RESOURCE GUIDES Pneumatics and Hydraulics

Pneumatics and Hydraulics
CONTENTS
Reid Supply Resource Guides Purpose of This Resource Guide Disclaimer Terminology Design Considerations Standards, Regulations and Policies Hydraulic Systems Hydraulic System Basics Hydraulic Pump Basics Limits to Hydraulic Systems Hydraulic Pump Sizing Pump Capacity Reaction Time Selecting Hydraulic Components Pneumatic Systems Compressed Air System Components(Supply Side) Compressor Efciency Compressed Air Distribution System(Demand Side) Safety Custom Products Summary For More Information Glossary References Notes 1 1 1 2 2 2 7 7 9 11 12 12 13 16 17 17 19 19 24 24 25 25 27 27 27
Air, Pipe & Tube Fittings Air Cylinders and Accessories Air Guns and Accessories Pneumatic Tools
Pneumatic Cylinders Filters and Regulators Tubing and Accessories Vacuum Ejectors
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: List of Common Standards Organizations Table 2: Standards Relative to Pneumatics and Hydraulics Table 3: Hydraulic System Design Considerations Table 4: Workholding vs. Machine Applications Table 5: Typical Hose/Pipe Sizes and Cross-sectional Area. Table 6: Typical Compressed Air System Components Table 7: Compressed Air Distribution network Components Table 8: Recommended Documentation and Reference Manuals Table 9: Reference Manual Content Relative to This Guide 3 4 10 10 16 18 20 25 26
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Basic Hydraulic Principles Figure 2: Hydraulic Manual Pump Principles Figure 3: Sample Motor HP vs. Pump Flow Rate Figure 4: Sample Compressed Air System Layout Figure 5: Sample Compressed Air Distribution network 7 9 14 17 20
LIST OF EQUATIONS
Eq. 1: Pressure Within Hydraulic Cylinders (P) Eq. 2: Output Force (F2) of Hydraulic Cylinder Eq. 3: Displaced Fluid Volume (V) Within Hydraulic Cylinder 8 8 8
LIST OF PROCEDURES
P1: Calculating Total Hydraulic Cylinder Capacity P2: Calculating Total Hydraulic Pump Speed 12 15
Eq. 4: Pressure (P) Relationship Between Hydraulic Cylinders Sharing Common Manifold 9 Eq. 5: Reaction Time for a Hydraulic Actuator Eq. 6: Time for Fluid Chamber to Reach Full Pressure Eq. 7: Calculating Cylinder Speed Eq. 8: Calculating No-load Speed for Multiple Cylinders 13 13 14 14
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Industrial Hydraulics Hydraulic Hose Manifolds & Valves Pressure Gages
Couplers and Connectors Hose Clamps Quick Disconnects Gravity Feed Oilers
REID SUPPLY RESOURCE GUIDES
In our continuous effort to improve our offerings and meet customer needs, simplify effort and provide solutions, Reid Supply has separated our products into 12 easy-to-identify categories:
Manual Controls Clamps and Workholding Tooling Components Fasteners and Hardware Safety Safety Safety Metalworking Maintenance, Repair and Operations Pneumatics and Hydraulics Structural Systems Safety Blue Red Gold Blue Green Orange Purple Blue Gray Brown Aqua Dark Red Yellow Green Orange Yellow
Pneumatics and Hydraulics is tenth, in a series of twelve, Resource Guides relative to each of 12 categories. Each Resource Guide includes detailed application information, data and references to help our customers select the best product for their intended application. Reid Supply welcomes your feedback and comments on any aspect of these Resource Guides. Please contact Customer Service at the number listed below or email us at mail@ReidSupply.com.
PURPOSE OF THIS RESOURCE GUIDE
The purpose of this manual is to aid customers in the proper selection of products in the Pneumatics and Hydraulics category of Reid Supply product offerings. It is not intended to be a how-to manual. However, much of the information presented is relative to the selection and proper use of the products referenced. The information included in this Resource Guide extends beyond the catalog to provide details, tables, charts and other information to further assist engineers, designers, users and others in selecting the best parts for their Pneumatics and Hydraulics needs. Tables include material and usage information and allow quick comparison. Professional standards and government regulations improve application design and performance and safety. Product and application pros and cons allow customers to compare products relative to application specications. Links send the reader directly to related information or online catalog searches relative to the products listed. NOTE: References used are listed at the end of this manual and referred to by number, e.g. [3], in the text. References to text books and other documentation sold by Reid Supply are also referred to by number, e.g. {5}, as listed in Table 8 at the end of this manual.
DISCLAIMER
It should be noted that this Resource Guide is for reference only. The information provided is intended to assist in the selection of products sold by Reid Supply and its vendors. As Reid Supply and its vendors are not typically aware of or possess any expertise in the systems or processes for which products are to be applied, we cannot accept any responsibility or liability for the outcome thereof. Furthermore, with new and old technologies continually expanding and changing, it is impossible to address all systems, processes and applications for which Reid Supply products are purchased. Reid Supply also has little control over materials and processes from which our products are produced. In addition, due to the nature of some materials; colors, textures, shapes and sizes may lack consistency. Products sold by Reid Supply are sold with the understanding that the purchaser is thoroughly familiar with the safe and proper use and application of the product. Responsibility for the use and application of the products rests with the user. Failure of the product can occur due to misapplication, abuse, intentional alteration or improper maintenance.
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Specications for Pneumatics and Hydraulics products apply at the time of purchase only. Application and use, proper or improper, can change the characteristics of the Pneumatics and Hydraulics system and its components. The user is solely responsible for any recommended or mandatory maintenance and inspection of these products, documented or undocumented, by the vendor, professional organization, or governmental body relative to the Pneumatics and Hydraulics system or component purchased. Furthermore, the user shall be solely responsible for the safe application, operation and use of all products purchased at Reid Supply. Reid Supply reserves the right to modify, update and otherwise maintain this document and its content.
TERMINOLOGY
Some terms used to dene products may be vendor and product specic. To avoid confusion, a glossary of these terms used in this document has been included at the end of the manual. As Reid Supply purchases its products from several vendors, it is sometimes difcult to sort and categorize these differences. If you nd yourself confused by terminology in the catalog or this document, try shopping online using the web site listed below or contact Customer Service at the number listed below or email us at mail@ReidSupply.com.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
In the case of Pneumatics and Hydraulics products, design considerations rest more with the manufacturer of the safety equipment than with the user. Regulations and standards identify both design requirements and application. The user should be familiar with safety regulations and standards for the purpose of safely applying safety products. Therefore, the user is responsible for safe implementation and application of safety equipment. If the purchaser is a company or other organization, most design considerations involve policies and procedures for training and implementation of safety practices which include safety products. There are many governmental, professional, and organizational standards and regulations for best practices and safety issues relative to Pneumatics and Hydraulics systems. These documents standardize material and design criteria for products and provide safety guidelines. This has huge advantages to the purchaser who does not have to purchase original or replacement parts from the same vendor. If the product meets the standard, it will t and function as intended; if it is a replacement part, the OEM does not matter. Table 1 includes common regulation and standards organizations, most in the United States, relative to Pneumatics and Hydraulics. Table 2, includes some standards, by number, relative to this Resource Guide. Selecting components designed, manufactured, and applied according to these standards has the advantage of: Improving the chance replacement parts will be available for the life of the machine, system, or process. Quality standards will be applied for repeatability, tolerances, and t. Years of experience, knowledge and testing has been shared for improved design and manufacture of components and systems. Publicly available documentation and reference material. Copies of the standards listed in Table 2 can be purchased direct from the organizations listed in Table 1 or at www.nssn.org. Some references listed in Table 8 include data found in the standards as indicated by Table 9. NOTE: Many regulations and standards are only recommended. Adhering to and applying the content of these regulations and standards in mostly voluntary for manufacturers, designers and operators. However, in most cases, manufacturers and designers will meet or exceed these recommended specications. Regulations and standards are periodically revised, superseded or otherwise managed to keep up with changes in technology, materials, design, manufacturing, and testing methods. The following information applies the Table 1 and Table 2 included in this section: Reid Supply does not design, fabricate or manufacture any of its products. The professional, safety and standard organizations, plus related information and documentation, listed are for reference only and may not be complete or up-to-date. The vendor, customer, purchaser and user is responsible
STANDARDS, REGULATIONS AND POLICIES
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for obtaining, understanding and applying any standards, safety or otherwise, relative to the application and use of all Reid Supply products. It is not unusual for standards from one organization to be adopted by others. In Table 2, the original standard is listed under the column representing the originator, while those who reference the original include an X in the respective column. For dual listings, the originator is typically listed second (e.g. ANSI/ISO, ISO/ANSI, ANSI/NFPA, ASME/ASTM, etc). It is not uncommon for governments to adapt standards from industrial and/or professional organizations. In this case, the government document will simply reference the industry standard with modications. Table 1: List of Common Standards Organizations
Standards Organization
ANSI American National Standards Institute www.ansi.org ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers www.asme.org ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials www.astm.org
Information
ANSI facilitates the development of American National Standards (ANS) by accrediting the procedures of standards developing organizations (SDOs). These groups work cooperatively to develop voluntary national consensus standards. For list of standards, refer to NSSN. Founded in 1880 as the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, todays ASME promotes the art, science & practice of mechanical & multidisciplinary engineering and allied sciences around the globe.
Formerly the American Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM International is one of the largest voluntary standards development organizations in the world-a trusted source for technical standards for materials, products, systems, and services. Known for their high technical quality and market relevancy, ASTM International standards have an important role in the information infrastructure that guides design, manufacturing and trade in the global economy. ISO is the worlds largest developer and publisher of International Standards. It is a non-governmental organization network of the national standards institutes of 157 countries, one member per country, with a Central Secretariat in Geneva, Switzerland, that coordinates the system. DSCC serves as a preparing activity or technical agent for thousands of standardization documents covering a wide variety of electronic components and other items. Our engineers and technicians coordinate and prepare technical documents in 67 Federal Supply Classes, and provide engineering support to DoD customers using these documents Established in 1896, NFPA is the worlds leading advocate of re prevention and an authoritative source on public safety. NFPA develops, publishes, and disseminates more than 300 consensus codes and standards intended to minimize the possibility and effects of re and other risks. NFPA membership is diverse, representing the full spectrum of our industry: hydraulic and pneumatic; large and small; supplier, distributor, educator, customer and manufacturer. NFPA is committed to advancing uid power technology, strengthening the industry and fostering members success through a menu of services that is broad enough to meet wide-ranging interests, yet focused enough to offer individualized assistance. The Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 created both NIOSH and the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). OSHA is in the U.S. Department of Labor and is responsible for developing and enforcing workplace safety and health regulations. NIOSH is in the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and is an agency established to help assure safe and healthful working conditions for working men and women by providing research, information, education, and training in the eld of occupational safety and health. A National Resource for Global Standards is a search engine that provides users with standards-related information from a wide range of developers, including organizations accredited by ANSI, other U.S. private sector standards bodies, government agencies and international organizations.
ISO International Organization for Standardization www.iso.org MIL-STD US Military Standard www.dscc.dla.mil NFPA National Fire Protection Association www.NFPA.org NFPA National Fluid Power Association www.NFPA.com NIOSH National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health www.cdc.gov/niosh/ NSSN Search Engine for Standards www.nssn.org
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Standards Organization
OSHA Occupational Safety & Health Administration www.OSHA.gov SAE Internatial Society of Automobile Engineers www.sae.org
Information
Most government safety regulations are set by OSHA under Title 29 of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFRs). NOTE: Unlike other standards, these are available free, online or by contacting OSHA. Formed in 1905, by Horace Swetland in New York City, the primary goal of the SAE was to unite automotive engineers and provide an atmosphere where they could have a free exchange of ideas in order to expand their individual technical knowledge base. SAE International now unites automotive professionals worldwide.
Table 2: Standards Relative to Pneumatics and Hydraulics
HYDRAULIC AND PNEUMATIC STANDARDS

