual D regions or logically for the overall structure if it consist only one D region and no B region at all. Alternatively, or as an addition to the STM, a non-linear analysis can be performed, especially if the reinforcement is not realistically modelled in the STM. In structures, consisting both B and D regions STM is complimentary to the truss analysis which is normally performed in the B regions. The 2 basic requirements of adopting STM should always be kept in mind: © Equilibrium © Stress-Strain relationship or yield criteria of different materials i.e. Concrete and reinforcement The third possible criteria of strain compatibility doas not have to be satisfied according to the principles of lower bound plasticity theory. If the tensile stress in any B or D region is higher than the tensile strength of the concrete a STM should be developed on the basis that only reinforcement resists tension. The resultant stress fields should than be shown with the help of struts and ties, presented by straight lines between the nodes and curvatures at the nodes only. After calculation of reactions and internal forces satisfying equilibrium, dimensioning of the struts, ties and nodes could take place. Dimensioning should take in account the requirements of appropriate crack control by considering the transverse bursting stresses acting Perpendicular to the strut axis. We will elaborate this matter in future chapters. It is a safe practice to orientate the struts and ties of highly stressed areas in the direction of the internal load path, since deviation from that could lead to non appropriate reinforcement in certain component direction, leaving the respective tensile forces to the concrete to balance. Proportionally the tensile STM, PG 16strength of the concrete is much smaller than the tensile stress, induced by the above force component. 4. Load-Path Method (LPM) The load path method provides a power-full tool to the preparation of STM, especially in the absence of a linear elastic analysis. The first step in application of LPM is the confirmation of equilibrium. In case of “single D region” structures the external loads and reactions should be in equilibrium. When adjacent B region(s) exist, the D region itself could be treated as a free body and external loads, reactions — if any on this particular region - and the boundary forces should be in equilibrium. Fig. 4.1 shows a deep beam, loaded by a trapezoid load. The first figure shows the load path method. The resultant loads magnitude and location can easily be determined simply from the calculated reactions. The resultant loads Ay; and B,,.are in equilibrium with the respective reactions A and B. The load path has to change location to arrive to the respective supports. The gentle curvature in the load path represents the change of location. The load path gives enough information to the construction of STM. The gentle curvature means a smeared node which on the STM has been substituted by a singular node. With the help of the singular node simplicity becomes more pronounced, similarities and differences between LPM and STM become instantly detectable. After calculating A and B reactions (A > B) the trapezoid load would be split with the ratio of A/(A+B) and B/(A+B). It means that the Agar and A loads are balancing each other, as B,.,and B do as well. Obviously: X:+X21 Therefore d, > Og It has to be noted that a similar arrangement would be valid for a column. The trapezoid load would apply as an equivalent internal load at the same position which would become the boundary line between region B and D instead of being the surface of a deep beam. Obviously in this later case the external load would only have a small eccentricity and it would act at the far end of the column. Fig. 4.2 shows a member end with an axial load applied with a large eccentricity. The corresponding stress diagram shows tension at the surface of the member and at the far extreme chord of the member. Beaiand By are equal but opposite loads balancing each other. They represent resultant forces of two opposite triangular blocks. Logically the remaining F and F, are balancing each other therefore part of the load path is not used for load transfer. The first figure shows the “U” turn, which is a widely accepted typical detail in the LPM. The STM explains even better the essence of the U turn, how it is reinstating equilibrium in some nodes. By similar arrangement columns ends with large eccentricity or anchorage zones of eccentrically stressed beams can be modelled successfully. The above two structures and their respective Load Path and Strut & Tie Models underline the importance of some simple tools helping in the understanding of the transverse force signs at the nodes where direction change occurs. The angle change in the load path creates a transverse force that reinstates the balance of the node. However this force has to be balanced as well and it happens courtesy of another transverse force. It means that there have to be minimum two load paths otherwise transverse balance of the nodes cannot be reinstated. Figure 4.3 shows load paths in pairs. Those lines in STM, PG 19pairs and the two transverse lines - one each sides of the nodes form a polygon. If any of the polygon’s internal angles is larger than 180 degree the polygon is a concave one, while in case of smaller than 180 degree the polygon becomes convex. Figure 4.3 shows the line “A” which could be in any position between the longitudinal load path lines. Viewing from this line the direction changes at the nodes the concave or convex nature of the angles can be easily established. The longitudinal lines could be in compression or in tension. Variations of compression or tension lines and concave or convex angles are shown in the table of figure 4.3. This basic table and the corresponding figures will provide very useful aids in more complex cases. During the course we will refer to figure 4.3 when discussing other non-typical cases. The high repetitiveness of certain design scenarios provides a pedagogical value which makes this method technically and safety wise very competitive. 5. STM constituents In this chapter we will discuss the 3 constituents of the Strut and Tie Model, namely the Struts, the Ties and the Nodes. Design of them is basically a pro rata proportioning process enabling those constituents to carry or transfer the respective internal loads. 