Excellent Thesis On Damping Measurements PDF

Application of Sensors in an Experimental Investigation of Mode Dampings
by Richard Hiram Berg A Thesis Submitted

III
Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements of the Degree of
Master of Science
ill
Mechanical Engineering
Approved by: Dr. Hany Ghoneim - Thesis Advisor (R.I.T.)
Dr. Richard G. Budynas, P.E. (R.I.T.)
Dr. Guillermo H. Garzon (Eastman Kodak Co.)
Dr. Wayne W. Walter, P.E. (R.I.T.)
Dr. Charles Haines - Department Head (R.I.T.)
Department of Mechanical Engineering College of Engineering Rochester Institute of Technology Rochester, New York 14623 1993
Application
of
Sensors in
of
an
Experimental
Investigation
Mode Dampings
I, Richard Berg, hereby
grant permission
of
to the Wallace Memorial to

reproduce
Library
whole
of
the Rochester
Technology
not
my thesis in
use
or part.
Any
reproduction will
be for
commercial
or
profit.
August
10, 1993
Acknowledgements
I dedicate this
work
to my
parents
Richard
and
Rita Berg, my
wife
Laura
and
my
uncle
Peter Grimard. Their
great encouragement and
devoted
I
support will not
be forgotten.
wish
to give special thanks to

of
of
all who
have
supported
this work, Paul
Daloia Miller
Bruel & Kjaer, Bob Sylvester of Bruel & Kjaer, Nicholas Bruel and Kjaer, Dr. Guillermo Garzon of the Eastman
Kodak Company, Mark Hammer of the Eastman Kodak Company, Mike O'Brien of the Eastman Kodak Company, Dr. Richard Budynas
Technology, Dr. Wayne Walter of the Rochester Institute of Technology, David Hathway of the Rochester Institute of Technology, Jim Greanier of the Rochester Institute of Technology, Tom Locke of the Rochester Institute of Technology, and especially to my advisor Dr. Hany Ghonein of the Rochester Institute
of of
the Rochester Institute
of
Technology
and
to my father Richard
Berg
of
the Eastman Kodak
Company.
ABSTRACT
The
subject of
this
investigation is
is the
the
method of
calculating
which
material
damping
of a
cantilever
beam.
Damping
mechanism
by
the
vibrational
energy is
as
gradually
converted
into heat
part
of
or sound.
The loss factor,

properties of a
otherwise
known
which
the
damping factor,
is
the
global
structure
can
be
identified from its

response
frequency
response
measurements.
Experimental
a source
of
frequency
excitation,
of
measurements
require
three
main
components:
sensors, and analyzer. It
is the
objective of
this thesis to investigate the effect
different types
the
cantilever
of exciters and sensors on
the
frequency
response measurement of
beam
and
consequently
on
the loss factor
estimate of
the
cantilever
beam. Two
Discussion
sources
of excitations
and
four types
of
sensors
are
considered.
of
the results,
presented.
comments
and recommendations
about
the different
techniques are
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgments
Abstract Table
List
List
of
i ii
Contents
iii
vi
of
Symbols
Illustrations Tables Introduction
of
xi
List
/. 2.
of
xxiii
1 4
of
Damping
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4
Characteristics
Damping
Environmental Effects
Material Selection Method
2.4. 1
of
6 10 Material
Calculating
Damping
a
14
Damping Measurements
of a
for
1-D
model
Cantilever Beam
15 20 24
2.4.2
3.
Decay Constant
Modal 3.1 3.2
Testing
Modal
Testing
of
24
the Bruel & Kjaer
Fundamental Functions
2032 Digital Signal Analyzer

3.3
27
ASTM Standard Method for

Properties
of
Measuring Damping
30 33 33
33
Materials
4.
Sensors
4.1
Laser Vibrometer
4.1.1 4.1.2
Description Technical Background
33
Ul
4. 1.3
Experimental Setup
and
Operation
36
4.1.3.1 Technical Preparation

4. 1.3.2 Basic Operation using
a
36 Mirror for Signal

44
of a
Conditioning
4.1.3.3 Laser Vibrometer in Application
Cantilever Beam
4.2
46
49
49
Piezoceramics
4.2.1
4.2.2
Description
Technical Background
49
4.2.3
4.3
Experimental
Setup
and
Operation
51
Piezofilms
4.3.1
4.3.2 4.3.3
Description Technical Background Experimental
55 55
Setup
and
Operation
55
4.4
Piezoelectric Accelerometer
4.4. 1 4.4.2
4.4.3
60 60 60
Description
Technical Background
Experimental
Setup
and
Operation
63
66 66
66
5.
Excitation Techniques 5.1 Impact Excitation 5.1.1 5.1.2 5. 1.3 5.1.4 Description Technical Background
66
Experimental
Setup
and
Operation
66 69
Experimental Procedure for
Calculating the
Loss Factor
5.2
Random Excitation 5.2.1 5.2.2

5.2.3
73 73 73 Operation
75
Description Technical Background
Experimental
Setup
and
5.2.4
Experimental Procedure for Loss Factor
Calculating the
76
5.3
Other Techniques
79
IV
6.
Discussion of Results
6. 1 6.2
82
the Loss Factor
Experimental Determination
of
82
93 99
100 103
Noise Sources in the Experimental

and
Testing
7.
Comments
Recommendations
References Appendices
A:
Analytical Determination Aluminum
of
Natural Frequencies for

104
B:
Impact Excitation Data
of
Aluminum from Sensors Aluminum from Sensors
109
C:
D:
Random Excitation Data Impact Excitation Data Graphite
of
157
of
Laminated Composite
184
Epoxy
of
E:
Identification
the vicinity
Artificial
Damping by the
Shakertable in
187
of
237 Hz.
F-
Case Studies
: and and
Rectangular Window
vs.
Pseudo Random Excitation

Random Excitation
Hanning
Window
Hanning
Window
and
Pseudo Random Excitation

a
Random Impact Excitation using
Modal Hammer
216
237
G:
H: I:
Variable Sine Excitation Data Piezofilms

with
by
Piezoceramic Sensor
Unidentified Noise Source

of
240
244
Climatological Data
Rochester New York
J: K:
Dantec Laser Doppler Vibrometer Tables
253
Mobility Measurements from "A State-Of-The-Art Assessment ofMobility Measurement Techniques Results for the Mid-Range Structures by D.J. Ewins
(30-3000Hz)"
and
J Griffin
255
LIST OF SYMBOLS
a
-
acceleration
area of
the
detector
aperture
A(f)
a(t)
frequency
spectrum of original time signal
Enhanced Time Function Enhanced Time Function
of channel
b(t)
C
c
of channel
capacitance
scalar
component,
viscous
damper
centroidal
distance
dir.
direction
spot
d0
dt dx
diameter from the laser beam in time

in length
expansion
change
change
electron charge
E,2
F
elastic modulus
force
fd
frequency frequency
frequency
shift
Doppler
constant as a
function
of
frequency,
cut-off
flo
in the
mixer of
the
Frequency
Shifter
fn
(/: //. )
nth natural
frequency
of
"
frequency expansion ratio
the laser
vibrometer
VI
Oaa
Gab Obh
^
Autospectrum,
1 -sided, Ch. A
Cross spectrum, 1
-sided
Autospectrum,
1 -sided, Ch. B
Hilbert transform function
hysteretic
Plank's
damping
constant
constant
ho
energy
of quantum
light
of
frequency
H(f)
frequency response
-
function
H(s) h(t)
compliance
transfer function in the Laplace domain
impulse
element
response
function
h,2
HI
heights
frequency
response
Oab/Gaa
H2
frequency response Gbh /Gha

Hertz
Hz.
V
h(t)
1,
2
analytical
time
signal of the
impulse
response
function
element
Inertia
imaginary
part
K,k
kl
spring constant, Boltzmann's constant, Tracker

wave vector
slew rate constant
going away from the laser

towards the
k2
wave vector reflected
laser beam
object
length, length
of cantilever
vii
/
L, L2
,
depth
of
focus
on
the laser
vibrometer
optic
lengths in the laser

determined length
integer time
vibrometer
/'
-
new
mass,
sample, meters
mm
millimeters
mph
miles per
hour
Newton
scalar value
in the powerlaw,
number of
time
samples
pC
pico charge
P, P,
,
Si PIN diodes in light detector
circuit
Q
R
Quality factor,
charge
drag
stress,
resistor
rms
root mean square
R,
s
TV lens
time in
plate
seconds
s.
complex conjugate poles
S/Nrb
t
signal
to
noise ratio of
the
photodetectors
time
time
record
length,
temperature
V
V
velocity, voltage
fixed velocity
offset
in the
Frequency
Shifter
Vlll
Vz
velocity
component
in direction
of optical axis of
the laser
element width
w(t)
time weighted
function
length in laser
vibrometer
amplitude,
optical path
distance
Fourier Transform
of the
W(f)
time
weighted
time function
Xst
Y
maximum static
deflection
optical path
length in laser
vibrometer
velocity
acceleration
logarithmic decrement
change
tsfn Awr A/
AW
in 3db
in
frequency bandwidth frequency
of
the
resonant
frequency
change
circular natural
change
in in
frequency
potential
change
energy
At
change
in time
stain
ev
viscous strain
ev
time
rate of viscous strain
damping ratio
viscous
ieq
damping ratio
IX
e
A
angle
wave
length
quantum
n
a
loss factor,
axial
efficiency detectors
stress,
decay
constant
a,me
cx
-
decay constant decay

constant of the exponential weighted
function
time constant
rw Tm a>D
cul
time constant
of
the
exponential weighted
function
measured
time
constant
from the impulse
response magnitude
function
-
Doppler
shift
frequency
laser beam
Doppler
shifted
a>'r
go,
new natural circular
frequency
laser beam
non-Doppler shifted
(ono
resonant circular
frequency by the producing illuminated laser light

slew rate
solid angle subtended
d dt
F
max
maximum slope of
the Tracker
degrees Fahrenheit dynamic
y.
compliance
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure 2. 1
Figure 2.2 Figure 2.3
Hysteresis
Effect
of
Loop
on a
Damping
Decay
Free Response Mode
Amplitude
of
the First
of
of an
Aluminum
Cantilever Beam
Figure 2.4
Figure 2.5
Frequency
Variation
Response
of
Storage Modulus
and
Loss Factor
with
Temperature
Figure 2.6 Variation
with of
8 Loss Factor
and
Real Part Storage Modulus 9
Frequency
of
Figure 2.7
One Degree One Degree

System
Freedom Freedom
of a Spring- Viscous
Damper System 16 Damper 16
Figure 2.8
of
of a Spring- Hysteretic
Figure 2.9 Figure 2.10 Figure 2. 1 1 Figure 3 1