ANSI ASME ASTM
A53 B43 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X B1.20.2 B1.20.3 B1.20.7 B16.3 B16.5 B16.10 B16.11 B16.12 B16.14 B16.15 B16.18 B16.24 B16.39 B16.51 B16.52 B31 B40.1 X B93.3 A182 A216 A312 A733 1179 1179
ISO
1179 228-2 228-1 228-1 228-1
NFPA
OSHA CFR
STANDARD TITLE
Pipe Threads, General Purpose (Inch) Pipe, Steel, Black And Hot-dipped, Zinc-coated, Welded And Seamless. Standard Specication For Seamless Red Brass Pipe, Standard Sizes Pipe Threads, 60 Deg., General Purpose For High Pressure Tight Joints Dryseal Pipe Threads (Inch) High Pressure Seal Without Sealing Compounds Hose Coupling Screw Threads Inch Malleable Iron Threaded Fittings: Classes 150 And 300 Pipe Flanges And Flanged Fittings: Nps 1/2 Through 24 Face-to-face And End-to-end Dimensions Of Valves Forged Fittings, Socket-welding And Threaded
B1.20.1
A351
Standard Specication For Castings, Austenitic, Austenitic-ferritic (Duplex), For Pressure-containing Parts Cast Iron Threaded Drainage Fittings Ferrous Pipe Plugs, Bushings, And Locknuts With Pipe Threads Cast Copper Alloy Threaded Fittings: Classes 125 And 250 Cast Copper Alloy Solder Joint Pressure Fittings Cast Copper Alloy Pipe Flanges And Flanged Fittings Pipe Unions, Malleable Iron Threaded Cast And Wrought Copper And Copper Alloy Press-connection Pressure Fittings (Draft Standard) Copper And Copper Alloy Push-connection Fittings (Draft Standard) **** Pressure Gauges And Gauge Attachments Fluid Power Systems And Products Cylinder Bores And Piston Rod Diameters Inch Series Standard Specication For Forged Or Rolled Alloy-steel Pipe Flanges, Forged Fittings, And Valves And Parts For High-temperature Service Standard Specication For Steel Castings, Carbon, Suitable For Fusion Welding, For High-temperature Service Standard Specication For Seamless And Welded Austenitic Stainless Steel Pipes Standard Specication For Welded And Seamless Carbon Steel And Austenitic Stainless Steel Pipe Nipples
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ANSI ASME ASTM
B687 D2422 D7044 F589 F590 F2654 F2679 Z3452Z 1291-1 2944 3448 3857 4393
ISO
NFPA
OSHA CFR
STANDARD TITLE
Standard Specication For Brass, Copper, And Chromium-plated Pipe Nipples Standard Classication Of Industrial Fluid Lubricants By Viscosity System Standard Specication For Biodegradable Fire Resistant Hydraulic Fluids Standard Consumer Safety Specication For Non-powder Guns Consumer Safety Specication For Non-powder Gun Projectiles And Propellants Standard Specication For Low Energy Air Gun (Leag) Warnings Standard Specication For 6 Mm Projectiles Used With Low Energy Air Guns Standard Specication For Low-energy Air Gun (Leag) Warnings (Draft) Fluid Power Systems And Components Graphic Symbols And Circuit Diagrams Part 1: Graphic Symbols. Fluid Power Systems And Components Nominal Pressures Industrial Liquid Lubricants -- Iso Viscosity Classication Compressors, Pneumatic Tools And Machines Vocabulary Fluid Power Systems And Components Cylinders Basic Series Of Piston Strokes Fluid Power Systems And Components - Connectors And Associated Components - Nominal Outside Diameters Of Tubes And Nominal Inside Diameters Of Hoses Fluid Power Systems And Components -- Connectors And Associated Components -- Nominal Pressures Hydraulic Fluid Power - Valves - Determination Of Pressure Differential/ow Characteristics
4397
4399 4411 X 4414 5031 5388 5390 5391 5393 5598 5675 5941 6020 6022 6149 6432 6544 X
Pneumatic Fluid Power General Rules Relating To Systems Continuous Mechanical Handling Equipment For Loose Bulk Materials Couplings And Hose Components Used In Pneumatic Handling Safety Code Stationary Air Compressors Safety Rules And Code Of Practice Compressors Classication Pneumatic Tools And Machines Vocabulary Rotary Tools For Threaded Fasteners Performance Test Method Fluid Power Systems And Components Vocabulary Agricultural Tractors And Machinery -- General Purpose Quick-action Hydraulic Couplers Compressors, Pneumatic Tools And Machines Preferred Pressures Hydraulic Fluid Power Mounting Dimensions For Single Rod Cylinders, 16 Mpa (160 Bar) Series Hydraulic Fluid Power Mounting Dimensions For Single Rod Cylinders, 25 Mpa (250 Bar) Series Connections For Hydraulic Fluid Power And General Use Ports And Stud Ends With Iso 261 Metric Threads And O-ring Sealing Pneumatic Fluid Power Single Rod Cylinders 10 Bar (1 000 Kpa) Series Bores From 8 To 25 Mm Mounting Dimensions Hand-held Pneumatic Assembly Tools For Installing Threaded Fasteners Reaction Torque And Torque Impulse Measurements
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ANSI ASME ASTM ISO
6803 7241 8132 8133 8662 9974 10100 11148 11926 14617-7 15012 15744 16028 17066 17784 20643 28927 33 X T2.6.1
NFPA
OSHA CFR
STANDARD TITLE
Rubber Or Plastics Hoses And Hose Assemblies - Hydraulic-pressure Impulse Test Without Flexing Hydraulic Fluid Power Quick-action Couplings (Series A. Europe, & B, Usa) Part 1: Dimensions And Requirements, Part 2: Test Methods Hydraulic Fluid Power Single Rod Cylinders, 16 Mpa (160 Bar) Medium And 25 Mpa (250 Bar) Series Mounting Dimensions For Accessories Hydraulic Fluid Power Single Rod Cylinders, 16 Mpa (160 Bar) Compact Series Mounting Dimensions For Accessories Hand-held Portable Power Tools Measurement Of Vibrations At The Handle Connections For General Use And Fluid Power Ports And Stud Ends With Iso 261 Threads With Elastomeric Or Metal-to-metal Sealing Hydraulic Fluid Power Cylinders Acceptance Tests Hand-held Non-electric Power Tools Safety Requirements Connections For General Use And Fluid Power Ports And Stud Ends With Iso 725 Threads And O-ring Sealing Graphical Symbols For Diagrams Part 7: Basic Mechanical Components Health And Safety In Welding And Allied Processes - Requirements, Testing And Marking Of Equipment For Air Filtration Hand-held Non-electric Power Tools Noise Measurement Code Engineering Method (Grade 2) Hydraulic Fluid Power -- Flush-face Type, Quick-action Couplings For Use At Pressures Of 20 Mpa (200 Bar) To 31,5 Mpa (315 Bar) -- Specications Hydraulic Tools - Vocabulary Rubber And Plastics Hoses And Hose Assemblies Guide For Use By Purchasers, Assemblers, Installers And Operating Personnel Mechanical Vibration Hand-held And Hand-guided Machinery Principles For Evaluation Of Vibration Emission Hand-held Portable Power Tools Test Methods For Evaluation Of Vibration Emission (Nfpa.org) Spray Application Using Flammable Or Combustible Materials Fluid Power Components Method For Verifying The Fatigue And Establishing The Burst Pressure Ratings Of The Pressure Containing Envelope Of A Metal Fluid Power Component Fluid Power Systems And Products Square Head Industrial Cylinders Mounting Dimensions Fluid Power Systems And Components Cylinder Bore And Rod Size Combinations Rod End Congurations, Dimensional Identication Code Mounting Dimensions For Bore Sizes Less Than 1 1/2 Inch Bore Cataloged Square Head Tie Rod Type Information Report Bibliography Fluid Power Cylinder Standards Recommended Practice For Application Guidelines Of Cylinders Recommended Practice Pneumatic Fluid Power Filters, Regulators And Lubricators Application Guidelines Hydraulic Fluid Power Quick-action Coupling Flush Face Type Pneumatic Fluid Power Labeling And Communication Of Pneumatic Products Pneumatic Fluid Power Recommended Practice For Calibration And Use Of Flowmeters
T3.6.7
T3.6.11
T3.6.36 T3.6.64 X X X T3.12.17 T3.20.15 T3.21.16 T3.21.18
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ANSI ASME ASTM ISO NFPA
T3.21.20 1910.95 1910.147 1910.242 1910.243 1910.244 1910.94 1926.57 1915.131 1926.305
OSHA CFR
STANDARD TITLE
Recommended Practice Pneumatic Fluid Power Identication Code For Communication Between Electrical Connector Pins And Their Corresponding Solenoids In A Valve Island Occupational Noise Exposure The Control Of Hazardous Energy (Lockout/tagout), Includes Valves Hand And Portable Powered Tools And Equipment, General Guarding Of Portable Powered Tools Other Portable Tools And Equipment Occupational Health And Environmental Controls Ventilation Tools And Related Equipment General Precautions Jacks-lever And Ratchet, Screw, And Hydraulic
HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS
The concept of hydraulic power relies on a uid that will not compress and components that resist expansion under pressure. Pascals Law states: pressure applied at any point upon a contained liquid is transmitted undiminished in all directions. Pascals Law, applied to hydraulics, further states that a change in pressure applied to any point, to contained liquid, is equally transmitted at every other point in the container. NOTE: For an explanation of applied forces, refer to the Clamping and Workholding Resource Guide.
Hydraulic System Basics
Figure 1 demonstrates Pascals Law as it applies to applications using hydraulic cylinders. Variables used during this discussion include: A = Cross sectional area of piston in cylinder. For a double acting cylinder (refer to Clamps and Workholding Resource Guide) The cross-sectional area of the top, for pulling, is that of the piston bottom, minus the area of the shaft. F = Force acting on the piston in the cylinder. The applied force is equal and opposite this force, as dened in Clamps and Workholding Resource Guide. L = Length of cylinder piston stroke. P = Pressure in a uid chamber is dened as the force distributed over the cross-sectional area (A). VC = Volume of hydraulic uid in hydraulic cylinder. VR = Volume of the hydraulic pump reservoir. W = Weight of the workload applied to a cylinder by the object being supported, pushed, pulled or clamped. Figure 1: Basic Hydraulic Principles
WB
Stroke (LB) WA Fluid Chamber Cylinder A Cylinder B
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In Figure 1, we know that: The Fluid Chamber is comprised of the two cylinders with pistons, valves, hoses and other components where uid is allowed to freely ow under pressure. The amount of uid in the chamber is constant. According to Pascals Law, the pressure in the uid chamber is the same at all points. Furthermore, the pressure is the same in both cylinders: PA = PB Eq. 1: Pressure Within Hydraulic Cylinders (P)
PA = PB
FA F = B AA AB
Since pressure is dened as force per unit area, changes in WA or WB will cause the system to restablize at a new pressure to compensate. As force (WA) is increased, the piston in cylinder A moves downward and non-compressible hydraulic uid transfers the difference in force through the hose and into cylinder B. The piston of cylinder B is forced upward until pressure is equalized in the system. As the workload (WA) is decreased, pressure is balanced as non-compressible hydraulic uid is forced through the hose from cylinder B and into cylinder A, to equalize pressure in the system. The piston of cylinder A is forced upward as the piston B moves downward. The equal pressure in the uid chamber, Eq. 1 can be used to determine the the value of FB relative to FA. Eq. 2: Output Force (F2) of Hydraulic Cylinder
FB = AB
FA A = AB PA = FA B AA AA
The volume of uid displaced in the each cylinder can be determined using Eq. 3. Eq. 3: Displaced Fluid Volume (V) Within Hydraulic Cylinder
V=AL
EXAMPLE: Cylinder A is 3 inches in diameter and cylinder B has a bore size of 5 inches. They are connected using a hydraulic hose with a gage attached. The amount of uid in the uid chamber is xed and a 100 lb weight is applied to the piston of the cylinder A.
Part A: Determine the weight required on cylinder B to equalize the system and the amount pressure at every point in the uid chamber.
Using Eq. 2, the equalizing weight at cylinder B is proportional to the areas of the two cylinders:
FB = AB
FA 100 = 19.93 = 277.78 lbs AA 7.07
For this example: The system would contain 14.15 lbs of pressure in the uid chamber, determined using Eq. 1 for either cylinder. A 277.78 lb weight on the 5 inch bore cylinder would equalize the system. A force < 277.78 lbs would cause the piston of cylinder A to drop as the piston of cylinder B rose upward. A force > 277.78 lbs would force the piston of cylinder B to drop as the piston in cylinder A rose upward. NOTE: For the above enclosed system, the amount of uid displaced from one cylinder to the other is also xed, but the stroke length (L) of each cylinder is directly proportional to the cross sectional are of the cylinders and would be different. Part B: Determine the displaced volume of uid in each cylinder if the stroke length of cylinder A is measured to move 6 inches with a weight added. Also determine the resulting stroke of cylinder B.
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Using Eq. 3:
VA
LAAA
6 x 7.07
42.41 in3
Because the volume of uid in the uid chamber is xed, as piston A moves 6 inches, the amount of uid transferred into cylinder B would be the same as VA, therefore:
LB =
V A 42.41 in 3 = = 2.16 in AB 19.63 in 2
NOTE: If the cylinders were the same bore size, the stroke lengths of LA and LB would be equal.
Hydraulic Pump Basics
In the previous discussion, the amount of hydraulic uid in the uid chamber is xed and constant. When a hydraulic pump is employed, non-compressible hydraulic uid is pumped into and released from of the cylinder(s), work is being done, as shown in Figure 2. Although the amount of uid in the uid chamber is variable, it still behaves like the example shown in Figure 1, after uid transfer is stopped. It is easy to see that, if two or more cylinders are employed, the pressure (P) in each will be the same, as with Figure 1, but the output force will be proportional to the area of each piston as dened later in Table 3. Eq. 4: Pressure (P) Relationship Between Hydraulic Cylinders Sharing Common Manifold
P=
F F1 F2 F3 = = = .... = n A1 A2 A3 An
Figure 2: Hydraulic Manual Pump Principles