5.1, Struts Struts are the compressive members of the STM. Majority of the strut forces is carried by the concrete however some additional load can be carried by conveniently located longitudinal strut reinforcement as well. It is a useful idea to treat struts as special columns. The strut strength can be slightly influenced by an increased confinement pressure which we will discuss in later parts of the chapter. If struts are treated as columns — theoretically — slenderness with its capacity reduction impacts should be considered as well. However the surrounding concrete is well connected to the strut-column through appropriate reinforcement and provides continuous lateral support to the strut thereby reducing the adverse effects of slenderness. In case of narrow deep structures caution should be exercised and out-of-plane buckling should be checked. It is important to note at this relatively early stage that with STM as with any other methods the mechanical routine-like application should be coupled with engineering judgement. ‘STM, PG 20% > IPo* -Conesve polygny ALE? _ Conv Potyicn - x --4t-->~ (GLTODINAL LORD TR AUISVERSE LORD ANGLE cHestce| A218 ye [STRUT | stRer wcleo | [Sraer TE o> 180 a Tie re | fe V2 yor crack control Yan & > Vr for strength Figere S$. Bursting ta Lokileshaped shut 5.3 Nodes Nodes are the third type of constituents of STM. Theoretically nodes are those points where the incoming strut and tie centrelines, external point loads or resultants of uniform loads and support reactions meet. Internal and/or external forces act on nodes creating bearing pressure. The location, shape and size of the nodes are dimensioned that way that they would provide a reasonable bearing zone for the loads and could accommodate struts with Particular width, distributed tension reinforcement within a certain tension chord width and able to reflect the geometry of external load transfers and Support dimensions. Within the nodes there should be enough places for some load redistribution. Ties usually try to loosen the joints thereby reducing the joint efficiency. For this reason we have to distinguish between the different joints: ‘STM, PG 32* CCC nodes where only struts meet CCT nodes where at least two struts meet together with a single tie * CTT nodes where at least one strut and two ties meet © TIT nodes where only ties meet. This type of joint does not occur frequently in concrete structures. The node efficiency could be in this case very little or negligible. It is yet not a theoretical joint and it is widely used in cable roofs and other lightweight tension structures. This means that STM is a universal method which can not only used in concrete design and detailing but it is easily adoptable for other materials and other types of structures. Author's private conversation with Prof. Schlaich, the father of modern STM reinforced the above statement. Here we just mention the roof of the Olympic Stadium in Munich where STM has been used long before it became an officially accepted design tool. Figure 5.6 shows the different types of joints with the exemption of the TTT node which does not occur in concrete structures. As far as CCC nodes concerned there are two types: hydrostatic and non- hydrostatic nodes. The hydrostatic nodes have on each sides the same stresses. Within the nodal area the force distribution is simple and straightforward however the beam region becomes slightly more complex. Hydrostatic node sides have the very same ratios as the forces themself. This ‘obviously leads to the above mentioned equal stresses in all the directions. Complexity of the non-hydrostatic nodes is higher, but on the other hand the B region becomes straightforward. Figure 5.7 shows the two types of CCC nodes. In case of hydrostatic nodes there are no shear stress components at the joint sides and the Mohr stress circle shrinks to one single point. Non- hydrostatic nodes would have a normal and a shear force component in each direction. Calculation of non-hydrostatic stresses is well presented with a numerical example in Reference 7. (Par.7.4.4 Calculation of nodal stresses) STM, PG 33,i. CTT Noa a Xs c 416.56. MoO TEES STM, PG 34trot CTT Mee \ prestress cable Fg F:6. Continadtion tyetrostat: node T20 ren hyelrostatic node rAo 7 ee cee Mocle Ty es The capacity of nodes according AS 3600 is the following: ~ STM, PG 35Cun = By # 0.9 * f Where ,, is the node efficiency factor. For CCC CCT and CTT nodes its values are 1.0, 0.8 and 0.6 respectively. Furthermore the code provides a capacity reduction factor of 0.6 which shall be applied as follows: For CCC nodes: se Cyn = 0.6 * 1.0 * 0.9 « f:=0.54f: CCT nodes: PeeCun = 0.6 * 0.8 * 0.9 * f'=0.43f: CTT nodes: bseCun = 0.6 * 0.6 * 0.9 « f2=0.32f: Node strength can be enhanced by confinement. if there is a substantional volume of concrete located on both sides of the expected cracks, the concrete itself can provide a certain confinement pressure. Author suggests about 500 mm concrete which would be able to provide about 1.0 MPa pressure. Proportionally thicker concrete would provide more confinement pressure, however it should be limited to a maximum of 1.25 MPa for f < 65 MPa and 2.0 MPa for higher strength concrete. The same way reinforcement crossing the suspected crack planes could provide similar confinement pressures: Hote Acrib cong = = 400A Ase for N bars Where Agrip is the tributary area of concrete, around each of the reinforcing bars. 1.0 MPa confinement pressure would give an incremental strength to fi of 4.0 Mpa if it is a normal strength concrete or 3.0 MPa if it is a high strength concrete. Consequently the border line of 65 MPa concrete would have an increment of 3.5 MPa. Depending from the confinement pressure the increment will be a pro rata value. Nodes are the most stressed constituents of STM. Design and detailing of them needs the most attention. Bond length of the reinforcement must be accommodated as well. Figure 5.8 shows some solutions. Solution (a) has bent up bars behind the node assuring that the full development length reached before entering the nodal area. Solution (b) achieves the same with the help of an end plate. Finally (c) reaches the “D” point at the internal support face STM, PG 36which is less conservative than the other examples originating from the Eighties when STM was first proposed. The less conservative solution utilises the beneficial effects of the strut and reaction forces. The horizontal components of those forces reduce the constant tie force within the nodal zone. Fig. 5. development lengta at cer node The nodes we discussed above are singular nodes. In some cases the nodes have a certain extent and become smeared nodes. Usually they are less critical than the singular nodes therefore capacity checking is not required. However checking of reinforcement development and careful detailing are still necessary. 5.4. STM optimization As discussed earlier many different STM-s could be set up for the same structure under the same load. If a linear elastic FE analysis is available, the setting up STM could be more straightforward. However in the absence of FE results, the determination of STM could be more target-orientated if certain rules of optimization would be looked upon. There are two important rules: 1. Water Analogy Loads try to find the shortest way to support or the path with the least forces and deformation. This criteria might be desirable but not always realistic. 2. Deformation ‘STM, PG 37Reinforced concrete ties are much more deformable than concrete struts therefore the STM with the shortest tie length is considered to be the optimal one. In other words using the principle of minimum strain energy after cracking: BF, * l; * mi = Minimum Where F; — Force in strut or tie i 1; Length in strut or tie i Emi Mean strain in strut or tie i Since Emistrue “ Emitier rie should be kept on minimum level. Figure 5.9 shows two STMs for the same structure. Both of them are correct however in the bad model not only the overall strut length is longer but the ties are longer as well which is the bigger problem. Since the concrete amount is not changing the longer struts are not causing a big problem. The longer tie arrangement means not only longer reinforcement but significantly complicated detailing as well. T° Gua et) ee a] a i : ' i | | te a ‘ ' | 1 t | i a. | leet eel ag | fat | eva | aS tes ‘hz ' th! my Veen 1c \y 1 é ’ mo Good model 4. Back modad Fg 68, Hodel variation Netec gpm with the shevect Stut ig the Ofna One STM, PG 386. Frequently used simple STM examples In this chapter we will investigate some typical examples with small degree of complexity. The pedagogical purpose of