.
Free Vibration
with
Hysteretic
Damping
17 20 Real
23
Summary
Plot
of
of
Lightly Damped
Formulas
and
Impulse Response Magnitude Kjaer's Flow Chart

of
Bruel
and
Dual Channel Spectrum 25 26
Averaging
Figure 3.2 Leakage in the Analysis Basic Diagram Beams
of
Figure 3.3
Experimental
Setup
for
Testing Vibrating
31
Figure 4. 1
Figure 4.2
Doppler Shift
of a
Vibrating
Surface
by
Dantec Electronics
33
Doppler Shifted Electronics
and
Non-Shifted Beam
by Dantec
34
Figure 4.3
Side View
of the
Laser Vibrometer Component
Identification
by
Dantec Electronics
34
XI
Figure 4.4
Optics Path
of the
55X Laser Doppler Vibrometer
by
Dantet
35
Electronics
Figure 4.5 55X Laser Doppler Vibrometer with the 55N 10 Frequency Shifter and 55N20 Doppler Frequency Tracker by Dantec
Electronics
Figure 4.6 Figure 4.7
36
Basic Laser
Front
Setup
and
37
Display of the Frequency Tracker Shifter by Dantec Electronics
the
Frequency
40 41 41
Figure 4.8 Figure 4.9 Figure 4. 10

Figure 4.11
Laser Alignment
by
Identification
of a
Square Wave Signal
Pre-alignment Wave Form Signal

Doppler
Frequency vs.
of the
Amplitude
by
Dantec Electronics
42
Block Diagram
Laser Vibrometer Equipment
by
43
Dantec Electronics
Figure 4. 12 Figure 4.13 TV Lens Shift Pattern
by Dantec
Electronics
45
Side View
of
Laser
with
Adjustment Locations
by Dantec
45 46
Electronics Figure 4. 14 Figure 4. 15

Vertical Test Fixture
General Overview Excitation
of the
Laser Configuration
used
in Impact
47
Figure 4. 16
General
Setup
of the
Laser in Application
with
the Shaker Table
48 49
'
Figure 4. 1 7 Figure 4.18

Figure 4. 19 Figure 4.20
Effects
of
Poling
Poling
of
Plates
50 50 53
Piezoelectric Voltages from Applied Forces Piezoelectric Ceramic Configuration
Xll
Figure 4.2 1
General
Setup
for the Piezoelectric Ceramic

Shaker Table
with
53 53
Figure 4.22
Figure 4.23 Figure 4.24 Figure 4.25 Figure 4.26
Top
View
of the
Piezoelectric Ceramic
ATOCHEM Piezo Film

Equivalent Circuit for the Piezo Film
The
55
57 58
Berg
Preamplifier for the Piezo Film

Shaker Table
with
General
Setup
59
Figure 4.27
Figure 4.28
Top
view of the
Piezo Film
59
Planar Shear
and
Delta Shear Accelerometer Designs
by
61
Bruel & Kjaer
Figure 4.29
Centre Mounted Compression Shear Accelerometer

Design
by
Bruel & Kjaer

the Impact Excitation for the B&K 4344
61
Figure 4.30
General
Setup
of
Accelerometer
Figure 4.3 1 Figure 4.32 Figure 5. 1 Figure 5.2
63
2626 64 B&K 4344 Accelerometer 64 66
Conditioning Amplifier Type

Top
view of the
Shaker Table
with
Bruel & Kjaer Impact Hammer Type 8202
General Overview Force Impulse Plot
of an
Impact Excitation
Setup
67
Figure 5.3
Figure 5.4
68 73 Kjaer's Shaker Table

75 81 87
Random Noise Signal
Figure 5.5 Figure 5.6 Figure 6. 1
General
Setup
of the
Bruel
and
Pseudo Random Noise Plot Cantilever Beam

with an
End Load
Xlll
Figure B. 1
Accelerometer Impulse Excitation Frequency Response of the first two Modes with the Analyzer Setup
-
111
Figure B.2
Accelerometer Impulse Excitation Frequency Response of the first two Modes with the Coherence Function
-
1 12
Figure B.3
Accelerometer
of
Impulse Excitation
with
the First Mode
the Analyzer
Frequency Setup
Response
1 14
Figure B.4
Accelerometer
of the
Impulse Excitation
with
Frequency
Response
1 15
First Extracted Mode
the Coherence Function
Figure B.5
Accelerometer
Function
with
Impulse Excitation Impulse Response
the Analyzer
Setup
Frequency Analyzer Setup Frequency
Response
116
Figure B.6
Accelerometer
of
Impulse Excitation
with
the Second Mode
the
118 Response
1 19
Figure B.7
Accelerometer
of
Impulse Excitation
with
the Second Extracted Mode
Figure B.8
Accelerometer
Function
with
the Analyzer
Setup
Frequency
Response
120
Figure B.9
Accelerometer
of
Impulse Excitation
with
the Second Mode
122
Figure B. 10
Accelerometer
Function
with
the Analyzer
Setup
123
Figure B. 1 1
Laser
of
Impulse Excitation
the first two Modes
Frequency Response with the Analyser Setup Frequency Response
125
Figure B. 12
Laser
of the
Impulse Excitation
with
First Mode
127
Figure B. 13
Laser
Impulse Excitation
with
Frequency
Response
of the
First
128
Extracted Mode Figure B. 14

Laser Mode
the Impulse Response Function
Impulse Excitation
Frequency Response
of
the Second
with
130
XIV
Figure B.15
Laser
with
Impulse Excitation Impulse Response Function the Analyzer Setup

-
13 1
Figure B. 16
Laser
Impulse Excitation Frequency Response Second Mode with the Analyzer Setup
-
of
the
133
the Second
Figure B. 17
Impulse Excitation Frequency Response Extracted Mode with the Coherence Function
-
Laser
of
134
Figure B. 18
Laser
with
Impulse Excitation Impulse Response Function Analyzer
the
Setup
Decaying Oscillation
Force Pulse from
an of
135
the
Figure B. 19
Laser
Impulse Excitation
Cantilever Beam
Hammer Figure B.20
(Top) (Bottom)
-
and
Impact
136
Piezoceramic
of the
Impulse Excitation
with
first two Modes

-
the
Frequency Response Analyzer Setup Frequency

Response
138
Figure B. 21
Piezoceramic
of
Impulse Excitation
with
the
first two Modes
139
Figure B.22
Piezoceramic
of the
Impulse Excitation
with
first Mode
the
Frequency Analyzer Setup
Response 141
Figure B.23
Piezoceramic
of
Impulse Excitation
with
Frequency
Response
142
the First Extracted Mode
Figure B.24
Piezoceramic
Function
with

the Analyzer
Setup
Frequency
Response
143
Figure B.25
Piezoceramic
Function
of
Impulse Excitation
with
the Second Mode
the Analyzer
Setup
145
Figure B.26
Piezoceramic
of
Impulse Excitation
Frequency
Response
146
with
Figure B.27
Piezoceramic
Function
with

the Analyzer
Setup
147
Figure B.28
Piezofilm
of the
Impulse Excitation
first two Modes
Frequency Response with the Analyzer Setup
149
XV
Figure B.29
Piezofilm
of
the
Impulse Excitation Frequency Response first two Modes with the Coherence Function
-
150
Figure B.30
Piezofilm
Impulse Excitation Frequency Response of the First Mode with the Coherence Function
Piezofilm
Function
-
1 52
Figure B.3 1

the Analyzer
with
Setup
Frequency
with
153
Figure B.32
Piezofilm
of
Impulse Excitation
Response
155
Figure B.3 3
Piezofilm Function
Impulse Excitation
the Analyzer
Impulse Response 156 Response 159 Response 160
with
Setup
Frequency Analyzer Setup Frequency
Figure C. 1
Accelerometer
of
Random Excitation
with
the
first two Modes
the
Figure C.2
Accelerometer
of
Random Excitation
with
the first two Modes
Figure C.3
Accelerometer
of
Random Excitation
with
Frequency
Response
the First Mode
161
Figure C.4
Accelerometer
Function
with
Random Excitation Impulse Response
the Analyzer
Setup
Frequency
Response
162
Figure C.5
Accelerometer
of
Random Excitation
with
the Second Mode
163
Figure C.6
Accelerometer Function
with
the Analyzer
Setup
164
Figure C.7
Laser
of
Random Excitation
the first two
Frequency Response Modes with the Analyzer Setup
166
Figure C.8
Laser
of
Random Excitation
with
Frequency
Response
167
the first two Modes
Figure C.9
Laser
of
Random Excitation
with
Frequency
Response
168
the First Mode
XVI
Figure CIO
Laser

with
Function
Figure C. 1 1
the Analyzer
Setup
169
Random Excitation Frequency Response of the Second Mode with the Coherence Function
-
Laser
170
Figure C. 12
Laser

with
Function Figure C. 13
the Analyzer
Setup Frequency Response Setup Frequency

Response
171
Piezoceramic
of
Random Excitation
with
the
first two Modes

-
the Analyzer
173
Figure C. 14
Piezoceramic
of
Random Excitation
with
the First Mode
174
Figure C. 15
Piezoceramic
Function
with

the Analyzer
Setup Frequency
Response
175
Figure C. 16
Piezoceramic
of
Random Excitation
with
the Second Mode
176
Figure C. 17
Piezoceramic
Function
with

the Analyzer
Setup
Frequency Response Setup
Frequency
Response
177
Figure C. 18
Piezofilm
of
Random Excitation
with
the first two Modes
the Analyzer
1 79
Figured 9
Piezofilm
of the
Random Excitation
with the
First Mode
Coherence Function
180
Figure C.20
Piezofilm Function

the Analyzer
with
Setup
Frequency
Response
18 1
Figure C. 21
Piezofilm
of
Random Excitation
with
the Second Mode
182
Figure C.22
Piezofilm Function

the Analyzer
with
Setup
Frequency
with
183 Response 185
Figure D. 1
Accelerometer
of the
Impact Excitation
Undamaged Composite Beam
the
Coherence Function
XVll
Figure D.2
Accelerometer Impact Excitation Frequency Response of the Damaged Composite Beam with the Coherence Function
-
186
Figure E. 1
Frequency Response of the first three Modes Artificially Damped Second Resonant Frequency
Beam Length
=
10 inches
the first three Modes
the
188
Figure E.2
Frequency Response Coherence Function Artificially

Beam Length
=
of
with
Damped Second Resonant

10 inches
Frequency
189
Figure E.3
Frequency Response
of the
=
First Mode
with
the Coherence
Function, Beam Length

Figure E.4
10 inches
the Analyzer
190
Impulse Response Function

Beam Length
=
with
Setup
191
10 inches
Figure E.5
Frequency
with
Response
=
of the
Second Mode
192
the Analyzer
Beam Length
10 inches
Figure E.6

Beam Length
=
with
Setup
193
10 inches
Figure E.7
Frequency
with
Response
=
of
the Third Mode
Beam Length Figure E.8
10 inches
the Analyzer
194
Impulse Response Function Beam Length

=
with
Setup
195
10 inches
Figure E.9
Frequency Response of the first five Modes Artificially Damped Third Resonant Frequency
Beam Length
=17.5
inches
of the
=
196
Figure E. 10
Frequency Response
First Mode
with
the Coherence
Function, Beam Length

Figure E. 1 1
17.5 inches
the Analyzer
197
Impulse Response Function Beam Length

=17.5
with
Setup
198
inches
XV Ul
Figure E. 12
Frequency Response
with
of
the Second Mode
the
Coherence Function
=17.5
Beam Length
Figure E. 13
inches
with
199
the Analyzer
Impulse Response Function Beam Length 17.5 inches