1000 lb
F2
Stroke (L)
Fluid Reservoir
Valve Body Plunger F1 Relief Valve
Fluid Chamber
Components of Figure 2 include:

Fluid Chamber This is the combined vessels, comprised of cylinders, valves, manifolds and hoses, where uid is allowed to freely ow under pressure. Unlike the example in Figure 1, the amount of uid in the chamber varies as it is pumped into and released from the system. Fluid Reservoir Storage chamber for hydraulic uid to be pumped into and returned from the uid chamber. The minimum volume must be large enough to compensate for all changes in the uid chamber, as needed. Gauge Shown with the round dial and an arrow indicating the presence of pressure in the uid chamber. The gauge indicates how much pressure is exerted, in real time, at every point in the uid chamber. It is an essential tool for monitoring system status. In Figure 1, this is equivalent to the piston in the cylinder A. The applied force (F1) of the plunger is transmitted through the uid in the uid chamber, redistributed by the piston in the cylinder, and applied to the workload (F2). Opens and closes a bypass channel that relieves pressure and retracts the cylinder(s). Flow rate is controlled by regulating the size of the opening. This unit acts as the pump in the hydraulic circuit.
Plunger
Relief Valve Valve Body
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Figure 2 shows a manual pump connected to an hydraulic cylinder. A load is raised by manually pumping on the handle and lowered by opening the relief valve. Similar results will occur if the manual pump is replaced with a motorized pump. A manifold can be used to simultaneously control two or more cylinders. As the handle is raised, a vacuum is created in the valve body. The vacuum opens a check valve in the valve body and draws in uid from the uid reservoir. As the handle is lowered, the reservoir check valve closes and another opens on the uid chamber side. Pressure (F1) from the plunger forces the uid, in the valve body, out into the uid chamber. Back pressure, created by the workload (F2), closes the check valve, on the uid chamber side, when handle movement stops or is lifted upward. The pressure in the uid chamber equalizes as the cylinders piston is forced upward. CAUTION When lifting or pressing objects, always use a gauge to monitor system status for limits, leaks and potential failure. The load is lowered as the relief valve is opened and uid ows through a bypass channel from the uid chamber, back into the uid reservoir. The size of the reservoir must be large enough to supply the required amount of uid to the uid chamber and receive enough uid, from the uid chamber, into the reservoir to lower the load to the desired level. In both systems, Figure 1 and Figure 2, the amount of pressure in the system is determined by the working load (F2) applied against the cylinders piston. If a manifold is installed after the pump and more than one cylinder is connected to the manifold: Table 3: Hydraulic System Design Considerations
Property
Applied Force (F)
Cylinders1
Equal Size
The force applied against the workload is evenly distributed. A1 A2 A3 .... An Proportional to workload (W) Same for each cylinder2 Proportional to workload (W) Depending on percentage of weight carried and point of contact for each cylinder.
Not Equal Size