this task is to be ready for more complex design issues and to use the simple details as parts of difficult strut and tie models. Figures 6.1-6.8 have been slightly modified and extended from the original figures published by Schlaich et al. (ref®) Fig.6.1. shows a deep beam loaded by a typical uniform load distributed to two supports. The axis of symmetry becomes the view position. (Refer to chapter 4) The two longitudinal struts form the sides of a concave polygon. They are connected by horizontal struts. The intermediate strut parts are fan type of struts with no apparent angle changes. They provide the transmission between the smallest and largest struts. The figure shows the extent of concave and convex angle changes. Consequently the transverse ties or struts and their distributed position can be easily determined. The convex struts result in a tie force resisted by the applied bottom reinforcement. A few layer of reinforcement has been adopted and distributed to adequately cover the full height of the convex polygons. The convex strut parts are grown together with the node and act as singular nodes. The top parts of the struts represent the longest polygon sides and could be treated as smeared nodes. Fig. 6.2 shows a wall which connects a uniform load to one support. The very top of the strut has a prism type of straight part. Underneath — viewed from the axis of symmetry - a convex angle change can be detected in the longitudinal load path. The transverse force — according to the table of figure 4.3 is a tie force. Accordingly distributed horizontal reinforcement has been adopted. Close to the support a concave angle change creates a horizontal strut which with its compressive forces horizontally confines the support nod. Fig. 6.3 uses a wide column which transfers vertically a point load from ‘one support to another singular support without changing the direction of longitudinal load path. However in the wide column the stress field is expanding and a convex polygon develops. The horizontal force ties together the expanded field. Well distributed reinforcement is adopted. STM, PG 39l Benroncenenr lOvE couente i cx couvex Ss ereeteny 4 i FYE 2 taiforn loacl supported Sy one supper tl STRESSPIELDS| ¢ zacwnosceneuT STM, PG 40STM | Sreess ros | | REN FORCE EHT Fig 6.3. Leto reausree TRIM WILE COL STH STRESS FGLLS @ REMFORCEHENT Fig 6.4. Point load disteégton to hie syports STM, PG 41.Figure 6.4 shows a deep beam with two diagonal struts distributing the external point load to two supports. Two bottle shaped struts develop. In this case the symmetry axis of each individual struts provides the view Position. Each strut forms a convex type of polygon meaning that in the transverse direction each of the struts needs some reinforcement to carry, the transverse tensile forces, perpendicular to the diagonal strut axis. The forces would have both horizontal and vertical components. At the supports convex angle change between the respective main strut axis and the reaction line occurs when viewing from the major symmetry line of the structure. As a result major tie forces develop between the support- nodes. Since almost everywhere we have to adopt some reinforcement, orthogonal mesh has been Proposed on each face of the deep beam. Figure 6.5 shows a deep beam transferring a uniform load to two supports. The figure superimposes the principle stress trajectories and the STM. They are both complimentary to each other. The structure is very simple since it consist only a single D region. Simplicity at this stage is an important prerequisite in understanding the relation between trajectories and STM. In future examples we will see more complex structures where both of the methods were used for design and confirmation. Figure 6.6.presents a wall with some large openings. The wall is under compressive load which is spreading through the entire width of the Panel. At the bottom there is only one support at the centre line of the wall. The wall might not be stabile but with some horizontal members conveniently connected to a more stabile core it can work safely. This or very similar situations are often happening in high rise buildings where large mechanical openings have to be accommodated and on the lower levels some changes in supports occur. In our example the horizontal connecting members providing stability are omitted for simplicity. The structure is a combination of B and D regions. On the level of openings B regions apply with prism types of struts. Between the openings struts tend to spread out and their direction becomes diagonal. From the axis of symmetry concave polygons are viewed. At the nodal zone where the Prism types of struts meet the diagonal struts, a convex polygon can be viewed and accordingly horizontal reinforcement (trimmer bars) should STM, PG 42be placed above and under the openings. Some light orthogonal mesh could be placed to the diagonal struts in order to prevent the formation of any excessive transverse cracks in those bottle shaped struts. The prism type of struts should be designed and detailed as columns. compression trajec vories tlpl =L 4/6 aft) tensor frajecreries cfet io (ase vet) ma Strot fe afl h/t, ale) oo Fg.6.5. Lees beam (siugle Drezien) Figure 6.7 shows a wall supporting a series of point loads placed fairly wide from each other. Supports of the wall are coinciding with the lines of actions. At the point loads and at the reactions D regions develop and between them a long B region will form where the stress field is prismatic STM, PG 434, B regions CVE Concave polyyan ygen Ox | Conver po Jt Fee cx [0 tye cve ¥ eer Tyre ox © tye CVE Figure 6.6. STM of wall with large openings STM, PG 44At the D regions two layers of transverse forces develop. From the axis of the individual bottle shapes the view confirms convex polygons in the second layer. The view from an axis located between two adjacent bottle shapes suggest convex angle changes as well and consequently the development of transverse tie forces in the first or outer region. The first layer reinforcement is therefore continuous while the second layer needs only inside the polygons reinforcement. Between the polygons due to concave angle changes strut forces develop where the compression will be taken by the concrete. The non-continuous reinforcement in practice becomes almost continuous since the development length of the reinforcement has to be secured before the reinforcement reaches the point where the tie force starts to act. The top part of the wall is a mirror image of the bottom part. Figure 6.8 shows a bridge deck and the cable stay, holding the deck and the superimposed forces. The large loads in the cable stays have significant horizontal (both longitudinal and transverse) components. The deck reinforcement has to be able to pick up the tie forces, which ultimately create the equilibrium in the deck. Layer 2 Layer 1 Layer 2 cx vevEyex Leveyex | Layer 1 oe Fig &:7. Yartations of CVE and Cx polygons STM, PG 45Cf = pU.5H-10H) C2 =f (on-0.5H) 63 =flas) C4 =£(3.0H) Fig 6.8. Cable stay bridge: force dist bution in deck, A classic example where STM can be successfully used is a pile cap design. Setting up the STM is simple, almost automatic. Components of the 3D or 2D strut forces have to be determined. Cover, development length has to be watched closer when detailing the orthogonal bottom reinforcement. Reference’ provides on page 328 a simple sketch which is self explanatory. The application of the STM should always be the preferable option when designing pile