=
Setup
200
Figure E. 1 4
Frequency Response
with
of
the Third Mode
the
Coherence Function
=
Beam Length Figure E. 15
17.5 inches
the Analyzer
201
with

Beam Length
=17.5
Setup
202
inches
of
Figure E. 16
Frequency Response
with
the Fourth Mode
Coherence Function
=
Beam Length Figure E. 17
17.5 inches
the Analyzer
203

Beam Length
=
with
Setup
204
17.5 inches
Figure E. 18
Frequency Response of the first five Modes Artificially Damped Fourth Resonant Frequency
Beam Length
=
24.625 inches
the First Mode the
205
Figure E. 19
Frequency
Response
=
of
with
Coherence
206
Beam Length
24.625 inches the Analyzer
Figure E.20

Beam Length
=
with
Setup
207
24.625 inches
the Second Mode
Figure E.21
Frequency Response
with
of
Coherence Function
=
Beam Length
24.625 inches
the Analyzer
208
Figure E.22

Beam Length
=
with
Setup
209
24.625 inches
Figure E.23
Frequency Response
with
of the
Third Mode
210
Coherence Function
=
Beam Length
24.625 inches
XIX
Figure E.24
Impulse Response Function with the Analyzer Beam Length 24.625 inches
=
Setup
21 1
Figure E.25
Frequency
with
Response
=
of
the Fourth Mode
Coherence Function Beam Length 24.625 inches

Figure E.26
212
the Analyzer

Beam Length
=
with
Setup
213
24.625 inches
the Fifth Mode
Figure E.27
Frequency
with
Response
=
of
Coherence Function
24.625 inches
the Analyzer
Beam Length Figure E.28
214

Beam Length
=
with
Setup
215
24.625 inches
Figure F. 1
Frequency
Response
of the
first three Modes
with
the Analyzer
Setup
of
218
the first three Modes
Figure F.2
Frequency
Response
with
219
the First Mode
Figure F.3
Frequency
Response
of
with
220
the Analyzer
Figure F.4
with
Setup
221
Figure F.5
Frequency
Response
of
the Second Mode
with
222
the Analyzer
Figure F.6 Figure F.7
with
Setup
223
Frequency Response
of the
Third Mode
with
224
Figure F.8
Figure F.9
with
the Analyzer
Setup
225
Frequency
Response
of the
First Mode
with
228
XX
Figure F. 10 Figure F. 1 1
with
the Analyzer
Setup
229
Frequency
the
Response of the Second Mode Coherence Function

with
with
230
Figure F. 12 Figure F. 13
the Analyzer
Setup
231
Frequency Response
the
of the
First Mode
with
Coherence Function
with
233
the Analyzer
Figure F. 14 Figure F. 15
Setup
234
Frequency
the
Response
of
the Second Mode
with
Coherence Function
with
235
the Analyzer
Figure F. 16 Figure G. 1
Setup
236
Frequency
the
Response
of
the First Mode
with
Coherence Function
with
238
the Analyzer
Figure G.2 Figure H. 1
Setup
239
Frequency Response of the first two Modes using a bread board, combination of resisitors, and without grounding Frequency
Response
without
24 1 243
Figure H.2
Figure 1. 1
grounding
Climatological Data
1992 Page 1
of
of
Rochester, New York August

245
Figure 1.2
Climatological Data
1992 Page 2
of
of

246
Figure 1.3
Climatological Data
1992 Page 3
of
of

247
Figure 1.4
Climatological Data
1992 Page 4
of
of

248
Figure 1.5
Climatological Data 1992 Page I

of
of
Rochester, New York September

249
XXI
Figure 1.6
Climatological Data 1992 Page 2 of 4 Climatological Data

1992 Page 3
of
of

250
Figure 1.7
of

251
Figure 1.8
Climatological Data 1992 Page 4 of 4
of

252
Figure J. 1
Operating Window of the Dantec Laser Doppler Vibrometer (Frequency vs. Amplitude of Harmonic Motion)
Example 1
Responses
.
254
Figure K. 1
Variation
of the
Superimposed
Frequency
256
Figure K.2
Example 2. Variation Responses
of
the Superimposed
Frequency
256
Figure K.3
of the
Superimposed
Frequency
257
Figure K. 4
of
the Superimposed
Frequency
257
xxn
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2. 1
Experimental data for Mode 1 of the Undamaged Composite Beam Date: August 21
-
11
Table 2.2
Experimental Data for Mode 1 of the Undamaged Composite Beam Date: September 8
-
12
Table 2.3
Experimental Data for Mode 2 of the Undamaged Composite Beam Date: August 21
-
12
Table 2.4
Experimental Data for Mode 2
of the
Undamaged
12
Composite Beam
Table 2.5 Table 2.6 Delta
Date: August 27 Delta Loss Factor Mode
Frequency verses
per
13
Analytical Solutions for the Laminated Composite
Graphite
Table 2.7
Epoxy Beam
of
13
Comparison Frequencies
Analytical
and
Experimental Natural 14
the Loss Factor for
Table 6. 1
the First Natural
of
Frequency
of
83
the Loss Factor for
Table 6.2
the Second Natural
Frequency Damping given by the

of
84
Table 6.3
Determination
of
Artificial
Shaker Table in the vicinity Table 6.4
236 Hz.
88
Rectangular Window & Pseudo Random Excitation
vs.
Hanning
Table 6.5 Table 6.6 Table 6.7
Window & Random Noise Excitation

a
90
Random Impact Excitation using Comparison

of
Modal Hammer
92
95 96
Testing Results
applied
for the First Mode
Transient Window Exponential
for Impact
Testing
Table 6.8
vs.
Transient
Weighting
Windows in the
97
Loss Factor Calculation
XXlll
Table A. 1 Table A.2 Table A.3

Table A.4
Parameters for the Aluminum Cantilever Beam Parameters for the Aluminum Cantilever Beam
Parameters for
the
05
106
107
Aluminum Cantilever Beam
Parameters for the Aluminum Cantilever Beam

Data Sheet # 1 for the Impulse Excitation (Transient Data Sheet #2 for the Impulse Excitation (Transient Data Sheet #3 for the Impulse Excitation (Exponential
108
Table B. 1
Window)
Window)
1 13
Table B.2 Table B.3
1 17
Window) Window)
121
Table B.4 Table B.5
Data Sheet #4 for the Impulse Excitation (Transient Data Sheet #5 for the Impulse Excitation
126
(Exponential
Table B.6
Window)
Window) Window)
129 132 140
Data Sheet #6 for the Impulse Excitation (Transient
Table B.7 Table B.8

Data Sheet #8 for the Impulse Excitation
(Exponential
Table B.9
Window)
144
Data Sheet #9 for the Impulse Excitation

(Exponential
Window)
15 1
Table B. 10
Data Sheet #10 for the Impulse Excitation (Exponential
Window)
and
154 254 254 254
Table J. 1
Tracker Unit
Frequency Shifter Unit

the
Settings
Table J.2 Table J. 3
Operational Data for

Tracker Unit Settings
Laser Vibrometer
XXIV
1. INTRODUCTION
The
over
experimental years and
study
of structural vibrations
has
evolved
tremendously
with
many
the measurement
equipment continues
to grow
the
of
ever
increasing technology
technology, the
closely
the
control
of electronics and computers.
With the improvement
this
measurement objectives are made easier and the conditions
ability to
yield
more more
in the
experimental
test
consequently
to
accurate results as well as
detailed information. The

is
and
experimental
testing including
as
data
acquisition and subsequent analysis

Analysis"
sometimes referred
"Modal
of
Testing", "Modal
characterizing the
"System Identification". This is the
process
dynamic
The
properties of mechanical structures modes

of vibration
modes of vibration.
are
characterized
by identifying by the natural
their
frequency, damping factor, and Modal testing can be

measurement model.
mode shape
used
[1,20].
the
to
compare
corresponding
model
vibration
data to the data

application
produced
by
finite
element or other
theoretical
prior
This
is intended to
to
use
validate
the theoretical
modal
to
further
stages of analysis or
the acquired
test
mathematical model.
Generally accurate
natural
data for
each mode of vibration
data in producing a is all that
is
required such as
its
frequency, damping
and mode shapes to validate the
It is generally not possible to predict the damping in each mode of vibration from a theoretical model so it can be compared to the experimental
model.
damping
measurements.
However,
such
information becomes very

to any
predictions. of a
useful as
it
can
be incorporated into the theoretical

plays a crucial role made
model prior
Since
damping
usually
modal
in the dynamic behavior

correct
with
system,
such attempts are
to
adjust
or
the theoretical
model
in in
of
order
to
bring
its
properties closer
in line
the measured results [20].
The investigation for
knowing
the
damping
and
composite material was of
interest to Dr. Ghoneim
at
the Rochester Institute
Technology
at
in Rochester,
New York. Dr. H. Ghoneim, S. Griffin
B. Yost
Phillips
Laboratory in
Lancaster, Calfornia, had conducted an analytical/experimental study of mode dampings in a cantilevered laminated beam. Their goal was to predict analytically
the
structural
damping
the
of an
undamaged
and
damaged
controlled
beam
and
compare this to
experimental structural
damping. In
the
conclusion
to their work,
well
the need for
adjustments
and
refining
of
analytical
model
as
as
the
verification of
the
experimental
data
was
indicated [10].
material
The initial
of
objective was graphite
to determine experimentally the

so
damping
simply
these laminated
epoxy beams
it
can
be
used
in their theoretical way

of
models
to describe the loss factor. The loss factor is
another
describing
substitute.
the
damping
reason
factor.
Later
in
the
investigation,
the
can
;red
a as a
laminated beam
The
of
Section 2.3
instead, the aluminum beam was ch( for excluding this material will be discussed in C! Material Section. In order to calculate the damping in the .
was abandoned
,and
pter
2,
iaterial,
the response characteristics
had to be
created which required was an
the
excitation of
the
and
beam.
for
The
method of
exciting the beam

experience, I
main
impact
excitation
technique
an additional
learning
table, the
part of
wanted
to
incorporate the
using
purpose of
shaker table.
In
using the shaker

and
focus
of excitation was
random
excitation,
pseudo
in the latter
that
my thesis I
will
discuss the
studying
random excitation.
sensors
would
of
be
The sensory part of this investigation was the application of used in measuring the vibration to see how they effected the
damping. Some of these sensors are rather new and offer many unique advantages for specific applications such as the piezoceramic, piezofilm and the laser vibrometer. The fourth sensor, the accelerometer, has been around for
calculation some
time and
is the
the
most
commonly
used
source
of
sensing
vibration.
The
compiled
data
of
damping
results versus each sensor and excitation type are
presented and
discussed.
in calculating the Signal Analyzer Type 2032 and it became

analyzer used
analyzer
The
damping
available
is the Bruel
and
Kjaer Dual
horse"
to the market in 1983. This
has many
advanced
features
the
and
is
still
considered a
"work
found the
within
analyzer was capable of
calculating the
will
damping
found
in
several
manners, and
the methods
investigated,
well as
most accurate
was
Response Function. This function