The force applied against the workload (W) is proportionally distributed based on cylinder size, Eq. PL2. Different for each cylinder. Proportional to workload (W) and area (A) Same for each cylinder2 Proportional to workload (W) and area (A) Depending on percentage of weight carried and point of contact for each cylinder.
Cross Sectional Area (A) Fluid Volume (V) Pressure (P) Stroke Length (L) Workload3 (W)
NOTE:
1 2
Included information applies to cylinders relative to each other, not collectively. Although the pressure is the same in all cylinders, it will be dynamic with changes to the applied force or workload. Any changes in the workload will cause the uid chamber pressure to equalize. Pressure regulation devices can be employed to reduce pressure to specic cylinders to level a workload. As previously stated, the amount of pressure is dependant on the collective workload applied to each cylinder.
Table 4 compares the two primary types of hydraulic systems, workholding and industrial. The circuit for each type is very similar, but the properties are different, as dened in the table. Table 4: Workholding vs. Machine Applications
Property
Actuators Application Connections
Workholding1
General
Cylinders used for clamping Used to prevent or contain motion Short metal piping recommended due to high pressure Low
Industrial2
Cylinders used for linear or curved motion, hydraulic motors Used to cause motion Various generally longer than workholding High
Heat3
10
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Workholding1 Industrial2
Low to High Back pressure produced by load
Property
Pressure (P)
High Produced by pump against workpiece
Cylinder
Attachments to cylinder Clamping arm, rest or custom attachment Various usually custom and could be machine component, e.g. saw, boom and/or scoop. Large Independently controlled Long Depends on application, but for longer distances than workholding
Fluid volume (V) Operation Stroke length (L) Stroke velocity (V)
Small Simultaneous or in sequence Short Relatively slow especially if swing-arm type
Pump
Flow rate at rated pressure Pressure Reservoir Run time, typical Typical power source
NOTE:
1 2
40 640 in3/min 960 10,000 psi to 10 gal As needed Air, electric
0.15 462 in3/min to 40,000 psi to 25 gal Continuous Manual, electric, air, gasoline
Workholding hydraulic actuators tend to be smaller than industrial actuators with less volume and short strokes. Industrial actuators performs some sort of machine function other than clamping or workholding. Lifting, transferring a machine component or object from one point to another, and the use of a hydraulic motor would be examples of industrial applications. The amount of heat depends on pressure and duty cycle.
Limits to Hydraulic Systems
As with any material, and components from which they are made, there are limits. In the case of hydraulic systems and components, all of the variables have limits, which include:
Flow Flow is the rate at which uid moves, within the uid chamber, to and from the reservoir and usually occurs under a rated pressure. The ow rate may be different for each direction in a double action actuator. Flow restrictions include: Pump listings include a maximum ow at rated pressure. The National Fluid Power Association (NFPA) species standard port sizes based on a uid ow velocity of 15 ft./sec. Undersized port sizes for hoses, cylinders, valves and other components serve to restrict ow and delay equalization of pressure within the uid chamber. This can result in reduced cycle time, noise and heat. The ow rate for a double action cylinder for extension and retraction is different because the cross-sectional area the rod side of the piston is less than the non-rod side. The retraction time is faster, because it requires less uid volume (with rod in chamber) to move the piston. If the difference in area is 2:1, retraction time can be twice as fast as the extension time. If powering a hydraulic motor, the pump and all components must allow a ow rate to obtain the maximum motor speed for the application. Force is a factor of pressure, Eq. P1. Components must be able to hold the amount of back pressure generated by the workload on the piston. In the case of Figure 2, if the piston design cannot product the amount of force required to lift the workload, no lifting will occur. Heat is generated from friction as moving uid molecules rub together under pressure. The amount of heat produced is directly related to pressure and duty cycle of operation. If heat is an issue, increase the size of the pump reservoir and/or consider adding an accumulator in the circuit. Pressure is directly related to workload and other forces exerted on the uid chamber. The maximum amount of pressure, that can be contained in the uid chamber, is relative to the structural design of the components that make up the uid chamber and is limited by the weakest component. Most manufactures build in a design safety factor where burst pressure (e.g. 4:1) may be several times the normal operating pressure. It is good practice to use the 80% rule:
Force
Heat
Pressure
80% Rule To ensure safe operation and use of high pressure tools, limit operation to within 80%
of maximum rated capacity or tonnage instead of 100%. This is best accomplished by installing a pressure gauge in the circuit as a means to monitor status and behavior.
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Structural Most hydraulic components are made of metal. This is because of the high pressures and forces exerted internally and externally to the system. If internal pressures should rise above specied values, leaks and/or damage can occur. Volume Hydraulic uid is stored in the uid reservoir and the uid chamber. It is also exchanged between the two during operation. If the amount of uid in the reservoir is not sufcient to supply or receive the required uid from the uid chamber, limits are reached: A low reservoir can result in compressible air being introduced into the system which will degrade performance. If more uid exists in the uid chamber than the reservoir can receive, an overow will result.
Workload As can be deduced from each of the above limits, if the hydraulic system does not include components large enough or strong enough to support or move the workload, the desired performance will not be realized and may cause system failure and damage to equipment.
WARNING
If design limits are exceeded, leaks and/or damage can occur to hydraulic system components. In the worst case scenario, the system can no longer support itself or the workload, which can fall and/or collapse, causing further equipment damage and/or personal injury. As can be seen in Table 4, workholding and industrial hydraulic circuits have very different criteria. This also applies to determining pump size. Two factors must be considered when sizing a hydraulic pump for industrial applications: capacity and speed. Speed is less important for workholding applications. Pump capacity involves determining the size of the reservoir, while speed is the reaction time of the devices being activated or deactivated by the pump. As was previously discussed, each cylinder must contain some measure of hydraulic uid which varies with operational demands. In the case of a single-action cylinder, uid is forced into one side of the piston, with a return spring on the other. For this type of cylinder, air is exchanged as the volume of uid changes. In the case of a double-action cylinder, the volume of uid in the uid chamber is more constant. As uid forces the piston to move on one side of a cylinder, uid is forced to exit from the other. Because of the presence of the rod on one side of the piston, the volume of uid entering and exiting the system is different. In this case, the reservoir size can be smaller than a single-action cylinder. To properly determine the correct hydraulic pump size for your application, the maximum capacity of each uid chamber must be determined and totaled. In the example of Figure 2, not only is hydraulic uid stored in the uid reservoir, but also in cylinders, hoses, valves, lter and other components that comprise the uid chamber. Increases and decreases of uid volume primarily exists in the cylinder operation, which causes expansion and contraction of connecting hoses under pressure, and, to a small amount, the compression and decompression of hydraulic uid.
Hydraulic Pump Sizing
Pump Capacity
P1: Calculating Total Hydraulic Cylinder Capacity

Step
1.
Action / Results
Calculate maximum volume of each cylinder and/ or actuator in the circuit. Record values for each. Sum all volumes calculated in Step 1.
Supporting Information
A cylinder requires maximum volume at maximum stroke when the piston is fully extended, from Eq. 3: Vmax = LmaxA Although all cylinders may not be fully extended at the same time, this is the worst case scenario. It also builds in a safety factor. A larger safety factor may need to be used if hoses are of an extra long length. If the pump is undersized, the system may suck air in the lines and degrade system performance. If reaction time is important, continue to the next section to further narrow the pump selection based on ow rate and pressure specications, procedure P1.
Use this procedure to determine the minimum capacity of a hydraulic pump for your application.
2.
3.
Add a 1% safety factor to the total, in Step 2, to allow for hose expansion and uid compression under high pressure. Select a hydraulic pump that has a capacity at least equal to the value calculated in Step 3.
4.
End of procedure
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NOTE: A pumps reservoir may be increased to allow for the potential for leaks and heat. Having a larger reservoir, or installing accumulators in the circuit, allow for continued operation. EXAMPLE A: A clamping operation uses 6 equal sized clamps that work simultaneously to hold a workpiece while machining. The two hydraulic clamps have a bore size of 1.5 inches and a 0.629 inch rod diameter. The maximum ow rate is 25 in3/min and a 0.39 inch clamping stroke. Determine the minimum reservoir capacity for a pump to operate these clamps. The piston area (AP) for extension is calculated using the standard formula for the area of a circle:
Ap = Pr2 = P(D/2)2 = 3.14(1.5/2)2 = 1.77 in2 per clamp