caps. It is simply wrong to use bending theory. However a punching shear check should be completed by traditional code method to make sure that a brittle failure won't occur. Finally in this chapter we show on figure 6.9 a typical B region. From the truss analogy we can recognise the load path. Vertical shear reinforcement is hanging back the load to the diagonal struts which are instrumental to get closer the loads to the support. However struts not STM, PG 46only getting the load closer to the support but dropping it to the bottom chord of the beam thereby forcing the next stirrups to lift up the load again. Cross section of the member shows with STM the up and downward load movements. The cross section clearly indicates the importance of the horizontal spacing of stirrup legs in the transverse direction. The usual 300 mm code regulation is good for average beams. However author disregarded this rule in case of 4-5 m high transfer beams since the model had enough space to develop, furthermore both the top and bottom D regions could be formed without compromise and even a long B region could split the top and bottom D regions. 450 mm. horizontal spacing has been adopted instead, giving the absolute minimum space for the bar layers to work in. The other conclusion from the section is the importance of appropriate development length of the shear legs which could be only achieved by proper hooks or with the use of the horizontal parts of the closed ties. ‘STM, PG 47sdnuiys Ue gam ay idwoo eu Eg + aunbiy STM, PG 487 Decisions about adopting and setting up STM, 7.1 decision about STM as part of the overall design procedure Decision about adopting STM should be straightforward. On the following page we present a flow chart about making a decision of using STM. The only comment we have to make is about prestressed concrete structures. As mentioned earlier the author does not necessarily supports the use of STM for the above structures. One of the reasons is the equal importance of getting both working stress and ultimate capacity related information out of STM. Combined modelling of external load cases and balance loads is not established at this stage. Good reason for it is that STM is only valid in strength limit design. Despite the author's negative opinion certain D regions like anchorage zones are ideal areas for designing with STM 7.2. Setting up STM In the following part of the chapter we show through an example the step by step setting up of the STM. Schlaich published in reference (5) an example. This has been here more detailed and a step by step calculation has been worked out to give enough guidance throughout the process. The structure in the example is a deep beam which is a singular D region. Therefore the reactions become the boundary forces themselves. They are in equilibrium with the external force. The beam is loaded by a point load and has a geometrical discontinuity: a large opening. Linear elastic FE analysis confirms the existence of a single D region however it shows between the opening and the adjacent beam edges two short B regions as well. Figure 7.1.a shows the structure with the appropriate geometry and load. The reactions from simple static analysis are: A=1.07MN B=1.93MN Figure 7.1.b shows the load path on the entire structure. Figures c and d are showing on the right hand side of the structure the respective LPM and STM. The separation line between right and left hand side is in line STM, PG 49Adopting STM in the design process Flow- Chart Division of Structure to B & D Regions B Region Overall Structural Analysis Result: Boundary, Sectional Forces D Region vl + Dimensioning, Detailing with Trusses Dimensioning Linear Analysis with Sectional Properties YES ¥ STM and/or FE Results: Stresses NO Dimensioning Detailing with FE STM Complete of STM and FE NOTE * Complex non standard D regions preferably should be designed with the combination ee vest STM For Load Path Detailing STM, PG 50voi 108 poe, (91) eiotorcement Deep beam with o large opening, g i = x : : 7 q 3 i i z i i with the point load where the shear value is zero -self weight of beam is neglected for simplicity- and the moment is reaching the maximum. Continuity between the two parts is represented by the horizontal tensile and compressive forces which are in equilibrium. Figure e shows the external force, the reaction and the boundary forces acting on the STM, PG 52left hand side of the structure. Attention should be paid to node 3 where equilibrium can only achieved by the introduction of the diagonal strut force. A¥S,=0 C+5,=0, If there would be no opening on the deep beam the load path would show the formation of two bottle shapes, each of them connecting the respective portion of the applied load end the reactions. In this case there would be a horizontal tie force at the bottom of the beam. It would provide the balance at the support nodes. At support A balance could only be achieved in the absence of diagonal load if only a vertical reaction would develop. Therefore the horizontal tie force had to stop short of support A. (figure f ) The same figure suggest that the diagonal strut force coming from the node 3 has to go around the opening. This results an STM where tie forces develop parallel to the internal edges of the opening. On the other hand it is common engineering practice to use some anti crack diagonal reinforcement at the opening corner. An alternative STM could be developed for the left hand side of the structure, incorporating the diagonal corner tensile force. ( figure g ) Both the models could work alone. As a result a 50-50% combination of the two STMs would work as well. FE results are confirming the coexistence of the two. The advantage of the combination is a better crack control and a higher ductility. Figure 7.1.) shows the finally adopted STM while figure 7.1. gives the major reinforcement diagram. While in broader terms we have shown the most important aspects of STM development it is important to go through in details how the STM is developed step by step. (figure 7.2) Step 1: Horizontal tie force is acting on the bottom. However this force has to stop at the opening (nod A) since the support cannot have any horizontal force without violating equilibrium. Step 2: Strut line should balance ‘A,’ reaction. Load path shows that strut cannot go higher than the top of opening since above area has zero stresses. Step 3: STM, PG 53Step 4: Step 5: Step 6: Step 7: Step 8: Step 9: Viewing from the opening corner there are two convex angle changes in strut lines (at E1 and E2 nodes) which require ties to achieve nod equilibriums. Trimmers may be the sensible engineering solutions. Nodes A and B should be in equilibrium therefore diagonal struts should be added. The other ends of the newly introduced diagonals have to be balanced. Therefore ties have to be introduced, conveniently tying back the compression struts to the trimmer ties. Since the diagonals are all in 45°, the new ties should meet the trimmers at the middle of opening edges. Gi, Cz, Dy, D, joints are unbalanced, therefore introduction of vertical or horizontal and diagonal struts become necessary. Computation of T;-Ts and subsequently the strut forces (refer for signs to figure 7.1.) Asa result of computation or even visual investigation, equilibriums of €, and E, has to be achieved. By connecting those nodes to node 3, balance could be achieved. Compressive stress fields are described by two segmented Lines: 3-F,-E,-Di-B 3-F,—-E,-D)-A Transverse struts are connecting the strut lines