part of
be discussed in
greater
using the Impulse detail in the latter
this thesis as
the analyzer itself. that I

collected on
damping were very useful in the understanding damping many interesting insights to the effects of damping. Not only did I benefit from learning about structural damping but gained
The
reference materials of and offered valuable experience on the
theory
and practice of modal testing.
also
learned that
this
work
there
are other
types
of excitation
techniques
which offer
many
advantages and
disadvantages
was
when used
in
an application.
The
most
interesting
part of
applying the
the laser
sensors
tremendous
such as
amount of
in the mobility tests to see the effect under excitation. A work went into getting these sensors to operate properly
the
piezofilm.
vibrometer and
Many hours
of
trouble shooting and

end
research went
into these two

Each
particular sensors
which, in the
paid,
off with
excellant results.
great
sensor offers
many
unique advantages which can provide
benefits in its
to
all work
application.
The
other challenge was source
getting the
measurement output
system
together using the
input
a
with
the sensory
to
gain
the
and
frequency
pretesting
response
of
data. This
came
down to
lot
of
time spent in
preparation
setup in order for it to operate correctly before the data could actually be taken. The patience, care, reference materials and the consultation with experiencied people in the field along with the trial and error in
the
experimental
the
experimental
testing,
all
brought
together not
only the understanding
of
concepts,
but
an
intuition
as well as
creativity in
building
a successful \
ions
test.
The
presentation of the
thesis
work will proceed with
damping;
modal
th
3econd
chapter and
the third chapter
will
be
about
the background of
test
g using
the
analyzer with
with
the proper windowing techniques. Chapter four is ci ncerned the background of the four types of sensors used in the investigation, and the techniques is found in
chapter
two
excitation
five. Chapter five
will
include the
results
experimental procedure
and
discussion
of
for calculating the damping. the data generated along with the
the comments and
Following
of
will
be the
work
problems encountered
during
be
the setup.
presented.
Finally,
recommendations
this
will
2. DAMPING 2. 1
Characteristics
The
nature of
of
Damping
damping is the removal of energy from a vibrational system. The energy is lost by some mechanism which is gradually converted into heat or sound. These damping mechanisms can generally be classified into three groups:
Dry Friction Damping, and Material, Solid or Hysteretic Damping. Viscous damping is the most commonly used model in representing the damping mechanism of a vibratory system. Viscous damping
or
Viscous
Damping, Coulomb
involves fluid type
systems such as a
fluid
flowing
will
through an orifice. The amount
fluid film sliding between surfaces of energy dissipated in a

the
or even
viscous related
model
depend
on
many factors, but

of
proportionally to the velocity

the
model of choice when
the vibrating body.
damping Viscous damping
force
is
fluidic
systems.
Coulomb
against
or
surfaces
rubbing
describing a mechanical system dry friction damping is caused by the friction of two one another which is dry or lacks lubrication. The
in
magnitude
is generally that vibrates in these
damping
force
of
force is
the
constant
but
opposite
in direction to that
proportional
of
the
motion of
the vibrating
body. The
of
dry
friction force is
to the
normal
body
weight
the system.
Lastly,
material, solid or hysteretic
damping
such as a material
is
energy absorbed by the material and dissipated. As the material cantilever beam is deformed, friction between the internal planes of the
the
and slide
slip
creating
what
is
called
hysteresis damping.
The hysteresis
of the
of
loop
is the
stress-strain
relationship
created
from the
loading
and
unloading
the area
vibrating system. This is described in the following sketch loop denotes the energy lost per cycle due to solid damping.
shown through
where
the
Many
materials
have
Hysteresis
Loop
Stress
(force)
Unloading
*
Strain
(displacement)
A
Loading
Figure 2. 1
experiments that
proportional
the energy loss

square of
per cycle
due to internal friction is approximately

amplitude and
to the
the displacement
independent
of
the
frequency, providing
the
system
is completely linear [16,17].
Some
of the precise mechanisms associated with
internal
changes of the
structure either at
molecular
the micro
or macro
level
can range
from the
crystal
lattice to the
scale effects.
These include
magnetic
effects
creating
magnetoelastic
and magnetomechanical
hysteresis,
flow
thermal effects
and
involving
thermal conduction,
and atomic
thermal
diffusion,
The
thermal
thermoelastic
phenomena
reconstruction. concentrated
atomic reconstruction
of crystal
may involve
such effects as
dislocations,
blocks in
the
defects
lattices,
phonoelectronic
effects, stress relaxation at

solutions
the
grain
boundaries,
phase
processes goes on at
all
in
the
solid
and
polycrystalline materials. precise physical
The list
atomic
level but
regardless of
mechanisms
involved,
occurs
materials
dissipate energy
no matter
how
much cyclic
deformation
[16].
Viscous
the
damping
and material
damping
are similar
in
such observations as
oscillation
decaying damping is then considered unique. As seen below in Figure 2.2, coulomb damping is found to be constant in its successive oscillations of amplitudes where the viscous decay does
amplitudes of a cantilever
envelope of
decaying
is
beam. When the
the
observed to
be
of an exponential
curve, this
nature of
EFFECT OF DAMPING ON A FREE RESPONSE
Displaced
position
Time
Equilibrium
position
a) Undamped Beam
Envelope IV (M
-3
Time
'
,i
}) }/
b) Beam
with
Viscous
Damping
S^
A
*-
Time
c) Beam
Figure 2. 2
with
Dry
Friction
Damping
Damping"
NahifT, Jones, & Henderson "Vibration
not.
Figure 2.3
on
the next page
illustrates
the
decaying
amplitude of an aluminum
cantilever
beam. This
was performed
using the B&K 2032 Digital Signal Analyzer
and sensed
of an
Dantac's Laser Vibrometer. As seen by the amplitudes, it is evident exponential decay. With this information on the background of damping, it is
by
important to
identify what type

the cantilever
of
it. In the
case of
or
damping you have in order to correctly beam, the damping would be considered
damping,
the
measure of
measure
material
damping
will
hysteretic. For
same
and
viscous and material

unique
damping
of
be the
is
for these two types. The

observed to
measurement
the
damping
for these types has been
follow this
relation.
-2
]-
(Eq.
2.1)
(O0
The
resonant
frequency
of
the structure is represented
by
co0.
co, and
co2
are
are
the
frequencies
situated on either side of eo0.

of
The
co, and
co, frequencies
located
1/V2 times the amplitude
the resonant frequency. The r\ is known as the loss

amount of
factor
and
is
by
inspection dimensionless. The loss factor indicates the
energy lost from the vibratory system in one cycle of vibration. The dry friction damping can not be characterized by this measure because it is dependent on the
amplitude.
The
resonant
frequency
its
the
can
be described
as
the
compromise
between
the
stiffness of
the structure and

will
mass.
At the low
frequency
on
side of
where
the resonant,
as
the
stiffness,
provide
dominant restoring force
high
frequency
and
side will
be the inertial force.

At the precise
no
Depending
the
the
precise values of mass
stiffness,
a resonance will occur and
system will
have
a number of natural
with
frequencies
occurring. will
natural
frequency
the
along
the absence
of
damping there
oscillating
of
be
dynamic
equilibrium and
system will ever
increase in
state
amplitudes.
In reality,
an excited system will attain a
final steady
dynamic
equilibrium
because there
high
or
will always exist some amount of
damping
for
that
will attain either a
low
amplitude.
Overall
damping
is
responsible of
controlling
the
vibration
response
amplitude
in
conditions
steady-state
resonance and
stationary
random excitation.
low
damping
at a resonant
frequency
and
One way to identify high damping or is to inspect its response amplitude. This 7. The
observation can a zero
be
seen
in Figure 2.4
on page
damping, low damping

coo.
high
amount
frequency response of damping at the
suggest
natural
frequncy
2.2
[16,17].
Environmental Effects
The
environment
plays
an
important
of
role
in
some
of
the
can
variation
of
damping
vibration
properties and an
understanding
these interactions the
help
make a
test
successful.
The
essential effect of
environment on materials can
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FREQUENCY RESPONSE
W
Zero Low
Damping Damping
High
Damping
oo
Stiffness
Controlled
Figure 2.4
Inertia Controlled
cause
noise
and
impede the
control
of a
vibration
test especially in
critical
designs. The
and
main environmental
factors
are
temperature,
frequency,
static preload single

most
dynamic load. Temperature is usually considered to be the important factor affecting the properties in damping materials. demonstrates the
as effect of
Figure
2.5
temperature
shows
on
the loss factor
of a
typical
(viscoelastic
material) polymer. The
figure
how the loss factor

regions.
changes with temperature

region
it passes through the four different

Variation
The glassy
has extremely low
of
Storage Modulus
and
Loss Factor withTemperature
"iT-x
Loss Factor n
and
Tl
Storage
Modulus E
/ /
Glassy
Region
Truwxtwn
Rubberlike
^^
Flow Region
Damping"
Region
Region
Temperature
Nashiff, Jones & Henderson "Vibration
Figure 2. 5
values
for the loss factor
where
it
will
temperature. The transition
region contains
increase significantly with increasing the maximum value for the loss factor. for the loss factor
and
The
rubberlike region suggests
the low
values
that changes
slowly
with
with
temperature. The loss factor increases temperature in the flow

environmental
region
as
the material tends to soften
increasing
The
with
[3,16].
next
increase
increasing
factor is the frequency. The loss factor will frequency in the rubbery region and will take on a
region.
maximum value region as
in the transition
The
frequency
will
the loss factor
decreases. I have
as seen
also provided a sketch of the
increase in the glassy loss factor

to note is that
in the
frequency
domain
in Figure 2.6. The

of
interesting thing
qualitatively this
reveals the
inverse behavior
the temperature domain [16].
Variation
of
Loss Factor
and
Real Part Storage Modulus with Frequency
Loss Factor T)
and
Tl
Real Part
of
the
Storage Modulus E
Frequency (log scale)

Nashiff, Jones & Henderson Figure 2. 6
"
Vibration Damping
"
The
concern.
effect
of cyclic
dynamic
strain
and
static
preload
are
also
another
dynamic strain, the amplitude on the damping properties of material become very difficult to measure. This is due to the high strain amplitudes in the material which dissipate high amounts of energy causing the temperature to
In the
case of
rise
with
so
fast that the
effect of
the temperature is coupled. Because

studied where the
of
this problem,
only the rubbery

temperature
region
has been
loss factor
varies more
slowly
becomes secondary to that of the dynamic strain amplitude. The transition region does have the effect of temperature coupling the strain amplitude because of the high damping which makes any measurements in this
and
region
difficult. The
with
effects
of preload on
the
dynamic
properties will
forecast
problems
in the rubbery
the
region
because the loss factor decreases