From Eq. 3,
Vmax = LmaxA = 0.39 1.77 = 0.69 in3 per clamp

Minimum reservoir size:
Vreservoir = 6 Vcylinder = 6 0.69 = 4.14 in3

NOTE: The pump reservoir serves as a buffer that reacts to demands made by the hydraulic circuit. The amount of uid stored in the uid chamber is xed and constant, except during operation of cylinders and other actuators whose volume changes. The reservoir must contain enough uid to compensate for changes in the circuit during operation of all actuators under all circumstances.
Reaction Time
The reaction time of a hydraulic actuator depends on the rate of ow of uid into and out of the uid chamber and the change in volume. Although less important in a workholding application, Table 4, an industrial application can be more demanding for reaction time and speed of operation. The pump must be powerful enough to push uid into the uid chamber, under pressure, at a desired rate to supply one or more cylinders, motors or other actuators. The ow rate is directly proportional to the amount of power used to cause it. Reaction time for an individual cylinder can be determined using Eq. 5. Eq. 5: Reaction Time for a Hydraulic Actuator
TS =
Where: TS = C = RLP =
C R LP
Time for hydraulic cylinder to move the stroke distance. Fluid capacity of the cylinder at full stroke. Rate of ow at low pressure expressed in cubic inch or cubic centimeter per minute.
Eq. 6: Time for Fluid Chamber to Reach Full Pressure
TP = R HP
Where: TP = CFC = RHP = 1% =
C FC P 1% 1000
Time for hydraulic system to reach full pressure. Total capacity of the uid chamber. Rate of ow at high pressure expressed in cubic inch or cubic centimeter per minute. This comes from pump specications which generally indicates a maximum ow at rated pressure. Factor to compensate for uid compression and expansion of hoses and other components in the hydraulic circuit.
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As previously stated, system pressure in an industrial hydraulic circuit is determined by the load being moved. As with any mechanical system, obtainable velocity is relative to many factors, including workload. Piston velocity has two stages:
Stage 1 Piston velocity under no-load. This is the speed at which a piston can move while approaching a load, when the uid chamber has little or no pressure. For instance a jack as it moves toward the object to be lifted or pushed, a scoop before it comes into contact with a pile of dirt. Piston velocity under load, as the uid chamber builds and attains pressure. During this stage, the velocity will vary with load and the maximum pressure produced in the pump is determined by the motor horsepower as shown in Figure 2. Pump specications should include a maximum ow rate at rated pressure (Q). Consequently, the speed may be faster at pressures less than the rated value.
Stage 2
Eq. 7: Calculating Cylinder Speed
V =
Where: V A Q = = =
Q or Q=AV A
Travel velocity of a cylinders piston. Cross-sectional area of piston (AP). For retraction, subtract the crosssectional are of the rod (AR) and A = AP AR. Pump ow rate (usually listed at rated pressure for stage 2 operation).
NOTE: The ow rate for pumps may be in either gallons per minute or cubic inches per minute at rated pressure. To convert, use these relationships: 1 gal = 231 in3 = 3.785 litters = 3,785 cm3. Eq. 7 applies to one cylinder under no-load state. If more cylinders are simultaneously powered by the same pump, the pump must be able to power all the actuators in the circuit at the desired speed. In this case, use Eq. 8. Eq. 8: Calculating No-load Speed for Multiple Cylinders
Q = A1V1 + A2V2 + A3V3 +...+ AnVn

or, if V is the same for all cylinders,
Q = V(A1 + A2 + A3 +...+ An)

Some things to consider when selecting a hydraulic pump based on speed (ow rate): Figure 3: Sample Motor HP vs. Pump Flow Rate
250
200
Flow Rate (in3/min)
150
100
50
0 1 15 Ele ctric M o to r S iz e (H P ) 3 75
In most cases, the power of the pump comes from the motor. Fast reaction times may require a larger motor at a higher cost. For an industrial application, system pressure is determined by machine components and workload. Pump specications include maximum ow rate at rated pressure. Higher ow rates may be obtainable at pressures (loads) below the rated value. For a double-action cylinder, ow rate, in both directions, is controlled by the pump.
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For a single-action cylinder, the pump is used to move the piston in one direction, while an external force (weight of object and/or machine components, for example) or internal spring moves it in the other. Reaction times may be different.
P2: Calculating Total Hydraulic Pump Speed

Step Action / Results Supporting Information Use this procedure to determine the desired ow rate for the hydraulic pump in an industrial application (not usually required for workholding). If there is more than one hydraulic operation in the process powered by the same pump, determine the amount of time for each operation and select a pump size based on highest ow rate required; for instance, an operator simultaneously moving a machine in more than one direction.
1. Determine the cycle time for the hydraulic operation in the application or process, for which the pump is part of. Depending on the operation and process, cycle time may need to be determined for both cylinder extension and retraction, which typically takes place at different times in the process.
2.
Use Eq. 7 or Eq. 8, which ever is appropriate, to Use Eq. 7 for a single cylinder applications determine the required ow rate. For double action and Eq. 8 for multiple cylinder applications or cylinders, calculate ow rate for both extension simultaneous cylinder operation. and retraction. Record value for Step 2 and repeat Steps 1 and 2 for each hydraulic operation using the same pump. If the pump powers multiple circuits independently, but not at the same time, perform calculations independently. If the pump powers multiple circuits simultaneously, calculate as one circuit. Although the pump may be able to deliver the desired ow rate, improper circuit design can restrict and limit output to actuators. Select the pump with a ow rate at least equal to the highest calculated value of Q from this procedure. A safety factor may be appropriate, but the cost may also be higher.
3.
4.
If multiple cylinders can be operated simultaneously, group and add relative values from Step 3 to determine the maximum ow rate demand from the pump. Use the largest calculated value of Q to select the appropriate pump with at least the required reservoir capacity determined by procedure P1.
5.
End of procedure
EXAMPLE B: To obtain an automated cycle time of 2 minutes in a machining operation, 4 equal sized, single-action hydraulic cylinders must simultaneously fully extend 6 inches in 2.5 seconds. The cylinders have a bore size of 2.56 inches (plunger diameter not required for single-action cylinder). The maximum plunger stroke of the selected cylinder is 6.25 inches. Determine the minimum ow rate of a hydraulic pump for this application. Piston velocity (V) is the stroke (L) divided by the reaction time (T):
V=
Using Eq. 8:
6 in L = = 2.4 in/sec T 2.5 sec
Q = 4VA = 4 2.4 in/sec 5.15 in2 60 sec/min = 2964.78 in3/min