at concave Angle changes, while the orthogonal ties (void trimmers) are Providing the balance at convex angle changes in the struts. It makes engineering sense to use Ts, Ts and Ts, Tg ties as trimmers of the opening. The opening corner, close to Ts, Ts is subject to deformation, therefore the trimmers should continue beyond this point. STM, PG 54Ay =054 Ayn0.8 ster 5 STEP 6 Figure 7.2. STM step by step STM, PG SSStep 10: Step 11: Step 12: Common engineering practice includes at the critical corner of the opening some diagonal reinforcement to control the occurring biaxial tension and related cracks. Another STM can be set up accordingly. There will be a strut force in line of ‘A’ reaction. A horizontal tie force will act in the bottom of the beam but it cannot extend to the support node without violating the equilibrium. Include the diagonal (45°) tie force to the model which will terminate in nodes G and H where the force line intersects the strut and tie determined in step 10. Ay054 . te 1 \ ! I Ll] i. Le STEP 7. couPuTaTON ster 10 STEP 8 . COMPLETION OF sti STEP 9 - CHECKING Ansa p se | 1 ' i I | 420.54 7 ' ; i : i { ie step STEP 12 peost Figure 7.2 (cont.) STM step by step STM, PG 56The left hand side of the structure is not in equilibrium unless We introduce the C, force. However in this case none of the nodes G, H or 3 will exhibit equilibrium. By connecting G and H with nod 3, the balance in nodes will be reinstated. The model becomes satisfactory and ready for safe reinforcement calculation. Step 13: The two models can now be combined by simply multiplying each of them by 0.5 and superimpose them. Calculation of the individual strut and tie forces can proceed. Struts could be checked and reinforcement can be designed. Finally detailing, including reinforcement distribution, development length, confinement and others can be systematically addressed and resolved. Just for further information we list below the tie forces. Strut forces can be easily calculated considering nodal and general equilibrium conditions. The reader can complete the internal force calculation by simply adding the list of strut forces. The tie forces are: T, = 0.535 MN Tp = 0.535 MN Ts = 0.535 MN T, = 0.535 MN Ts = 1.070 MN Ts = 1.070 MN T, =0.535 MN Ts = 0.535 MN To = 0.663 MN Tyg = 0.402 MN Ty, =0.402 MN Checking of struts and designing reinforcement should be based on the new AS 3600. Capacity reduction factors should be used accordingly. The method is code independent, meaning that any other code could be STM, PG 57used with consistent approach. As in any other cases material strength, load factors and capacity reduction factors should not be mixed. In certain codes instead of capacity reduction factors should be substituted by material factors. As mentioned earlier between the opening and the vertical edge of the beam -in line with reaction A - a compressive strut develops with prismatic stress field. This is considered as a B region. Between the soffit and the opening a horizontal B region develops. Basically the small concrete acts as a beam, hanging on the nearby support and the node A. It has minor stresses due to self weight and shrinkage therefore some minimum reinforcement consisting top and bottom reinforcement and shear fitments becomes necessary. 8. Other typical details 8.1 Corbels, An overwhelming part of structural failures happens due to insufficient corbel detailing. While there are many attempts to unify corbel detailing the different boundary conditions make the detailing non uniform. STM of corbels varies according the boundary conditions as well. The simplicity of STM highlights the fact that there are hardly any alternative load paths therefore the reinforcement detailing is of paramount importance. Figure 8.1 is based on a corbel FE model from reference®. The model clearly shoes via the trajectories the STM. The simplified STM is superimposed to the stress trajectories thereby highlighting the relation between the two models. Figure 8.2 shows a similar corbel with detailed bottle shaped struts. The figure shows the reinforcement as well. The main tensile reinforcement should have along the tie force a 100% developed stretch to resist the tie force everywhere. This is true with every STM but in case of corbels the geometrical restraints make the task more difficult. Bottle shapes might be more slender the previously given geometrical rules might have to be modified. AS 3600 ‘ MacGregor, J.G. Reinforced Concrete — 1992 Prentice-Hall, Inc. STM, PG 58does not give too much specific regulations, apart from the introduction of horizontal load (N) acting on the major tie line. This load is 20% of the vertical load. It represents the extra tension originated from the imperfect behaviour of the slip joints due to residual friction. Accordingly the major reinforcement has to be increased. Some secondary reinforcement is needed. If the ‘a’ angle is bigger than 45° horizontal secondary reinforcement is more suitable for effective crack control. If the angle is smaller than 45° the secondary reinforcement should be preferably vertical. In case of very large load orthogonal secondary reinforcement should be used. compressive trajectories tensile ceajectories magnitude of the principal tensile stresses Fig. 3. {. Stress trajectories in a homogeneous elasii@*Bracket, STM STM, PG 59The corbel detail occurs in different structures in slightly different forms. “Leos? yeencee 7E BETTER \ DHS * Monizeurie Te BETTER lg. 22 Coeses STM p REMmoRCEMENT One of the applications is in half joints. Usually long continuous beams have to be split for various reasons. One part of the beam supports the other parts of the beam at the movement joint. Figure 8.3 shows a half joint. Figure (a) presents the STM. The main tie reinforcement has to work along the whole cantilever length. However the node A has to be in equilibrium and to achieve this, a diagonal strut has to start from node A. This meets the main tie force at node B. It means the main tension reinforcement has to be fully developed between the point load on corbel and node B. As a consequence a mini vertical tie force develops between nodes B and C. Figure (b) shows the hanging reinforcement intensity which is different, depending of the position along the beam. The intensity grows with the presence of the N horizontal force which increases the diagonal A-B strut force and leads to the increase of the vertical component as well. Figure (c) adds a diagonal tie force to the STM which in turn slightly changes the shape of strut in the corbel, The above figure explains the American detailing rules which have been set up well before STM existed. According those rules the development length from the face of the support becomes 1.7*Iy. For a long period this number has been accepted without really knowing any reasonable explanation. The STM clarified the respective code regulation. Figure 8.4 shows the essence of American detailing rules. The other half of the joint has basically the same STM and reinforcement. Since the load is acting in the opposite direction. STM ‘STM, PG 60and reinforcement therefore becomes the mirror image of the first half joints 8:3. HALE ore STM, PG 61te) Note: Flexure and shear ‘einforcement omitted for arity a welded anchor 118. 