Both the loss factor
general
and
the modulus
increases linear
over
increasing preload. frequency domain. In

and
and
the
real modulus are

on
the loss factor r\

effects
is dependent
both
the amplitude
frequency. Other
The
environmental
that may affect the
damping
[3,16].
properties are
aging, vacuum,
oil
exposure, pressure, high temperatures
and even radiation.
rubberlike materials are often affected
by
these conditions
2.3
Material Selection
In this work, three materials
were
examined
but only
The
one
was
used
throughout the entire scheme of the thesis. The

steel, which was used as a
cantilevered
first
material was
1018,
cold rolled
dummy
beam to
practice with.
was of
other material was a
at
dampings. The determining dampings were to be compared with the predicted dampings from the developed analytical model. Mode damping is the damping that corresponds to each individual natural frequency of the structure. The added challenge to Dr. Ghoneim's analytical model was another beam of the same material and size and it was made with local controlled The mode dampings for both these types of beams were to be predicted analytically as well
the mode
experimental mode
"damage"
the
laminated beam. This material Rochester Institute of Technology in
interest to Dr.
Hany
Ghoneim
as experimentally.
Unfortunately,
The
the composite beams
were excluded
from this
investigation because the
experimental
determination
change
of
the
damping
was
was unstable
in its testing
affecting the
sensors substitute
environment.
daily
of
in temperature
which made
found to be
damping property difficult. The third type

because
The
the material
of material was an aluminum
comparing the other beam selected as a in

the
modal
its
material
damping
was
more
stable
environment.
over
aluminum material offered
two advantages in the
testing testing
to
the composite material, namely its conductive and reflective properties [10].
Before I became
temperature changes, the
aware
of
the
sensitivity
of
damping
with
respect
experimental setup was evaluated to ensure that nothing in the setup was causing the damping to change. The determination of the loss factor was confined to the impact excitation method with the same windowing
configuration and accelerometer
for
each
test. The torgue applied to the
fixture
that
holding
the cantilever beam was maintained for each test and it was
found
small changes
in the
amount of
torque
damping. A fixture
was
built for
holding the composite holding the impact hammer in

trial.
beam
affected
the
place so
that the
impacts
were consistent with each
Lastly,
a steel
beam
was
tested in the same

each
manner as a material check and
the loss factor
was consistent
for
test.
During
with
this effort,
concluded
literature concerning that the damping for these types

After
viscoelastic materials was
being
researched and change
of
materials
will
temperature.
create
learning
about the environmental affects,
anything that
closing any
with
could
open
any
air currents was minimized
in the
me
laboratory
several
such as
windows or consult.
doors. Dr. Budynas lead

was
to
individuals
whom
to
One
in
Mark Hammer from Eastman Kodak

our
Company
who was
working
even
in the Federal Systems Division. From

conducted
discussions, I learned
similar materials.
that
work was
determining
the
loss factor for

on
They
it
were
using
of
an environmental chamber and were still
having
for
problems with
the stability
the loss factor. After working
the
project
about a year,
was abandoned. caused
Atmospheric
damping
was
one
of
the
suspicions
that may have
the
10
instability
of
the
loss factor. I
also
Measuring Vibration-Damping
standards calculate standards
learned Properties
that there
of
was a
Standard Method for
Materials
given
such a
by
as
the
ASTM
E 756-83. This
the
gave a procedure
calculation
loss factor. The
in how to setup of the loss factor The
test and how to

given
by
the
is the
same as equation
2.1,
Aco^
co
problem with
following
this
such
procedure
is that I
mode
would need an environmental chamber
in
order
to control
factors
as
temperature and pressure
The
presented
[9, 16]. dampings for the laminated

impact
composite graphite was
epoxy beam
are
in the
following
a
tables. All the data in these tables

excitation
determined
Table 2.1
with
by
the use of an accelerometer and the
method.
was nice
seen
below describes
sunshine.
On that
where
day in Rochester, day the temperature

loss factor
to
of
New York that
happened to be
undamaged
as
high
as
plenty of 76F and as low
as
49 F
the
the
laminated
composite graphite
beam
varied
from
.09556
.01458.
All the
weather related
data
was obtained
from the monthly summary of local climatological data reports from the Rochester Airport. The months June, July, August, and September were requested and the months for August and September can be found in Appendix I. On the third page monthly local climatological data report shows the change in temperature every three hours within that day, and the first page gives a one line summary of that day's behavior.
of each
TABLE 2. 1
EXPERIMENTAL DATA for MODE I of the Undamaged Composite Beam DATE: AUGUST 21 Frequency (Hz)
23
Loss Factor
max
=
.09556
Temperature (F)
max
=
Wind (mph) dir

=
Weather Conditions
76
49
SW
=
Clear Skies
10
min =01 ave

=
458
min ave
peak gust
100% Sunshine
.04993
63
ave
6.3
Table 2. 1 illustrates the

and night and effected
point
that the temperature
did
change a
lot
during
was
that
day
my
the
results.
Table 2.2 The
shows the
data that
taken on
September 8th in
only
varied
which
frequency
.07062.
changed
to 22.375 Hz. and the
loss factor
from
.08058
to
observation
from the two data tables

temperature for those two
suggests to me that with the
increase in the
rose
average
days,
the
average
loss factor
all
from
.04993
to
.07607.
The total
change
in
frequency
mode
throughout
the data
gathered was
1 Hz. ranging from 22 to

throughout the study
of
23 Hz.
the first
Also the loss factor had

ranging from
.0388
changed a total of
.084
to
1228.
TABLE 2.2 EXPERIMENTAL DATA for MODE 1 of the Undamaged Composite Beam DATE: SEPTEMBER 8
Frequency (Hz)
22.375
Loss Factor
max
=
.08058
Temperature (F)
max
=
Wind (mph)
dir
=
Weather Conditions FOG
81 57
SW
=
min
=
.07062
min
peak gust
ave=
36
62% Sunshine
Rain Showers
ave
=
.07607
ave
69
12.4
displayed the same effect with the increasing temperature increase in the loss factor from the dates of August 21 and August along 27. Another interesting observation from among all the tables is that the day it had rained, thus a change in the humidity, may have been a contributing factor to these changes in the loss factor. Nonetheless, the total change in frequency from all the
second mode
with
The
the
data
gathered was
3 Hz.
and ranged
from 155 to 158 Hz. The
change
in the loss
Table 2.3
EXPERIMENTAL DATA for MODE 2 of the Undamaged Composite Beam

DATE: AUGUST 21 Frequency (Hz)
156.5
Loss Factor
max min
=
.004780
Temperature (F)
max min
=
Wind (mph)
dir
=
Weather Conditions
76 49
SW
=
Clear Skies
10
=
.002979
peak gust
100% Sunshine
ave
=
.00383
ave
63
ave
6.3
Table 2.4 EXPERIMENTAL DATA for MODE 2 of the Undamaged Composite Beam
DATE: AUGUST 27
Frequency (Hz)
157
Loss Factor
max
min
=
.006732
Temperature
max
min
=
(F)
Wind (mph) dir

=
Weather Conditions
84
69
NW
=
Fog
31
=
.0027348
peak gust
20% Sunshine Thunder Storms
ave =0043
18
ave
77
ave
5.0
factor
over all
the
data indicates
.003024
and ranged as
low
as
.003840
to
high
of
.006864.
The third
mode ranged
in
frequency
to
factor
ranged at a minimum of
was
.00342
.00420.
from 452 to 456 Hz., and the loss From all of the three modes of
taken, I noticed a trend in the total change in the loss factor over the change in frequency. The change in frequency had increased with the increase in the mode number while the change of the loss factor became tighter.
data that
12
Table 2.5
Delta
Frequency
A
verses
Delta Loss Factor per Mode
Mode#
1
Frequency (Hz.)
1
A Loss Factor 0.0840
2
3
3 4
0.00302
0.000780
the undamaged and damaged composite beams and located in Appendix D. The frequency response HI and H2 will be they discussed in some detail in the modal testing section, but Frequency Response H 1
are a plot of
Included
are
aluminum cantilever beam study as it was for beam. The data concerning the damaged composite beam was very little as this was the only plot I happened to take. In the early stages of learning the analyzer's functions, I had examined the damaged beam in the H2 mode and in the dynamic compliance mode (l/yco) which is
was used
Magnitude
throughout the
the undamaged composite
(displacement/force). When there is

seen
no
integration
symbol
in this
spot as
it is
in this plot, it means that you are in a mobility mode or velocity/force receptance. I also placed the analytical solutions for determining the natural
frequencies
solutions
of
the nondamaged composite beam in Appendix A. The

composite graphite
analytical
for the laminated
epoxy beam
are
summarized
in
Table 2.6.
Table 2.6
Analytical Solutions for the Laminated Composite Graphite

Mode
of
Epoxy Beam
with
Cantilever
Beam
with no end
Cantilever Beam
using Singiresu S Rao's Solution
Cantilever Beam
end mass of
with
Cantilever Beam
end mass of
Natural
2 7
grams
0.009579
Frequency
grams
mass
(Hz.)
(Hz.)
31.21 195.68 31.21 195.60
(Hz.)
22.26
164.75
(Hz.)
31.21 195.43
1 2
547.73
547.7
480.35
547.17
Comparing
the 2.7
with
gram analytical
solution,
which
represents the mass
of
the
accelerometer,
the
experimental
data
of
the natural
not
frequencies, it is
at all.
observed
use
by
the Table 2.7 that the
percent
difference is
bad
In
order
to
the
laser
vibrometer on the composite
beam,
this
a piece of reflective material was needed

material was not reflective. grams
to be attached to the
solution
end of
it
since
The
analytical
pertaining to the
mass of
.009579
is the
mass of a square piece of
13
reflective material. with no end mass
By
comparing the
with
will not effect
analytical solution of the
Cantilever beam
of
to the solution
the mass the
of
the reflective material, it shows
that this amount of mass
real natural
frequency
the
beam.
Table 2. 7 Comparison ofAnalytical

Average Experimental (Hz.)
22.5
and
Experimental Natural
Frequency
Analytical (Hz.)
22.26
Percent Difference (%)

1.1
156.5 454.0
164.75 480.35
5 0 5.5
Since the
suggested advantages
steel
an
beam
appeared stable
using
aluminum
in this environment, Dr. Ghoniem beam instead because it offered a couple of