Converting to gallons:
Q=
2964.78 in 3 / min 231 in 3 / gal
= 12.8 gal / min
The selected pump must be able to pump uid at a minimum rate of 12.8 gal/min a pressure determined by the load being lifted.
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Selecting Hydraulic Components
The uid chamber, as dened for this guide, includes all components in the hydraulic circuit which contain uid under pressure. Even though the selected pump may be able to pump uid through the uid chamber at the required rate, circuit components must be selected that will not restrict ow rates. Port sizes typically allow a ow rate of 15 ft./sec, as dened by the National Fluid Power Association (NFPA). Hose diameters must be properly sized to allow the desired amount of uid to ow through them. Table 5 lists the cross sectional area for typical hose sizes. Table 5: Typical Hose/Pipe Sizes and Cross-sectional Area.
Hose/Pipe Size
Inch
1/8 1/4 3/8 1/2 5/8 3/4 1
Cross-Sectional Area
sq-in
0.05 0.20 0.44 0.79 1.23 1.77 3.14
Capacity
(cu in)/ft
0.59 2.36 5.30 9.42 14.73 21.21 37.70
mm
3.18 6.35 9.53 12.70 15.88 19.05 25.40
sq-mm
1.25 4.99 11.22 19.95 31.17 44.89 79.80
(cu mm)/m
1246.82
gal/ft
0.003 0.010 0.023 0.041 0.064 0.092 0.163
liter/m
0.001 0.005 0.011 0.020 0.031 0.045 0.080
4987.28
11221.38 19949.11 31170.49 44885.51 79796.45
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PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS
Air compressors are found in most any shop where work is being done. This ranges from huge factories to the hobbyist workshop. Compressed air is a strong and exible source of power used to drive tools and generate mechanical motion. Generated from a single source, it is easily compressed, distributed, managed, directed and controlled. While atmospheric air seems an unlimited resource, it is not always suitable for use. Air born particles, chemicals and moisture can be damaging to equipment used to source and distribute it and materials of which it may contact. Odors and chemicals can be unpleasant and harmful to humans. High pressures can propel air at high velocities which can be unsafe, if misused.
Compressed Air System Components (Supply Side)
Figure 4 identies typical components of a compressed air system, followed by Table 6 with a brief description of each. When designing a compressed air system [5]: It is best to locate the air compressor at the coolest point, or corner, of your facility, but not below freezing. Future expansion should also be considered. Piping should slope slightly away from the compressor and toward a drain point to allow for drainage. Pipe sizing (typically larger than the air distribution network header) should be large enough to minimize pressure drop and ensure the proper volume of air ow to the air distribution network. Figure 4: Sample Compressed Air System Layout
Compressor Package Enclosure Air Inlet Filter Dryer Air Filter Air Receiver Pressure/Flow Controller Distribution System
Pneumatic Tool Aftercooler and Lubricant Cooler Motor Control Panel Compressor Air End Lubricant/Air Separator
US DOE Best Practices, Compressed Air Sourcebook for Industry [5]
Filter, Regulator, and Lubricator
As previously mentioned, incoming air is seldom of a quality suitable for the work area intended. Even the equipment used to compress and distribute the air can add contaminates along the way. The process of compressing air generates a lot of heat which is applied to the equipment and the pressurized air exiting the compressor. Information is available from the US DOE and other resources about heat recovery process that put this energy to work heating water or air. The accessories listed in Table 6 are used to control temperature, remove debris and chemicals and to control moisture.
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Table 6: Typical Compressed Air System Components
Component
Air Inlet Filter Air Receiver
Description
This lter protects the compressor from atmospheric airborne particles as external air enters the compressor. It is the rst of many lters. See Figure 5 and Table 7. An air storage tank that, or receiver, is used to regulate air capacity to meet peak demand events and help control air pressure by controlling the rate of pressure change in the system. As shown in Figure 4, an air receiver can be installed prior to the air distribution network and, as needed, within the air distribution network. An air receiver is mandatory for a paint booth or sand blaster, for instance. Other advantages of an air receiver include: Provides dampening properties for compressors that produce a pulsating pressure. Use radiant cooling to cool air stored in the tank. Removes condensate through condensation that collects at the bottom of the tank. A drain is usually included that needs to be opened periodically to drain any condensate collected. Regulate demand and reduce the use of standby air compressors, if included. Separators remove moisture from air or gas. Lubricant-injected compressors have an air/ lubricant coalescing separator immediately after discharge to remove liquid lubricant from the compressed, pressurized air where it is recycled back to the compressor inlet for reuse. Aftercooling then cools the air and removes moisture. These units are sized to decrease the discharge air temperature to 100F or less before entering the dryer and air distribution network. Cooling also removes moisture brought in from the incoming air. For some systems, after-coolers are an integral part of the compressor package. The unit on the compressor that actually compresses the air. It is driven by the compressor motor. A secure and safety enclosure for the compressor and its components. The enclosure may also include sound proong to manage noise levels. Local operator controls for the compressor and its components. This includes piping and all components after the compressor. These lines deliver compressed air to the point of use. Air entering the air distribution network is typically saturated with moisture. A dryer is a device that removes moisture from the air. Moisture is removed from compressed, pressurized air as it is discharged from the compressor and, as needed, before entering a tool, pneumatic actuator, or other air driven device. If moisture enters some devices, such as actuators, it can collect and corrode internal components. This can decrease performance and decrease the life of the actuator. An air preparation unit designed to remove harmful contaminates such as pipe scale, rust, and other airborne contaminates from a compressed air line. Such contaminates can build up on internal surfaces which shorten the life of pneumatic devices. Filtering takes place on both the supply and demand side of the compressed air system. See Figure 5 and Table 7. For larger compressors, this unit is used to add lubricant to the Compressor Air End. The lubricant also serves to cool the compressor. A recovery system returns oil from the compressor to remove heat and recycle into the compressor. This unit may be a subassembly to the After-cooler. Any one of the following: electric motor, diesel or gasoline engine, steam or natural gas turbine. Refer to Table 9 for references to determine a compressor and motor horsepower to obtain the desired pressure and/or ow rate. An end device being driven by or applying air to do work. This could include an actuator, pneumatic motor or hand tools, air gun, etc. An optional system pressure control installed between the compressor and the main air distribution network to more precisely regulate air ow and pressure to points-of-use.
Air Separator
After-cooler
Compressor Air End Compressor Package Enclosure Control Panel Distribution System or Network Dryer
Filter
Lubricant Cooler
Motor
Pneumatic Tool Pressure/Flow Controller
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Compressor Efciency
There are several types of compressors and the electrical consumption does vary a little bit, depending on design. As a general rule, assume an annual cost of about $100 per CFM for each type. If a 50 hp compressor produces an output of 200 CFM, the annual cost for electricity would be approximately $20,000 (assuming $0.08/kWh). If a machine shop has a 10 hp compressor, then the approximate cost of electricity may be $4,000.
EXAMPLE: For estimating the annual operating cost of a Compressed Air System: Consider a compressor running 6,000 hours annually, using a 90% efcient motor. A typical compressor produces 4 CFM per 1hp. The electricity cost is assumed to be $0.08/kWh. 1 CFM 0.25hp 0.25hp/0.90 X 0.746 kW/hp 0.207 kW (assuming a 90% efcient motor)
Annual electricity cost: 1 CFM kW X Hrs X Electricity Cost 0.207kW X 6,000hrs x $0.08/kWh $99.50, or approximately $100/CFM With the same assumptions, a daily operating cost for 100 CFM can be estimated: 1 CFM 0.207kW (assuming a 90% efcient motor)
Therefore, 100 CFM requires 20.7 kW of power and the daily electricity cost: 100 CFM 20.7 kW x Hrs x Electricity Cost 20.7 kW x 20 hrs x $0.08/kWh $33
CONCLUSION: The daily electricity cost for a 25 hp compressor to produce 100 scfm for 20 hours is $33. NOTE: The above formulas and calculations were provided by Ask an Expert, a free service available on the Reid SupplyLine e-newsletter. For additional information, the article Calculating the Cost of Compressed Air System Leaks, and other articles found in the Reid SupplyLine eLibrary, may be of assistance.
Compressed Air Distribution System (Demand Side)
The compressed air distribution network typically begins after the air receiver, or storage tank. It is made up of all components that are used to deliver compressed, pressurized air to the point-of-use where work is done. This should be done with minimal pressure loss. Figure 5 represents a typical installation and design. The primary components of the distribution network are the extended main lines, branch lines, valves and air hoses. Table 7 lists the included components with information and tips about each. Some general tips include: The length of the network should be kept to a minimum to reduce pressure drop. Piping should be of a large enough diameter to avoid pressure drop. The loop should slope slightly downward from one corner to the other to allow condensate to ow toward a nal drain point at the lowest point. Other drain points should be included as needed. Refer to Table 9 for references to determine proper pipe diameters, ow rates and a compressor horsepower to obtain the desired pressure.
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Figure 5: Sample Compressed Air Distribution network
Table 7: Compressed Air Distribution network Components
Component
Pros
Filters1
Cons
Filters on the demand side of the compressed air system are used to clean the air prior to being applied at the point-of-use and entering an actuator, tool, motor, etc. The type of lter required depends on the work to be done. Filters that use carbon or other materials to absorb undesirable gas or odors. Absorbent Removes organic vapors and odors for taste and smell. Recommended before a desiccant-type dryer to prevent fouling of the desiccant bed. Coalescing Removes liquid aerosols and particulates (moisture and lubricant). Rated by ppm. Recommended after a desiccant-type dryer to remove desiccant nes. Particulate Removes micron size solid particles. Rated by micron size trapped.
Hoses
In most cases, point-of-use devices connect to point-of-use points with a exible hose or tubing. Lightweight, permanently-coiled hose is made of Nylon or Polyurethane in yellow (standard) or red. Supplied with durable brass compression swivel ttings, tube inserts, hose ferrules and spring guards for additional strain relief. Designed to withstand temperatures between -60 F and +200 F. Spring guards not available on 3/4 hose. See Tubing for material properties. 1/8 I.D. is available in blue only.
Coiled
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Cons
Component
Pros
A device used to automatically retract and store a length of hose. (Also refer to MRO Resource Guide.) Easy and properly stores hose when not in use. Hose Reel Available by the foot, exible tubing is used to direct compressed air form a point-of-use. Tubing is available in various material types, sizes and colors as listed in the below table: Hose length is limited by the reel capacity. Hose type is determined by reel manufacture.
Material
Color
Resistance
Chemicals, gas, many liquids Abrasion, Aging
Flexibility
Psi @ 75F Temp