3.4. REM ORCEMENT DETILS BapHD OW POIMETIOD Figure 8.5 shows another application of corbel STM. A base slab has been earlier built and a vertical retaining wall had to be fixed to the base slab, Post drilled HIT-RE 500 bars have been adopted to achieve a moment resisting continuity. The tie reinforcement had been drilled in. On the figure red shows the minimum bond length. It had to be closer to the bottom of the base slab to achieve a maximum zy distance which in turn assures that the minimum angle between strut and tie remains STM, PG 62higher than 30°. The internal strut and tie model gives a good idea about the load path and about the overall behaviour of the joint. Even the splitting tensile stresses could be calculated and accordingly the joint reinforced. or checked, if new reinforcement could not be anymore added. Ber: splitting Pensile stress Fig. @.5° Wrenn sr OF HIT-RE S80 POST DRiLED ia BALE Figure 8.6 presents pier cap details from reference” from the Taiwan High Speed Rail. Figure (a) shows a pier in the transverse direction. The double cantilever is symmetrically loaded. Accordingly the related STM (a) and reinforcement (b) diagram are symmetrical and very simple. Figure (c) shows the same pier cap again in the transverse direction loaded by a transverse point load. The STM becomes more complex. The horizontal load has to find a load path to enter the pier. The strut line representing the compressive stress field is C,’-C;’-Cs’ and it has convex type of angle changes. Due to the convex angle changes the nodes have to be tied back. ( Ty’, Ty’, Ts’ ) The loads and related STMs and reinforcements can be superimposed, once the relatively simple diagrams become available. Dimensioning struts and detailing reinforcement becomes after all a code guided procedure. In one aspect ° Huang, F.C.,Lee,|S., Mo,¥.L.: Designing Pier Caps with Strut-and-Tie Models ~ Concrete international 1998 January STM, PG 63@ critical comment has to be made. The diagonal shear key reinforcement has very large bar diameter (32) and the development length seems to be neglected at least in this stage of design. Figure 8.6. Pier cop STM ond reinforcement STM, PG 64Figure: 8.6 (cont.) Pier cap STM and reinforcement 8.2. Beam with opening In this paragraph we briefly comment the STM of a beam with a large opening. Previously we had an example but that beam was a deep beam, a single D region. In this case the beam is rather a flexural member, where -without the opening- normally B region would apply. The change to D region happens in fact courtesy of the geometrical discontinuity what the opening represents. Empirical results suggested some design rules which were hardly understandable, until a STM has been successfully created by Schlaich et al. (reference 5) In B regions tensile and compressive forces are reducing when moving from the maximum moment towards the zero moment. (see plasticity truss analogy) In case of opening there must be a constant force in the tensile chord since the reducing effect of diagonal struts does not apply. Considering the relevant M, moment in the middle of opening T, tensile force will be: STM, PG 65However at the ends of the opening the M values are different. Closer to the support: M, < Mz Towards the midspan: M < Mg At the left end of opening there will be an access tensile chord force when comparing to a similar beam without opening. This force is reducing to the normal tensile force once the diagonal strut - coming from above the opening - can reach the bottom tensile chord. Looking at the compressive chord forces Cy compressive chord force Cs diagonal strut force and T; tensile force become the upper truss forces above the Opening. At the middle of the opening the C, reduces to C3 which becomes a constant force between the middle of the opening and the left hand side of the opening where the bending moment is already smaller. This C; will have than 3 components. One will be transformed to a diagonal strut and would reach the bottom chord within the shortest distance, reinstating the correct internal forces characteristic to the lower bending moment. (C;’”) The other one transforms to another diagonal strut force which is the normal strut force reducing the chord forces towards the zero moment. (C;”) Finally the remaining component is needed to carry on with the remaining couple action at the left hand side of the D,’ region. (C;’) The interesting part is the edge of the opening closer to the maximum moment, where the normal T; tie force cannot be hanged from the very top since it has to achieve nodal equilibrium at the point where T; stops. The hanged up force drops again in a shorter distance with a much steeper angle. Together with the accumulated vertical force increment T; becomes much bigger than it would be in the same beam without opening. The result itself is a surprise despite earlier tests pointing to a failure related to non adequate vertical ties. Depending from geometry and/or loading the vertical trimming reinforcement towards the growing moment should be approximately 200-260 % of the respective shear reinforcement at the STM, PG 66shor forces ve @ J 1) B ond D= ragions.sectione forces a Is | % sl J. PlL+_ka . f Ie Ie we a = - ») reduced D-regions et both ends of opening with toads from B-regions To = te see aid lh Tt iH TM TZ evelopment length 4) reinforcement loyout Figure 3.7. Beam with opening same location if opening would not be there. Figure 8.7 shows the above detailed beam with STM. STM, PG 678.3 Knee Joints Knee joints are very sensitive to wrong detailing. The important issue about knee joints is the distinctive difference between opening or closing moments. A totally different cracking pattern develops therefore the reinforcement should be different. Figure 8.8.a shows the STM, principal stresses, cracks and reinforcement of knee joint under opening moment, while 8.8.b shows a 3D sketch. Figure 8.9 details a knee joint under closing moment. Figure 8.10 shows the typical layout of a 52 storey tower in Kuala Lumpur. The tower’s wind resisting structure consist a core and a perimeter tube. This tube is disturbed by two re-entrance corners. To gain beck the continuity we reinforced the two knee joints both for opening and closing moments. 8.4 STM of sectional changes Stepping or tapering beams under positive or negative moments go through some profound changes. The moment immediately before and beyond the sectional changes is the same. It means that equilibrium can only be achieved in each part of the structure if the top and bottom chord forces adjust to the increased or decreased lever arms. The corresponding STMs are collected in figure 8.11. 8.5 STM of prestressed details While STM provides a consistent design method it is not necessarily universal. T.Y.Lin’s load balancing method is more visual for prestressed concrete structures. It is hard to adopt STM for working stress design which might be in a certain degree required even if codes do not emphasize working stress design. For serviceability reasons STM cannot be used. One of the most important criteria of using STM is that the concrete is in the post cracking stage. This is not happening in all the cases when prestressing is used. Furthermore secondary effects of Prestressing cannot be incorporated to STM. However a special area where STM is very beneficial is the anchorage area. STM, PG 68a Asin reinforcement wes, x in pe Na |b seit excite ates ees A Foire dL Final reinfoccement Figure 8.8 Knee joint under opening moment STM, PG 69= Moin ecintorcement lt 1] 7 |} int erie atese ieee L__S3 concrete rash potential Fino! reinforcement Figure 8.9.a Knee joint under closing moment ‘STM, PG 70Fig, 43-8. 