Metals
metals
are
to some of the
sensors.
not
tremendously
affected
by
not
temperature.
curved at
The hysteresis The
loop
for
the ends. Figure 2. 1 in this
section
is extremely thin and straight, was just for illustration purposes

would
of a of
hysteresis loop.
nonlinearity.
curved ends of the standard
loop
tend to indicate
makes
degrees
The ASTM
for measuring
the
that the loss factor is
zero when
determining
damping damping properties
the
assumption
in
composite
bars.
They
well
also note
that it is
an established
fact that
steel and aluminum materials
have
known loss factors

those of
lower than
carry
value
on
approximately 0.001 or less which is significantly the composite bars. With this fact in mind, it was decided to
of
in the
measurement of mode
damping
be
and
to
see
how
close
the expected
for the loss factor in
aluminum will
while
exploring the four different
sensors and
applying the two types

of
of excitation
techniques [9].
2.4
Method
The
Calculating
of
Material
factor
Damping
is
deduced from
the
response
determination
of
loss
characteristics cantilever
vibrating
system.
an
In my case, the vibrating

number
system
is
beam
which
has
infinite
of
degrees
of
freedom. The
wide and
dimensions
called a
of the aluminum cantilever
beam
are
1/8 inch thick
by
1 inch
10 inches long.
By
exciting the
response of
beam,
the
the response
characteristics produce what
is
frequency
and
structure or resonances.
From these
ways
resonances
it is
possible
to determine the loss factor. There these are just some

power
of
are
several
to calculate
damping
response
the
ways:
the logarithmic
diagram, half
amplitude,
some
bandwidth, dynamic stiffness, quadrature bandwidth, and the decay

these
options
decrement, Nyquist hysteresis loops, resonant

constant.
After
most and
investigating
of
in
determining
the
loss factor, the

measure
accurate method was the
Impulse Response Magnitude Function. The Bruel

was used
Kjaer Dual Channel Signal Analyzer type 2032

of
to
the response
the
structure and
to
calculate
the
material
damping
using the Impulse Response
14
Magnitude Function. Limitation

analyzer.
on the accuracy of the loss factor is due to the The B&K Dual Channel Signal Analyzer 2032 is a digital filter analyzer.
For
instance, using
the
half power bandwidth
method will
become
difficult task
the
in obtaining the corresponding

resonance.
frequency
large
at
the
-3db
point on either side of at

-3db
Since the
which
analyzer
a
is digital, the
exactly
frequency
what
may have to be
value of
interpolated factor. This
may incur
error with respect
to the true
the loss
method requires
knowing
those two
frequencies
are.
The
Impulse Response
suggested
Method,
and
referred to as the
of
by
Bruel
Kjaer for this type
Schroder Method, is the method analyzer in determining the loss
factor [5,12,13].
2.4.1
Damping Measurements
of a
for
1-D Model
Cantilever Beam
of modal analysis
The basic theory

mechanical
motion can
for
single
degree
one
of
freedom
be
system
begins
at
the
examination of motion
in
direction. The
be described
by
a single coordinate and
the
equation of motion can
derived
a
by using Newton's Second Law. In general the system can be idealized as spring-viscous damper arrangement as seen in the Figure 2.7. Similarly,
The
hysteretic
well.
damping can be modeled as closed loop for both of these

cycle of
a spring-hysteretic models represents
damper
arrangement as
the energy dissipated

viscous
by
for
the damper in one cycle. The

of
mathematical model represented
for the
-
damper in terms
required
dissipated
energy is
by
AW
yFdx.
The force
=
displacement
of
the
viscous system
is F
kx
+ cx where x(t)
Xsin
cot.
Upon the
substituting the force equation into the dissipated cycle of energy and integrating in terms of dt the dissipated amount of energy can be expressed as AW kcocX2.
-
Due to the similarity between the energy dissipation loops from Figure 2.7 and Figure 2.8, the hysteresis constant can be defined. Hysteretic damping or material
damping
as
cycle
is
again caused
by
the
the internal
planes
in the
material
slipping
and
sliding
a
the deformation
occurs.
of
It
was
found
experimentally that the energy
loss in
due to the internal friction, but it can be approximated as proportional to the square of the amplitude. This observed behavior was achieved by substituting the coefficient of the viscous damper c by
is independent
frequency
XJ
the
following relationship
circular
where
H is the hysteresis
damping
constant and co
co
is the
can
frequency.
AW
=
The
nH
cycle of
dissipated energy for hysteretic
damping
be
X2
expressed as
[2, 16, 17].
15
One Degree
of
Freedom
of a
Spring-Viscous Damper System
F(t]
M Mass
T
x(t) K
c ffi
*-
loading /
i-x:/
unloading
c<D
Viscous Damper
Spring
\\\WA\VA\
Figure 2. 7
One Degree
of
Freedom
of a
Spring-Hysteretic Damper System
F(t)
Stress
(force)
Mass
x[tj
Loading
Unloading
-*
J^>
Strain
(displacement)
Hysteretic VLî Damper
Spring
\\\\v\\\\\\\
Figure 2. 8
Because
of
this known relationship between
viscous
damping and hysteretic

loss factor
in parallel,
as
as well as
damping, it is
to
other viscous general
possible
to
relate
the hysteretic
constant
to the
important
relationships. and
x
=
In the idealized hysteretic
model as well as
for the for

a
model, the spring
the damper
being
connected
can
and
harmonic motion, stiffness. The force for the

given
Xe"D\ the force
be
expressed
a complex motion
viscous case upon substitution of
the
harmonic
is
by
(k
+ icoc)x.
The hysteretic force-displacement relationship is

LJ
expressed
similarly
as
(k+iH)x
where c
was substituted.
co
The loss factor
is found from the hysteretic force

TJ
equation
by factoring
the spring constant out

called
which
gives
(k
iH)
k(l
k
and
k(\+iij). The k(\ + ir() is

the
the
complex
jj
stiffness
of
the
system
j]
= ,
loss factor, becomes
dimensionless
16
constant.
expressed
The
dissipated energy for hysteretic in terms of the loss factor as [16, 17]:
cycle of
AW=nkriX2
damping
can
be
now
be
(Eq.
2.2)
The logarithmic decrement is

the
loss factor.
of
important relationship in relating it to The logarithmic decrement estimates the rate at which the
another
amplitude
the
free damped
'
vibration
decays. The logarithmic decrement is

represents
x
expressed as
In
X n\
\
.
The
subscript
the jth cycle
in the
amplitude
)
the
system
of
the
decay. The
in the
response of
in terms
of
hysteresis
the
damping
can
be be
expressed applied
using the energy balance

motion of
equation.
The energy balance
equation can
lightly
to
damped
structures such as
aluminum cantilever
beam
when
considered
amplitude per cycle.
By
it is
be nearly harmonic in determining the decrease in examining the energy loss per cycle from a section of the
possible
decaying
displays
amplitude,
a cycle of a
to
relate
this to the
decaying
amplitude of
hysteretic
log decrement. Figure 2.9 damping and the first peak is
represented
by X,
[17].
FREE VIBRATION
with
HYSTERETIC DAMPING
Figure 2. 9
In summing the
would give:
energies
lost from half the

W W AW;
cycle
between
peaks
X,
and
Xrl,2, it
(Eq.
AW
2.3)
The
change
in energy lost is AW
stored
nkvX2
and
W is the
maximum potential
energy,
W=VCkX2,
of
by the
spring
during
the
elastic
deformation. Upon
substitution
the above equations, the energy balance
is
given as:
^kx^^kx^-^knx^-^knx2
(Eq, 2.4)
17
where
due to the energy loss
per
half cycle
2X]
=2X2 nX2
1;2
-k
V2
(Eq. 2.5)
= ,h
A,-l,2
(Eq-2.6)
\2-kj]
Repeating
the energy
balance
equation
for the
second
half of the
cycle.
2kXU
-^kX),vr- ^nkr\x)+Mi ~^KkrlxU
(*<!
2-T>
and
-^-
(eq. 2.8)
A;+,
\2-KT]
multiplying equation 2.6 and 2.8 constant in terms of the loss factor.
By
together,
the amplitude ratio reduces to a
2
-
nr\
+ 2nr\ 2-Kr\ ' '

=
-t-
7T
X]+,
2-nr\
2-nn
can
T7
(Eq.
2.9)
The hysteresis logarithmic decrement

can
be
expressed as
ln(l
+ k
n)
k n and
be
assumed
lightly
approximately equal to 7ir) because the loss factor is very small for damped structures. This analysis assumes the frequency for a structurally
system useful
damped
is approximately harmonic [17]. The energy balance equation offers another

properties of
way
the
of
evaluating the
damping
the
capacity.
engineering
materials.
The energy loss
per cycle
divided
maximum potential
energy
gives
rise to
quantity is
called
specific
which
by damping
The
specific
damping
capacity
^W/w
equal
to 2 wr\
is simply
derived from the

equations. per radian
maximum
potential
In solving for the loss

to the total
strain
factor, energy [2, 1 6, 1 7].

n
=
energy and the energy loss per cycle it is defined as the ratio of the energy loss
AW
(Eq.2.10) 2kW
18
The
another
resonant response
of
amplitude,
also
known
as
the quality factor
Q, is
way
measuring the
damping
the
in
harmonic
system.
contains points.
two points
on either side of
resonance which are

an amplification
The quality factor called the half power
The half
power points each
have
factor
of
-j=
which
corresponds
to the energy absorbed,
AW, through the
damping
of
the
system.
These
power points each respond at a given
frequency
in
that is proportional to the
square of
the amplitude. The
half
power points
other means are also
located
-3
db down from the

power points
resonance peak.
as
is known
frequency difference between the half the bandwidth. The amplification factor or amplitude
divided
The
ratio
is the
maximum amplitude
by
the static
deflection,
from the factor

can
Xst
response of a
damped
in terms
g
as:
system.
of
For
small values of
damping,
the quality
be
expressed
ratio
the
frequency
Q
=
bandwidth from the
power points and
the
damping
"
(Eq.2.11)
2g
co2-co,
The
equivalent
as:
viscous
damping
ratio
geq has been found

8
r?
to
equal
the
log
decrement
--
m.2.n;
and
is
related
to the
loss factor
by
log decrement. Therefore the quality factor terms of the loss factor as [16, 17];
1
11 1
=
previously derived relationship of the hysteretic can be resolved into the relationship in
co.,
S
-co,
(Eq. 2.
13)
2Q
These
was
con
relationships a
were
some
of
the
basic build
damping. This
energy balance
relationships
was meant
to
help
background
of
for calculating how material

through the
material
damping
the
developed from the

methods.
similarities of viscous
damping
is
and
use of
On the
next
page, there
a chart made are
up
of
these many
including
for
a
the ones already
discussed that
for
systems considered
lightly
damped. This
chart
is from be
Techniques
Damping
of
March 1990 article, "Digital Filter vs. FFT measurements", from the Journal of Sound and
a a valuable reference
Vibration. I thought this
would
for
others who would
be
interested in
summary
lightly
damped formulas [5].
19
2.4.2
Decay Constant
The
decay
constant method was chosen to calculate the material
damping
of
the aluminum
beam utilizing the impulse
response and Hilbert transform
functions.
Summary
Natural
Unknown
Au
=
of
Lightly
2
K
Damped Formulas
ud fur
Frequency
cj0
f0 (
<=
lightly
dumped resonances.)
A/
Known 3dB
Au
au
A
Aoj
<A
a,
/.J
5-
Bandwidth
Au
Au
Aoj
cou Aoj
Au;
2
Au
138
4.3 I Au
irAu
[Rad/s]
2ttA/
fir
4t
2u
A/ A/
7T
7TA/
Au
cji(
3dB
Bundwidth
A/
A/
2
/
A/
IT
6.9
27.3 A/ 7TA/
TA/
A/
[11*1
4*7,/
2/
Af
1
/
2*7,
Dumping frequency L 1Hz]