28 70 psi
Other
FDA CFR 21 approved Lightweight Low density & Lightweight 4 to 1 Safety Factor Economical Will not hydrolyze or degrade in water
180332
Clear
Very
Nylon Tubing Polyethylene
Black, Natural (primary) Black (primary) Black Natural (primary)
Chemicals
Toughness
200 265 psi -60F to +200F Low pressure 90 150 psi 133 193 psi
Most chemicals and solvents Fuels & Oils
Good
Polyurethane
Extremely
Lubrication
All metal mechanical devices, where motion takes place with metal on metal, require some form of lubrication. This is an air preparation unit designed to dispense lubrication to pneumatic motors, tools, machinery, etc. that require lubrication to run at peak efciency. Lubricators installed near a pointof-use can provide constant lubrication according to factory recommended specications. Automatically dispenses a measured amount of lubricant into the air tool or motor. Reduces maintenance and downtime costs. No disconnection required. Automatic Lubricator1 Used in heavy duty applications where a large oil capacity and a pre-adjusted rate of oil is required. Adjustable for varying rates of oil used in bearing or machinery lubrication. Adjustable drip rates are easily set and controlled with either a lock ring or ratchet mechanism. Gravity Feed Provide at-the-tool lubrication to keep tools running at peak efciency. They are an effective alternative to larger more costly units that may not deliver lubricant to the tool due to excessive line length. Ideal for intermittent use type tools such as staplers and nailers. Available in 5 cc and 7.5 cc lubricant capacity. Provides at-the-tool lubrication. Measured amount of oil mist with each cycle. Filtration screen prevents line debris from contaminating oil. 7.5 cc features a sightglass to easily check oil level. Maximum supply pressure 150 psi. Maximum operating temperature: 250F. Designed for intermittently operated air tools.
In-Line
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Component Pros
Cons
Manual lubrication is accomplished by: A. Disconnecting the tool (typically using a quick disconnect). B. Dispensing one or two drops of air tool lubricant according to manufacturers recommendation. C. Reconnecting the tool. No additional equipment required. Manual Chance of under or over-lubrication of tool or acturator.
Piping
As previously mentioned, improper piping can effect performance, resulting in low pressure and air ow at pointsof-use. Refer to Table 9 for references to determine proper pipe diameters. Piped sections of the air distribution network include the following: A general purpose valve used as shut-off valve or isolation points and drains for maintenance
Ball Valve Taps connected from the bottom of the header are for the purpose of trapping and draining condensate from the distribution network. See Traps and drains, below. NOTE: Tapping into drain points for the purpose of using tools, motors and other pneumatic actuators should be avoided. Entry Point The entry point to the distribution network should be at the top of the header to minimize the amount of condensate entering the loop and back-ow into the supply line. This is the main line in the air distribution network. The diameter should be larger than any legs to points-of-use or drains. A loop design is generally recommended. Drop legs should connect to the header loop from the top to avoid the ow of condensate into the leg. Provides a convenient junction point for branching off a single line on distribution systems. Can be used to branch to multiple legs to points-of-use or at a point-of-use point to allow for multiple hoses, tools or other devices. Works well for air, hydraulic, water, coolant, machine and other distribution lines. To further ensure quality air, points-of-use taps from the header should be at the top of side to avoid the transfer of condensate into the leg. The vertical leg should end with a ball valve and a tap above the valve, as shown in Figure 5, to be used as a pneumatic power source. This type of coupler allows for quick connection and disconnection of hoses and/or tools at a Point-of-use. No tools are required. There are three primary interchanges for quick-couplings: Pneumatic connector developed by the ARO Corporation that can be identied by its nose length of approximately 5/16. Primarily found in lubrication equipment market. Commonly called the ARO Style. ARO Pneumatic connector developed by the Parker/TruFlate Companies. It can be identied by its nose length of approximately 1/16. Primarily found in automotive repair market. Commonly called the TruFlate Style or Automotive Style. Pneumatic connector developed by the Milton Industries Corporation that can be identied by its nose length of approximately 3/16. Primarily found in industrial or MRO market and is the most common of three interchanges. Commonly called Milton Style or Industrial Style.
Drain Leg
Header
Manifold Point-of-use taps
Automotive
QuickCoupling
Industrial
Although a universal coupling is available, the three interchanges are otherwise not compatible. Pneumatic quick-couplings are generally rated at a maximum 300 psi. NOTE: Standards only specify dimensions (length, diameter, etc.). The various design proles are by manufacture with some compatibility, if of the same interchange type.
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Cons
Component
Pros
A union should be included at any point where piping may need to be disassembled for maintenance. One will be required to tie the point where the header loop comes together. Other points would be where equipment and accessories connects into the piping as shown in Figure 5. Union
Points-of-Use
A point-of-use is the point where hoses and other connections tap into the air distribution network for a pneumatic power source. Some common devices requiring a pneumatic power source include: A component such as a cylinder, motor, or rotary actuator that directly helps convert air ow or pressure into mechanical motion. A pneumatic tool with a directional air nozzle and trigger that is used to move dust, debris and/or small objects; usually for cleaning. Air Gun A pneumatic powered device that uses a piston and air pressure to generate linear motion. Cylinders Motors2 Tools2 A pneumatic powered device that uses air ow to generate rotary motion. A tool that requires a pneumatic power source. Rotary tools include an air driven motor.
Actuator
Regulators1
An air preparation unit designed to regulate compressed air pressure to less than main supply. This is done to match the various requirements of pneumatics devices and applications. The variety of sizes and designs increase accuracy for the particular application. Provides users with accurate yet cost-effective air regulation. This compact unit is designed for a long service life and features a rugged die-cast zinc body and a high-impact plastic adjusting knob. Lightweight Reliable self-relieving piston design. Regulates between 5 125 psi. Flow is 18 cfm at 100 psi. Maximum supply pressure 150 psi. Maximum operating temperature: 250F. Body size is 1/4 only.
Economy
Have a long established reputation for high quality and unsurpassed reliability. Their balanced design maintains precise downstream pressure, and a diaphragm stop prevents ruptures in the event of surges. Master packaging is twenty-four units per carton for 1/4 and 3/8 sizes, twelve units per carton for 1/2 size and six units per carton for 3/4 and 1 sizes. High ow rates with accurate control and fast response. 0-200 PSI, 0-125 PSI and 0-50 psi pressure ranges. Available in 1/4, 3/8, 1/2, 3/4, and 1 body sizes. Tamper-proof option available. Panel mount and gauge options. Maximum supply pressure 250 psi. Maximum operating temperature: 250F.
Heavy Duty
Controls the volume of air reaching the air tool. These units are useful for ne-tuning air tool performance when supply air pressure is at the correct level. Available in 1/4 and 3/8 aluminum body sizes. 1/4 available with or without gauge. O ring seals on adjustment knob. Maximum supply pressure 150 psi. Maximum operating temperature: 175F.
In-Line Flow
Allows the user to select desired pressure and lock the setting in place. In-Line Adjustable Pressure Available in 1/4 and 3/8 body sizes. Operating pressure adjustable range 50 145 psi. Also lockable. In port screen helps lter out harmful debris. Maximum supply pressure 150 psi. Accuracy: 2.5 psi at 125 psi. Maximum operating temperature: 175F. Designed for intermittently operated air tools.
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Component Pros
Cons
Designed to protect intermittently operated air tools against damage caused by over-pressurization. The Preset In-Line Regulator is preset at the factory for tamper-proof operation. In-Line Pre-Set Pressure Setting will not change due to vibration. Accurate factory setting eliminates need for gauge. In port screen helps lter out harmful debris. Body size is 1/4 only. Maximum supply pressure 150 psi. Accuracy: 2.5 psi at 125 psi. Maximum operating temperature: 175F. Designed for intermittently operated air tools.
Traps and Drains

As moist air passes through cooler piping, air condenses causing condensate to collect and run along the bottom of the lines. Traps and drains are used to collect (trap) and expel (drain) condensate from the compressed air system. They can be found on both the supply and demand side, however, supply side components trap condensate as part of their function and only require a drain to expel and carry it away. Some tips include: Excessive condensate stored at supply or demand side of the compressed air system reduces capacity and performance, corrodes metal and invites bacteria and mold in the system. Leaving a manual valve partially open can waste valuable compressed air. Lubricant and other contaminates should be removed from condensate before discharging to a sewer system. Requirements vary by community and state. If traps or drains exist in a cold environment, heating systems may need to be employed to prevent freezing of condensate. Manual Leveloperated mechanical trap Electrically operated solenoid valve This is little more than vertical piping ending in a ball valve. See Figure 5. Many supply side components have manual drains. Simple and cost effective. A oat-type trap automatically expels condensate when the level is high enough. Do not waste air when operating properly. Similar to the manual system, but electric solenoid valves are controlled remotely and automatically. The drains are opened for a period of time at an appropriate periodicity to drain and maintain the condensate in the trap or tank. Operation is remote and/or automatic. These are various types that use a oat or level sensor to operate an electric solenoid. Others include a oat activated pneumatic signal to an air cylinder to open a ball valve. Collects condensate in a storage reservoir. Operation is automatic to reservoir.
1
Zero air-loss trap with reservoir