30 stath of knee jornd endér closing Moment Weakness of the codes is that they limit their methods to two anchors only. If a group of anchors are adopted STM is the only safe design method which would give enough guidance to the designer. For simplicity figure 8.12 shows only two anchors. First, only one of them is stressed and the section becomes eccentric. In the other case the second anchor is stressed and the STM becomes symmetrical. The figure shows the shape of bursting and spoiling moment diagrams. Figure 8.13 shows an internal stressing pocket with its STM and reinforcement. The most important lesson from the diagram is that 25% of the transfer prestress force acts behind the stressing anchor as a residual force and in the absence of appropriate reinforcement it would crack the concrete. This force is simply independent from any external forces and any additional adverse effect of them would result in increased amount of reinforcement. STM, PG 71STM, PG 72Topered beom =o See ee ee ee eae eee ee Beam step under negative moment Figure 3.1. STH of sectiecal cdanpes STM, PG 73MMETRICAL ANCHORS FIGURE 8.12- STRUT AND TIE MODEL OF DIFFERENT ANCHORAGE ARRANGEMENTS ‘STM, PG 74itt Load deformation Figue 9.13, S#ressiag pocket S™, reinforcement interna) Pscer STM, PG 759. STM of major transfer structures 9.1. Example 1 A large building in Melbourne has a very complex transfer system. This particular example shows a 7m long span. The beam is a flexural member since the span/depth ratio is almost 4. It has geometrical (opening) and load discontinuities. The two load cases are vastly different. Figures 9.1.1-9.1.8 are showing the two different load cases, FE results, like principal stresses, their trajectories and the corresponding STMs. As expected the two STMs are very different. A very important lesson we have learned from STM is that the cast of the 300 mm deep concrete above the opening should be deferred until most of the structure above has been completed. The deferred construction would reduce the stresses in those members. STM, PG 760 w502 0607 “OI240 Katy sobng uBeEWweL coo ~aR! 116 Ftd STM, PG 77P9642 W907 sasssaes TesIMdE HOMO ZG blt la pisoee ‘av eoe0 STM, PG 78Vpcoe aver sasavts zealania Halu) = 16 64 eee p10: 0 ‘00 1b ‘0002 (ea) veto ‘STM, PG 79was 416 bit oe mses ae CUM CGS ~~ W004 GLE 9 a } } HOM dbs ee AAI” «=—NDIEE ‘STM, PG 80Tare gwo7 DUO WI HERE Aeaasee us gooe~eeny $1 Yd BL9$ ace 6fE 4] B31 EO cred! vest ESE wn _© @ SS $9922 - ——————————— as ooze cosy or oot - oon a z | 006 | ae — wa\ Asse on £ [etn] STM, PG 812) 2) Fswocwer sxscanan odl2vrad Harton 9:6 big ov ao pueo ‘ace io STM, PG 82Trstopen't [°° na, 2 8502 ower SETAE POZE MaOBLEUE “e 6 bra (sa) in pv 2essn os ‘STM, PG 83SBIYOA 26d. UO LAaLS poze preors (4) : svoyorog (A) promo hop voot (HA) (B nor geen | (>) 4 sees 4GWT BEIB WLS PG bia PAOSES! vy STM, PG 849.2 Example 2 The next example is in Sydney. A finite element model has been prepared. Output of the run is now different. Stress components are shown with values and separately in orthogonal directions. The beam has a large opening and under the opening the beam is thickened to provide space for the tensile block. It is interesting to observe how the forces are split at the tapering and how the two mini trusses are contributing to the load path. Figures 9.2.1 and 9.2.2 are showing the stresses in horizontal and vertical directions. Figure 9.2.3 combines the horizontal stresses and the STM. STM, PG 85mrt 6 + FORMS ppwcaon -1-24—g yunbrg WOrrwag. < STM, PG 86+ tension ~ Compression j sates sea Verttced stresses STM, PG 87LS 7 F550 HLS PO Sessoms yopweziey seg winkig OT a rae: Zz A Sasa Pras ier e pela ee Se t | STM, PG 889.3 Example 3 in Canberra a public building has a special architectural feature. Characteristic to the Sixties - Seventies the concrete structure has been exposed and became an architectural element. The gallows beams have a span and a cantilever. At the end of the cantilever a 5-6 storey high building hangs. The support next to the cantilever carries more than the gravity load, while the other end of the beam has to be hold down. The support is similar to a half joint where the space of the spared concrete has been filled out by a cross beam .The hold down reaction than goes via the cross beams to the tensile columns. The diagonal cracks shown on the photos on figure 9.3.1 do not seem to be logical since in the first instance the engineer's judgement would be that there are no loads or forces at the location of the cracks. However the half joint has a reversed load, a tension which is highly unusual. The STM clearly shows a diagonal tie force perpendicular to the observed crack. The example has been worked out for simplicity for 10 KN load. The real load is much higher therefore the 9.1 KN diagonal tension force becomes proportionally higher as well. The simple STM clearly convinced us about the logical behaviour of the structure. FE analysis was not required. STM, PG 89Fig Fat Cracks on gallows beam STM, PG 90Gallows Beam P19. 9.3.2 StH of gallows beam STM, PG 919.4 Example 4 The Telecom HQ in Kuala Lumpur is a 77 storey high building. On level 3 above the main entrance the 6 m column spacing had to double, therefore the continuous beams — spanning 12 m had to transfer from each mid-span a vertical load. The working load was around 50000 KN. The beams had either 2 spans or 5 spans. Beam depth and width were 5400 and 2800 mm respectively. The span depth ratio was 2.22. It was considered as a predominantly deep beam with some degree of flexible behaviour. In our design we assumed that 70% of the point load goes via the main strut and the remaining 30% would be transferred via the fan type minor struts. According to the new AS 3600 (see in Appendix 2) the structure is a Type Il beam with 65% and 35% force distribution respectively, which was not far from the assumed distribution. Continuous beams usually have an upper and a lower truss. The lower truss takes usually 2/3-rd of the total truss load. This has been proven correct in later calculations. Continuous deep beams are usually very sensitive to differential settlements. Therefore at each support a possible extra settlement has been considered. While the STM was based on zero differential settlement, a FE analysis has been conducted and a series of variation has been applied to the model. This way we arrived to a critical response envelop which helped us in understanding the upper and lower deviation limits for each truss Member. With the new information in hand we increased pro rata the Particular components of the base STM. Figure 9.4.1 shows the transfer floor key plan, while figure 9.4.2 presents the STM of the deep beam. 9.4.3 shows how the FE diagrams are changing within the differential settlement envelop. Finally figure 9.4.4 gives an idea about the detailing of the structure. The upper truss chord reinforcement consist mild reinforcement like T bars. (UK definition similar to the N bar) The lower chord has a mixture of T bars and prestressed cables. The diagonal struts have some prefabricated cages with longitudinal bars and confinement. Ties are of mild reinforcement and to avoid congestion some unstressed end plated stress bars have been adopted. A special feature of the reinforcement is the diagonally positioned stressed stress bars which are roughly perpendicular to the major struts. STM, PG 92HOOTd YASSNVHL HALYWVNO GVSH WOOSTSL bebe bebba ISIS EBX! STM, PG 93STM, PG 94 os Beeeaaeerns STS ees geeeeeec eer Se : | : | } 4 | RM | | | Ee i eo15.54 Figure 9.4.8 Gay AXIAL STRESS ENVELOPE lo DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT 4 Pte melificction brain ‘STM, PG 95sepou yoddne jo yuowouyuo2 SMW13G IN3WZONOANIZY WV3E SGISNVYL “47-46 osnbiy Uorone|3 wosg s94u0s STM, PG 96They provide a sort of levelling function under large differential settlements and additionally give a confinement pressure to the major struts. Nodes have been strengthened by confinement reinforcement. The STM has been set up and checked with manual calculation. The appendix shows an abridged calculation. It is worthwhile to mention that an independent checking has been conducted in Australia. An FE analysis has been completed and found the original design spot on. The building has been completed about 10 years ago. The design has been completed around 1994 which was the early age of strut and tie modelling. It is currently the world largest concrete transfer structure and definitely the first application of STM for this size of high risk structure. 