Lobs fuctor
n
2/.
A/
1.1
2*7i
2*A
1
77
2.2 TlL
516/,
1)U
1 nL
IT/,
4.34 a)7;
i;
it
*707?
Fraction
critical
of
damping
2foj
2f/
n.
2f
1.1
27T/A
r
Quality
factor
OJ
27T/A
2Q
CJ0
1
Kh
2
869 <jf
2xf
L
2Q
a
Q Decay
constant
"
Q
a
Q
2ct co
1
t/t
2Q
tr
2Q
3lu,
7T
/
6.9
Q
Cf
2(7
IV'!
Time
constant T
2tT
a
0"
8 6a
"77
i
1
7TT
1
T/.-
1
r
8 69
[S]
2-KT
2jr/r
6.9t
r
Reverbera
tion time
13.8
2.2
1.1
2.2
1.1
LTW
2.2
6.9
*
Ao
6.9
60
6.9
TM Decay
[s]
rate
TA
D
4.34
f.TM
D
27.3 D 54.6
/Aco
D
/Ace
D 8.69 oj0
Tw
CO
a7
D
LTM
U
4.34u
D
8.69
8 69
60
[dB/s]
The
4.34u
5
X
8.69/
logarithmic,
decrement 5
5u>
if.
2ir
5
2tt
if.
6.9 8.69 / 5
Figure 2.10
The
decay
constant a represents
the
damping
from the
coefficient and response of
is the
real part of
the
complex conjugate poles of
that
comes
the
system.
The
response
the
system
is derived
equation of motion
applying Newton's second law F=ma and applying the to the idealized single degree of freedom model as shown in
by
Figure 2.8.
By
summing the forces
applied
to the
mass and
equating to
a second
20
order
differential equation,
we
have
+
the
following
=
equation
using the
viscous
model.
mx(t)
cx(t)
k(t)
f(f)
(Eq.
2.14)
The
next
step is to
convert the equation
using the Laplace Transform.
ms2X(s)
csX{s) +
kX{s)
F(s)
where
(Eq. 2.
15)
The
of
response of the system
is
written
from the Laplace Transform

conjugate pair of poles as
the roots
the
denominator
are
the complex
that
correspond
to
mode of vibration.
The H(s) is known
the
compliance
transfer function
in the
laplace domain
response
and
of
in the
the
frequency
domain it is
referred
to as the
frequency
function
system.
TTI-
H(s)
X(S) F(s)
2.17)
^
=
(Eq. 2.
ms'+cs +
16)
where
s12 =-a+icod
(Eq.
and
cod
(Eq.
2.18)
The
poles can
be
written
in
other
terms relating them back to the loss factor
as
done in the
following
manner
[ 16, 17, 19].

(
c
-c
k
=(-Clyl\-C2)cO
m
(Eq.2.19)
2m
2m
where
0)=J
(Eq.
2.20)
&
a=
2m
=C,COn
(Eq.
2.21)
and
the
loss factor 17
(Eq. 2.22)
The
decay
constant
is found
through use of the
impulse
response
function.
in the
and
used
The impulse
response
function linear
part
h(t)
is nothing
function
more
than the
system response
time domain. The impulse

presented compute response.
written
response
h(t)
is
a real valued
function
xA
is
to
usually
the
on a
amplitude scale.
The Hilbert transform

time
signal of
is
imaginary
convolute
h(t)
of
the
real valued
the impulse
and
The Hilbert transform is defined
as
the
convolution
integral
it is
in the
form
of the
impulse
response signal
[12,13].
-CO
h(t)
Ar{/?(/)}
\h(t)
dx
(Eq.
2.23)
21
The
as
analytical
time
signal of
the
impulse
V
response
function h(t)
can
be
expressed
h(t)
h(t)+ih(t)
(Eq. 2. 24)
The
magnitude
of
the
impulse
response
function is
considered
as
being
the
envelope of
h(t)
and
is
computed as
l(t)
The
purpose of
yjh2(t)+ih2(t)
(Eq.
2.25)
the magnitude
offers
of
the impulse
response
function
presented
in this
format is that it
oscillations,
two
advantages.
The first is the
removal of seen
the
decaying
allowing for
on
figure 2.11
oscillation
the next
real
from the
in the top trace of decay as page. It also shows, in the bottom trace, the decaying part of the impulse response which is also the same if the
a smooth envelope
signal was viewed under
time
a
signal can give a more
Time Ch. B. Secondly, the magnitude of the analytical dynamic range of the impulse response signal by using
log
amplitude scale versus a

of
linear
a
scale.
The
log
amplitude scale permits straight
the to
-
envelope measure
the
signal
to become
x
straight
line. The
A1
line is
used
the time constant

constant constant
(sec) corresponding
given
to the amplitude
or
decay
rate of
=
8.7db. The time 8.7db. The time
is
by
the factor
in decibels
-201og(e)
selecting a point on the slope and cursoring down the slope a -8.7 db on the y axis. The -8.7db change on y axis corresponds directly to the time constant found on the x axis. Once I know
measured
analyzer
is
from the
by
the time constant, the
loss factor
can
be
computed
for
a resonance
frequency by
[12]:
i
(Eq.
2.26)
fn
The
response
analyzer
basically
calculates
the
impulse
of
response
function
to the
as
the
inverse Fourier d(n)

b (n)
transform of the weighting function that
is
applied
frequency
of
function times the
1 -sided
spectra
the
Enhanced Time Function

a(n)
and
extended with zero padding.
The Enhanced Time Function

of each sample
is
composed of
the
averaged
Time
records
across
a series of
instantaneous Time Records data [20].
and
it
represents same as
the input data from

a(n)
channel
A. The B.
Enhanced Time Function b(n) is the
but
represents
the
channel
22
ft;
J"
.So
ft;
3. MODAL TESTING
3.1
Modal
Modal
Testing
the application
of experimental methods to determine a dynamic characteristics. Modal testing can be broken down into three basic requirements. The first component demands a theoretical background of vibration in the construction of the mathematical model. The theoretical basis
testing is
system's
starts with an
understanding
of
the
spatial model.
The
spatial model refers

what
to the
mass, stiffness, and

modal model a single
damping
properties.
Next is the decision for

examined.
or a multi
type of
to represent the structure

of
being
It
can
be
either considered
degree
freedom
model
(SDOF)
degree
of
freedom
model
(MDOF). The corresponding
modal model represents
the occurring
natural
frequencies
with
its
mode shapes and mode

model and model
lumped-parameter be decided
what
dampings. The modeling usually follows a theory. The second requirement demands
The
main measurement
accurate measurements of the vibration. and
techniques
must
develooed in
which are
order
to
make
of
the
measurements. and
This
consists of
mainly three things
the way
supporting
exciting the structure,

response, and the three
is to be measured, therefore the force input and appropriate signal processing to be used. The last of the
of
output
big
is the summary
analysis
the
measured
experimental modal analysis. structure
data. The summary analysis is referred to as the It is simply estimating the modal properties from the
computers or analyzers with
can
using the measured data via Transforms (FFT). For instance, this
parameter estimation
Fast Fourier
packages
by
involve using software curvefitting to illustrate the animation of

for
for
mode shapes
[1,16,18].
Despite the basic
guideline given above
doing
a complete modal
test, it
said
is
most
important to
remember
that no
single
test
or analysis method can
be
to
be the best for

tests are to be
used.
all cases.
It is
also
important that
a clear objective
is
set
before any
techniques
conducted.
This
will ensure an optimum use of all methods or
To
develop
test?
clear
objective what
when
performing
modal
or
test,
ask
yourself
these two easy

modal
questions:
do
you expect
to achieve
from the
and secondly, what
form
must
the results of the test
determine be in for
maximum use
[18]?
configuration
whereby processes the information using the built-in functions on the analyzer. Figure 3.1 on the next page shows the basic diagram of analyzer for Dual Channel Spectrum
for conducting a modal test is called a dual channel FFT measurement. One channel is selected for the input and the other for the the analyzer takes the data from both of these channels and output
The setup
Averaging. The input
channel
is
represented
by
the measured
input force
where
it
is
created at a point on
the
structure, and
the
output channel measures
the response
24
from the
excitation
at some
difficult
part of modal
other point of interest is testing ensuring that the data
on
the
structure.
The
most
collected
is
accurate.
Many
JS,
AwlO-
L3
3f
-,.-_,
ConWi
N*eorng
AjwiyMa
Poal
ProcvaMng
Figure 3. 1
Bruel and Kjaer 's Flow Chart of Dual Channel Spectrum
Averaging the input
problems can occur
from
a modal
test such as noise from the

of
source of
and output
devices used, limitations
the Fast Fourier Transform
such as
leakage,
ground
aliasing, and the
"picket-fence",
non-linearities of the structure,
bad cables,
loops,
The
ambient noise and problems
noise
possibly any delays in the analysis not compensated for. arising from the analyzer is due to the way the analyzer
of
approximates
the Fourier Transform [8,16]. The Fourier Transform has the form
F(f)=]f(t)e-'2*dt
(Eq.3.1)
and
the
analyzer
is only
capable of
calculating it
by the
truncated Fourier series
At^f{nAt)e"2
F{mAf)
i2n{mAf)
(Eq.
3.2)
where
N
0,1,2.
is
the
number
of
samples
taken
in
the
time
window
and
m, n
..,N-\
are
integers. This is intervals in the
considered
to be the
discrete Fourier
Transform
where
its
supplied
information,
such as
its
amplitudes and phases
is
known
at
evenly
spaced
frequency
domain.
The Fast Fourier
Transform is simply Therefore the discrete Fourier

the
observed
a rapid method of
computing the discrete Fourier Transform.
transform can exist

assumed
only for
repeat
periodic
functions
and
time
history is inherently
intervals
of
to
itself
at some period
for
the sampled time
At [12,16].
The
minimized
limitations
arising
from
the
discrete
aliasing,
Fourier Transform
can
be
by
understanding
such errors as
obtained.
leakage,
error
and the picket
fence digital
so
that
adequate where
data
can
be
sampling
two frequencies
can
is The aliasing and this is be not distinguished,
an error
in
the
caused
by the
25
sampling
eliminated effect and
at
less than twice the

a
maximum
frequency
before
in the
signal.
This is
by
lowpass
the
filtering
of
the
signal
sampling.
The
picket
fence
filter
is
a result of
these
possible
discrete sampling of the spectrum in the errors will depend on the overlapping
frequency domain,
of adjacent
characteristics.
rise to
sometimes known as the "time window effect", can give information in the original signal producing a resolution bias error. Leakage may arise in the frequency domain due to the time limitation of the signal before the FFT calculation is performed. Only a finite time record length or period
spurious
of
Leakage,
the
original signal can
be
analyzed at a
time,
and the origianl signal a
being
analyzed
is the
original
time
history
multiplied
by
time
window.
These time
windows are called a
are
weighting function. The time weighting functions in effect conditioning the original time signal. This is achieved by the spectrum A(f) of
the original time signal a(t)
is
convoluted with
can
the Fourier Transform

shown as
w{f)
of
the
weighting function w(t) [8,12,16]. This

A(f)=
be
]a{t)e-j2^dt
andW(f)
Jw(/)A^c//
(Eq. 3.3)
and after convolution:
A{f)*W{f)=
\a{u) W(f-ii)dn=
CO
ja{/)-w{t)ej2^dt
\f:
(Eq. 3
4)
visible
illustration
of
this
is
given
in Figure 3.2.
"
"
Leakage
ww
t\
Affl
Mi UU"
Figure 3.2 Leakage in the Analysis
The figure
above shows
how
weighting function
regions
could
influence the
one
estimate
from the
the
original spectrum of
time history. The
power
in
leaks into the
adjacent
frequency
causing the
amount of
peak amplitude
frequency region to drop and