NOTE:
Modular devices, such as an FRL, can combine lter, regulator and/or lubricator into one unit.
SAFETY
Safety should be number one in all design and operational considerations for machines and tools where dynamic and/or kinetic energy is stored. In the case of pneumatics and hydraulics, where there is pressure and/or motion, energy is stored and the potential for accidents and unsafe conditions exist. As with clamping or material handling, common laws of physics and gravity are being applied in any application where hydraulic actuators are employed. Many of the design considerations discussed in the Clamps and Workholding Resource Guide, also apply to pneumatic and hydraulic systems. These include the action and reaction of forces within a mechanical system, degrees of freedom, side loading, force vectors and torque. CAUTION OEM application and safety considerations must be followed for the use and operation of all pneumatic and hydraulic products. Reid Does More Than You Think.. We have thousands of products in 12 color-coded categories Whether you call our friendly customer service reps or visit our new web site, ReidSupply.com, we have what you need. Take advantage of Reids 60 years of sales and product management experience.
CUSTOM PRODUCTS
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Cant nd what you are looking for in our catalog? Reids Rapid Response team is trained to nd products. We will source the product for you. Need technical support? Ask an Expert is a free service available on the Reid SupplyLine e-newsletter. Once registered, any question submitted is passed to experienced team of professionals who provide a quick response. Do you need help customizing a standard product? TQM, Total Quality Machining, is our manufacturing and modication tooling company. We can take virtually any standard part and customize it to meet your needs. Just call the toll-free number listed at the bottom of the page or online at ReidSupply.com.
SUMMARY
Using the standards, references, design considerations, data tables, equations and procedures in this guide should help with application and selection of Pneumatics and Hydraulics products to meet you needs. Data tables include comparison and usage information. Professional standards and government regulations improve application design, performance and safety. This Resource Guide can be viewed online at ReidSupply.com or downloaded and saved as needed at no cost. For comments on the contents of this Resource Guide, contact the Customer Service department using the toll-free number listed at the bottom of the page. Or email us at mail @ ReidSupply.com (enter Resource Guide in the subject line).
FOR MORE INFORMATION
Although the Internet offers a vast wealth of information, it may not always be readily available. Much of the information on the Internet and in this Resource Guide comes from professional standards, government regulations and the reference manuals available at Reid Supply, Table 8. The standards listed in this guide are available online, but must be purchased. OSHA, NIOSH and other government documentation can be found on the Internet and can be downloaded at no cost. Table 8 lists reference manuals offered by Reid Supply that may meet your needs. Table 8: Recommended Documentation and Reference Manuals
Ref #
1 Machinerys Handbook
Title
Cat. No.1
DR-5CD DR-5C DR-5J DR-5T DR-9 DR-11 DR-12 DR-13 DR-14 DR-16 DR-17 DR-18 DR-19 DR-26 DR-37 DR-43 DR-52 DR-81 DR-95 TIS-MC-20
2 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
NOTE:
1
CNC Machining Handbook Machinerys Handbook Pocket Companion Machinerys Handbook Guide Die Makers Handbook CNC Machining Handbook Shop Reference for Students and Apprentices Basic Machining Reference Handbook Machinists Ready Reference Shopform Computer Software Marks Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers Standard Handbook of Machine Design Metal Cutting Tool Handbook Materials Handbook Fundamentals of Tool Design Engineers Black Book Machinist Calculator
Refer to Table 9 for details on content relative to this Resource Guide.
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Table 9: Reference Manual Content Relative to This Guide
DR-5C DR-CD DR-5T DR-5J
DR-11
DR-12
DR-18
DR-26
DR-37
Information Type
Air compression Air ow in pipes Compression of air Conversion factors Couplings Drawing symbols Dryseal pipe threads Fluid Dynamics GD&T Hoses Hose coupling screw threads Hydraulic power transmission Hydraulic press calculations Hydraulic control systems Hydraulic uids Lubrication Measuring techniques, physical Mechanics of uids O-rings Open & closed loop systems Pipe, pipe ttings, and valves Pipe thread Pneumatic systems Properties of air Properties of non-metals Proportional control systems Stainless steel type Standards for limits and ts Standards listed in Table 2 Threads abbreviations (symbols) Strength of materials Surface coatings Surface roughness Tolerances Trigonometry Tables CONTENT: 1 2 3 4
2,3,5 2,3,6 2,3,6 2,3,7 2,5,9 2 (CD only) 1,2,6,9 3,5 2,4,7,8,9 2,4,5 2,6 2 2 2
2,3,7,9
1,2,3,5 6
2,3,7,9
5 2
5,9 2,3,6,9 2,3,6 2,3,5 5 2,3,6,9 2,3,7 2,3,6 2,3,6 2,3,6,9 2,3,6 1,2,3,7,8,9 1,2,3,4,7,9 2,3,6 2,3,7 2,4,6 5 2,4,7 1,2,3,7,9 1,2,4,6 2,4 1,2,4,5,9 2,5 7,8,9 1,2,6,9 2,4 2,4,7 1,2,3,7,9 1,2,4,6 1,2,3,7,9 1,2,9 2 1,2,9 2,4,6,9 2,6,9 2,3,4,7,9 1,2,3,4,7,9 2,3,7 2,4,7,9 1,2,4,6,9 2,3,6 3,7,8,9 7,8 2,6,9 1,2,6,9 2,3 5 6 7 8 9 2,4,5,9 1,2,6,9 2,3,5 Some discussion Basics discussion Detailed discussion How-to information Regulations and standards 1,2,3,6,9 6,8,9 2,4,9 2,9 5 2,4,9 1,2,9 2 2,4,5 2,4,7 2,9 2,7,9 1,2,3,7 1,2,3,7 2,3,6 5 2,3,7,8 2,3,7,9
Imperial and metric systems Data/specication charts and tables Formulas Comparison information
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DR-95
2
Other documentation is also available by contacting Customer Service.
GLOSSARY
Below is a list of terms used in this document.
Glossary Term
Austenitic
Denition
Steels containing high percentages of certain alloying elements such as manganese and nickel. These are austenitic at room temperature and cannot be hardened by normal heat-treatment, but do work harden. They are also non-magnetic. Typical examples of austenitic steels include the 18/8 stainless steels and 14% manganese steel. British Standard Pipe Taper. An acronym for Code of Federal Regulations that references the code used by OSHA to identify regulations.
BSPT CFR Decibel (dB)
A measure of sound level relative to the human ear. The dB is a logarithmic unit used to describe a ratio. Decibels can be referenced directly (in air as pressure or intensity) or indirectly (through a conductor relative to power, voltage or current). 1. Any of a group of nonmetallic, ceramiclike, usually ferromagnetic compounds of ferric oxide with other oxides, especially such a compound characterized by extremely high electrical resistivity and used in computer memory elements, permanent magnets, and various solid-state devices. Also called ferrate. 2. Iron that has not combined with carbon, occurring commonly in steel, cast iron, and pig iron below 910C.
Ferritic
NPT Pressure scfm
National Pipe Tapered Thread NPT has a tapered male and female thread which seals with Teon tape or jointing compound. Force per unit area. The common imperial unit for pressure is psi (pounds per square inch). For metric: N/mm2 or MPa. Also known as ow, represents Cubic Feet of air per Minute at Standard conditions of temperature, pressure and humidity (O degrees C /14.7 psia /50% relative humidity) Water, Oil, and Gas. Also referred to as WOG.
W.O.G.
REFERENCES
The following is a list of referenced used in to create this document. They are referred to by number, e.g. [3], in the text where applicable. 1] Standards listed in Table 1 and Table 2. 2] Reference manuals listed in Table 8 3] ENERPAC 4] SMC Corp. of America 5] US DOE, EERE: Improving Compressed Air Systems Performance (free download)
NOTES
(This space reserved for user notes)
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RESOURCE GUIDES Pneumatics and Hydraulics

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RESOURCE GUIDES Pneumatics and Hydraulics

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Industrial Hydraulics Hydraulic Hose Manifolds & Valves Pressure Gages

Pneumatics and Hydraulics

REID SUPPLY RESOURCE GUIDES

PURPOSE OF THIS RESOURCE GUIDE

Pneumatics and Hydraulics

STANDARDS, REGULATIONS AND POLICIES

Industrial Hydraulics Hydraulic Hose Manifolds & Valves Pressure Gages

Pneumatics and Hydraulics

Pneumatics and Hydraulics

Table 2: Standards Relative to Pneumatics and Hydraulics

HYDRAULIC AND PNEUMATIC STANDARDS

Industrial Hydraulics Hydraulic Hose Manifolds & Valves Pressure Gages

Pneumatics and Hydraulics

HYDRAULIC AND PNEUMATIC STANDARDS

Pneumatics and Hydraulics

T3.6.36 T3.6.64 X X X T3.12.17 T3.20.15 T3.21.16 T3.21.18

Industrial Hydraulics Hydraulic Hose Manifolds & Valves Pressure Gages

Pneumatics and Hydraulics

HYDRAULIC AND PNEUMATIC STANDARDS

Hydraulic System Basics

Stroke (LB) WA Fluid Chamber Cylinder A Cylinder B

Pneumatics and Hydraulics

FA 100 = 19.93 = 277.78 lbs AA 7.07

Industrial Hydraulics Hydraulic Hose Manifolds & Valves Pressure Gages

Pneumatics and Hydraulics

V A 42.41 in 3 = = 2.16 in AB 19.63 in 2

Hydraulic Pump Basics

Figure 2: Hydraulic Manual Pump Principles

Valve Body Plunger F1 Relief Valve

Components of Figure 2 include:

Relief Valve Valve Body

Pneumatics and Hydraulics

Not Equal Size

Industrial Hydraulics Hydraulic Hose Manifolds & Valves Pressure Gages

Pneumatics and Hydraulics

High Produced by pump against workpiece

Small Simultaneous or in sequence Short Relatively slow especially if swing-arm type

40 640 in3/min 960 10,000 psi to 10 gal As needed Air, electric

Limits to Hydraulic Systems

Pneumatics and Hydraulics

Hydraulic Pump Sizing

P1: Calculating Total Hydraulic Cylinder Capacity

Industrial Hydraulics Hydraulic Hose Manifolds & Valves Pressure Gages

Pneumatics and Hydraulics

Ap = Pr2 = P(D/2)2 = 3.14(1.5/2)2 = 1.77 in2 per clamp

Vmax = LmaxA = 0.39  1.77 = 0.69 in3 per clamp

Vreservoir = 6  Vcylinder = 6  0.69 = 4.14 in3

Eq. 6: Time for Fluid Chamber to Reach Full Pressure

Pneumatics and Hydraulics

Eq. 7: Calculating Cylinder Speed

Q = A1V1 + A2V2 + A3V3 +...+ AnVn

Q = V(A1 + A2 + A3 +...+ An)

Flow Rate (in3/min)

Industrial Hydraulics Hydraulic Hose Manifolds & Valves Pressure Gages

Pneumatics and Hydraulics

P2: Calculating Total Hydraulic Pump Speed

6 in L = = 2.4 in/sec T 2.5 sec

Q = 4VA = 4  2.4 in/sec  5.15 in2  60 sec/min = 2964.78 in3/min

2964.78 in 3 / min 231 in 3 / gal

= 12.8 gal / min

Pneumatics and Hydraulics

Industrial Hydraulics Hydraulic Hose Manifolds & Valves Pressure Gages

Pneumatics and Hydraulics

Vmax = LmaxA = 0.39 1.77 = 0.69 in3 per clamp

Vreservoir = 6 Vcylinder = 6 0.69 = 4.14 in3

Q = 4VA = 4 2.4 in/sec 5.15 in2 60 sec/min = 2964.78 in3/min