10. Conclusion Strut and Tie Model is a very useful tool for structural engineers. It is not only providing a simple and reliable way of calculation but it helps in the visualisation process as well. In combination with FE analysis it becomes extremely power full, and virtually eliminates many of the boundary related problems of the FE analysis. It truly reflects the idea of human thinking when simplicity is used for very complex problem solving. In the near future the following areas could be further researched and developed: © Nodal zone strength * Concrete contribution in shear resistance © Effects of confinement Modelling continuity and secondary effects of prestressed concrete structures. ‘STM, PG 97References: 1 MacGregor, J. G: Challenges and changes in the design of concrete structures. Concrete Inst. Febr. 1984, p 49-53 2 Reineck, K. H.: Structural Concrete Design For Constructability, Lecture Notes 1990. 3 Leonhardt, F., Monnig, E.: Vorlesungen uber Massivbau-Dritter Teil Springer Verlag 197. 4 CSA Standard CAN-A23.3-M84 Design of Concrete Structures for Buildings 5 Schlaich J., Schafer, K., Jennewin, M.: Toward a Consistent Design of Structural Concrete-PCl Journal May/June 1987 vol.32 No.3 6 Marshall & Nelson’s structures -Longman Group UK Ltd 1990. 7 Warner, R. F., Foster, S. J., Kilpatrick, A. E.: Reinforced Concrete Basics- Pearson, Prentice Hall 2007 8 MacGregor, J. G.: Reinforced Concrete — 1992 Prentice Hall, Incl. 9 Huang, F.C. Lee, L. S. Mo, Y. L. Designing Pier Caps with Strut and Tie Models- Concrete International, January 1998. 10 Schlaich, J. Schafer K, Konstruieren in Stahlbetonbau- Beton Kalender Teil II 1989 Ernst & Sohn 11 Marti, P. Rogowsky, D.M. Detailing for Post-tensioning - VSL report series 3. 12 Marti, P. Basic Tools of Reinforced Concrete Beam Design- ACI Journal January-February 1985. 13 Hsu, T. T. C. Unified Theory of Reinforced Concrete- CRC Press 1993. 14 Foster, S. J., Gilbert, R. I. Design of Reinforced Concrete Deep Beams Using Truss Models — UNICIV report No. R-309. 1992. 15 Collins, M. P. Mitchell, D. Prestressed Concrete Structures — Prentice Hall eee 16 Reineck, K.H. (editor) Strut — and - Tie Models — ACI SP 208 2002. STM, PG 9817 Hilti Fastening Technology Manual 11/2003 18 AS 3600 - 2009 -Draft Code 19 Gabor, P. Mohamad, H. Tong, S. Consistent Design and Detailing of Post — tensioned Concrete Transfer Structures FIP Conference Brisbane, 1995. 20 Gabor, P. Draft Commentary to AS 3600-2009. STM, PG 99APPENDIX Appendix 1: Example: STM and Dimensioning of Transfer Beam. Appendix 2: Design of Non-flexural Members by STM STM, PG 100At/t Bxample: St-vd- anol- Fie tfoclel cmd sen aa Mie ete! cect DQimewsieniag Of Transfer Becuvr Design fo ene hers Cotttw: Péere: fo0e~sooe fe 24S Me. cokeme tueler: (250 lla fea 65H Bee—- (60) 4b00 Ct) fa’ 4S Noles Cocoa eng : oy Gucte— Aasize rede - AS 3600 6 OSM RE, ate — Vifomate Lowoks : fia eas 4—F2 2 7.2 €.0 - 6.2 + a fo0e0 (8) ,zoccsl) 20 oon -0, 0.00, Bieri) Lesion) Levowte Vietrely glee versal) vereal po ~~ f o- ©. © © @--t— © © Moment dhagra ms = rhshe — modifat (oniee) ee eee ae — SHY yw esate sarle) Ret bina nal Yi VF A . RS eee SS226 Zhe 144 43701 (0) ~ to) 6I700 (Y) _ Mere: Boars ef fie Calculates (es Sée 2heeree promluXk hagrar. Deep Secs hove approy 302% reolucee’ SY OF fBroewee Lt, receltiny (4 moot rol bray ram.AE. FA wood be ov Fn stue bee AL/z Loads 0x 4, 0, 5 @ wei be ronnsbred dich Khergfore Strad - anc - Tie Mectel will wed pclide evs Votrmate ronctren calculation from Py, Fo, Pp: oe An a Ge 4 t 10223 KAS secre) fewer ew weeset furnece ore ape lhe - ee aps TM YY, & io <. g o o So OOS NS t . Seatah + Poses teeezuuf $ s — t tows w of y P foszun swat Oger Fue adiagecrat «few ys Cle) ancl a hortconrel Ate yorce Ce) cate! kp view bation re nyferce~ fcuk Bbove 4KE fn tbrneol oeggeort we wnt! ée 2 upper trusses (Co, 7) Bech of thre oassts corminy 9 pente~ af the rected rangle heads eo Ke 2eygports, Titneylore freed of Ale reactions are baMoweiny rhe ayer reas, Pod f Mem fhe Couser fyess Seportion of reccdbon i eaey (a Me bud spout. AE oyprre Ae & Ah Ol ene Oo ype ruse ext dns, Since (£6 load rt 4a Phe ttdypo Cf £ reachows 7m (fret ann phenA1/3 Spc shontd be gee wih yuck be rence — (4 Coser Pros eReyetteeh,. Béger wie the eferces (a ffe Coutm frassts 20ult nol Le gens, re Aemweeduety park of le rena ehoulet A dee ee Ke yee YPOLE. Tie SC cOnsl GPt reac ens KOC wor! S901/fen ~ ews. hye. bakmre A be brer aed Ke. Pecowty aevlt Coad go ree sckibo~, Pourere enlarged Chern Sow Y SPOWS vs Aree es, KO CIR h ne 7 coc ety, fede forwarbon. Bete Aeiyfere Con On! asm 25 ir GEO he few ages ree Hal Penny bce etn XK fs c@ése-r ~~ “te Ger «er ‘Erie ce Bec wre be few Ge peyote Fee Khe ween STE react res XX eX bnew her fhe ype fp Compr behl 4s atl pein’ SECS / [5665 » foeey = 0.356 Bi B the yee tence coaveréesern 26 PCLZ/ZENMO = O26. Sree coda domrins oteuses ane pend, on Magy — 1000 pore foarte Cesgth OL oA be we wyrt- press — cofian covrke’ raz ce Fre— fae above conch~rec Skg27 Gf nccle, Cee Se eke SkatAtleAA/e From eens ver mnsle () horrronkal cocg ona of Cu yoree fo Cocw, * ES + SEe% = O40 Len Wyre Wis fs Phe yer Wye no Ce perce ete ogee C. 7h ercyere fa Sec cael spo Upe- ress wrontforce ghaeOl hace he cova. Aer Ttentel! corp ontind’, From reve QD Cect. = 7P¢o = oe ~ Cocrs Cocv2 = Sealun Th etyort CLeV, = /SSb/— 602 = 2740 lew Cucwe = e740 £8» jo047 wen Ths frrce shonit be Sakenced ~ Le Lwe~ press. Fron vernasle @ Caov, = 00% £35 = cay ice CuaVv, 2 /06PF — CL27E = H4GL KU Fiuat$ Phe pes8iiz spel aun Ke Jor eo CR emer 650 cabiale hol THE +leulhe ave: oe TARO Te Gas 7 : 3 | o 3 an WEL ” be ay & Rpt "¢ sy Sh 3? a” %, co 4 © L igiesir ee te ose 776 Riya re fo sony teszi task sire of foes Wor M2740 62g yosaz 10532ALfé For Khe sinpleit we wt ll check’ oF OC rnd gort€, whee 45 he bigger. Fetal shrek plorte: B6LY 4 ITIP = 27Zo2 few Srref comss - se croon Ugo~ 1ree = (6297e0 WH Ge 2iger ecm — /6.0577A- AS 3620 xCbowe Foto of xe" GO AA ade conyremwive sree. | Tae preperet pe clcc Bow facro “ Moet rs OF Pi eGlere mea. elrrmare seers: 0.6» 02> fa = O42+ OS= HI Hhn 16.00 1.7. Ore Lf he obeos woulif be Ay Fe— le VEG PP, Sheet weeuell BE 26S Yre chances re Pcercona Ke probe. oe orcas con be recucel by Befe, if cclegiaé Sirrays are aol ye rch F vhe fer cin, artes. (see séatk oe aetr post) - se af og fi nO Cal neright t Com He £ along be sfour.A1/7 SL cEL confi tu ent Srl and Kean ecto fower He pores /¥S27 ew = GSaT oo a Pree apeaie S066 pie CY ¥B2. Px lh 32 Wane 2O HH cover + 720 ee: 25¥20 > + Lx P showBl 66 Lara fkeol /n He Bw See M7, spece reixkote- sod are arwceecl we TO TAF Gare. 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