depend
on
amplitudes
in the
valleys
to rise. The
leakage
will
the
type of weighting function
used and therefore
the appropriate window should
be
investigated for the

window
application original
being
time
attempted.
signal and
For example, if
a rectangular
is
applied
to the
if this time
signal
is longer than
26
the length
T,
an unknown
discontinuity
be to
The
will arise at
the
loop junction.
minimize
Therefore
effect.
better
choice
of a
time window should be
applied
to
its
The
solution
for this
example would
choose a
Hanning
Window. The
Hanning
Window is
one period of a cosine
matching the record length of the analyzer and

sidelobes of a
lifted
much
so
it
starts and stops at zero.
faster than the

case.
rectangular window and
Hanning window will fall off improving the overall characteristics

used as a
for this
when
Also the
Hanning
window
is normally
analyzing continuous random or sinusoidal signals A way to indicate such errors in the measurement is through the Coherence Function. The coherence function will measure on a scale from 0 to 1 the degree of linear relationship between the two signals a(t) and b(t) at any given frequency. Anything less than one indicates a quality problem in the measurement. The
coherence
shown
weighting function [12,15].
function
was applied and
for the impact

coherence
and random excitation

was used
user
data
and
is
in Appendix B
C. The
one
function
every time
after the
frequency
response estimate was made.
It is up to the
coherence
to figure out why at

and
times the values are
less than
in the
function,
where
many times it is
much
more than one source spent
creating the
problem.
This is
I found
time
was
studying
and
mini experiments
to see the effect it
understanding the had

in
experimental
effects of
on
different
are
windows and
creating
the
calculation of
the loss factor. Also
experienced assistance
people
vibrations
very helpful in providing
for this
stage of
the
analysis
[12,16,19,20].
3.2
Fundamental Functions
of
the Bruel & Kjaer 2032 Digital
Signal Analyzer
The B&K 2032 Digital Signal Analyzer
measurement and analyzer which was
the
center of operation
for the
determination
of
the loss factor. This
is
two channel FFT
can measure
and
display
34 different time
domains, frequency
in
six
domain,
modes
and statistical
functions. These 34 functions

and
are measured
different
and
of operation:
Single
Dual Channel Spectrum Zero Pad (used to
Averaging, Single
the effects
Dual Channel Spectrum
Averaging
correlation
avoid
of circular
folding when measuring

mode.
functions
or
impulse
response
Channel Signal Enhancement
and
Dual Channel Signal Amplitude
functions), Dual Probability

lines be
to
with a
The
analyzer span
has
a resolution
in the
frequency
anywhere
of
1.56 Hz to 25.6 kHz.

range.
frequency domain of 801 The frequency span can

has
an
selected
in this
frequency
such as vs.
The
analyzer
array
of options
display
The
the
measured plot
data
real,
imaginary,
magnitude
(Hilbert Transform), phase,

magnitude vs. phase).
Nyquist
analyzer each
(imaginary
and
real), and Nichols plot
(log
has many weighting functions readily

these
are
available
that
can
be
selected
for
and
channel
Kaiser-Bessel
as well as
used
Hanning, transient, rectangular, user-definable weighting function. The Hanning

signals
while
exponential
window
is commonly
for
continuous
the rectangular, transient and
27
exponential
functions
are
used
for transient
the
signals.
The transient
window and
exponential window are user
defined for
the
start of a window with respect
to the
beginning
other
of
the time record

on
and
window width
[20,38].
The functions
than the
the analyzer that
were used
in
determining
the
loss factor
Coherence, Frequency
were
Response Function HI
and
the Impulse
Response Function
the
Hanning
and
exponential
functions, Zoom-FFT, transient, weighting functions, and generators functions for

special parameters
producing excitation signals from the analyzer. The Frequency Response Functions (output divided by the input) will give the optimum calculation of the response H(f) in the least squares sense, and there are two types, HI and H2. The HI is the averaged Autospectrum Gaa divided by the averaged Cross Spectrum Gab where a and b denote the channel input and channel output respectively. H2 is
defined
as averaged
Autospectrum Gbb divided

at
by
the averaged Cross Spectrum
Gba. Each
analysis. correct
frequency
response type offers particular advantages
depending
on
the
best
at
suppressing high noise at the output and will give the most results for low levels in the response when the output signal is low. H2 is suppressing high noise at the input and gives the most correct results for
of
H 1 is best
high levels
the
response when was
the input signal
is low. For this investigation,
Frequency
beam
and
Response HI
used
in the
expectation of noise
in estimating the response of the aluminum from the sensors. The Coherence Function by
the way
can
be
calculated
higher
to
a
resolution
to
by dividing the H2 into HI. Zoom-FFT provides a examine a specific frequency range more closely but at a cost
time to
perform
longer length
of
the analysis. This longer length of time is

advantage to zoom analysis
given
by
the record length T. The

resolution
other
is that it
resolution
of
improves the bias

error
bias
error and
the
coherence narrower
in the
than
analysis.
The
means
the
resonant
peak
is
the
resolution
the
measurement which can effect points can not some curve
the impulse
response.
be
calculated
software
directly
window signal
from the
analyzer without
This is why the half power it being sent to the

e~t/T
fitting
[7,12,19,20].
The
exponential
time
is defined
before
as
w(t)
and
is
applied when
the oscillating
decay
the
of
the
is longer
and
than the analyzer's record

adds artificial
length. The
reduce
exponential window as
just
mentioned
damping to
the
amplitude near
end of
the
decay
this type
of window
introduces leakage.
the
The
signal
is therefore
fully
captured
in the time
record and minimizes some of
accounting for the extra damping in the calculation of the loss factor, this subsequently allows for the correction of the leakage. The correction is made
leakage.
By
subtracting the decay constant a of the impulse
by
constant
aw of the exponential window from the decay response. This produces the true decay constant crtnie that
1 1
-
0=Om-aw=
(Eq.3.5)
28
-r
(Eq.3.6)
will
be
The
used
in the
as
real calculation of
=
the damping. The rectangular

considered
window
is
at
simply defined
all.
w(t)
1 and
is is
not
really
to
weighting the function

effects
when
rectangular
window
used
eliminate
leakage
pseudo-random
excitation.
The
psuedo-random
excitation
is
synchronized
using in
repeating
a period of random
signals
so
that the data sampling fits the record

window
length,
the
therefore achieving good results. The Transient
is
a rectangular
window
but the
user can
define the
beginning
and
the
end of
the
window
length in
record
effect of used
Anything outside the window is zero, and this window has the improving the signal to noise ratio in the measurement. This window was
excitation of
length.
in the impact In
the
force
response as well as
for the
response
time
signal.
consideration
of
for
the effect
peak and
adding
very may
extra
long time records, using an exponential window has damping which reduces the amplitude of the resonance
spaced modes and
coupling closely
in the
frequency
to
response.
This
makes
modal analysis
difficult,
it is
recommended
use a
longer time
zoom
record
to
capture
the full response
or use zoom analysis.

well
When using
record
window
analysis, the
and
response signal
decay
is
to
before the time
has finished
length
therefore
an exponential window
not needed.
The transient
can
be
set
for
longer time
occurring
transient
and
records
capture
the full response
while
outside
the
window
length. Two
examples
eliminating any noise between an exponential and
window
in calculating
at
damping
can
be found in Appendix B for the laser

The
results and
the
accelerometer
the second
resonant.
discussion
will
explain
in
more
detail
at
why these
of
choices were made
[8, 12, 15].

in the impact
seen excitation
The
section.
special parameters section pertains
to the
usage
At the
beginning
the
a
plots
for
each
resonant, as
for the data function

to
access
generated
numbers. special
in Appendix B, there is
Special
parameter
table
created
for the
the
special parameter
number
0 is
called
key
and
allows
parameters used when
by
typing in 2032. Number 40 is the

response number
frequency
of
weighting
function
response
calculating the impulse

placed
function from the

the type
frequency
weighting
excitation
function. The
used
here
represents
function
in the analysis; 2 for the
transient window
in the impact
and 0 or 1 for the rectangular and Hanning respectively in the continous excitation via the shakertable. When the transient window is selected special parameters 41
to 44
and
are used.
Number 41 is the left

under
element number when
filtering
the resonant
is located
the
reference
window
on
the screen. It
is determined
on
by
the
cursoring down
screen.
a minimum of
-lOdb
down
on each side of
the resonance
Number 42 is the difference between the left

the right
side of the resonant
and
right
element values.
The
right
element on
same amount as the
left
element was.
cursoring down the Number 43 defines the length of the leading
is determined
by
half-cosine
taper to smooth the
filtering
of
the resonance, and
number
44 similarly
29
defines the trailing half-cosine taper length. Number 76 and 77 allows the user to view the time function in the upper or the lower trace on the screen respectively.
The
number
2 placed in
either
76
or
77
means
the time weighted

and
function is
the
user
multiplied
view
by
the normal time
function.
in
Numbers 47
upper or
48
allows
to
the
filtered
The
frequency
number
response
placed
in the
either
the lower trace on the screen

means
respectively.
47
or
48
the
frequency response
function is
multiplied
by the frequency
weighting function [19,20].
3.3
ASTM Standard Method for

of
Measuring Damping Properties
Materials
Designation: Properties
of
The ASTM
756-83
Standard Method for

the
problem of with of
Measuring
Vibration-Damping
Materials
addresses
vibration-damping frequency. The method is

test requirements. These
are
properties that
vary greatly
changes
measuring in temperature and

to
conduct
comprised
basically
of
parts
in
which
the
six parts consist of
the assumptions and precautions that

used
involved in the test, a description damping material, the instrumentation

reduced and what
the test beams
and
testing
setup,
analysis
in evaluating the of the data

material use of
the
report of the analysis should
include [9].
One
of
the assumptions in this method requires that the

viscoelastic
damping
these
being
an
tested follow the linear

chamber
theory. This method suggests the

a
modal
environmental
when
performing
such as
test
on
damping
materials
in
order
to study the factors
temperature
and vacuum pressure.
The
method gives a guideline
as well as
for the type

of
of
beams
for selecting the dimensions of the damping material being used in order to avoid errors in determining
the true
damping
beam,
are
the material. It the

suggested
is
suggested
to
use steel or aluminum
in the
10
composite
and
dimensions for these bars

length
of
are a width of
mm, free length

mm.
of
1 80 to 250 mm,
root
25mm,
bars
and a and
thickness of 1 to 3
are a
There
essentially three types
of
composite
these
damped
side
beam
where one side
both
beam
to
as
sides of
with the
the beam
damping material attached, the second type is having the damping material and lastly, the sandwiched
has the
damping material between. The metal bars alone are often referred Oberst Bars. They have noted that materials such as steel and aluminum have
known loss factor
of of
a well
0.001
or
less,
and
it is
sometimes considered calculation of
to assume
the loss factor

material
the
metal
beam to be
zero
in the
the
damping
and
[3,9,16].
select a meaningful
It is important to
amplitude of
force level for the analysis,
the
the force
signal must
be kept
constant with
frequency,
otherwise the
data
will not
be
applicable.
could
be too high
can not
when
This is particularly important because the damping determining the loss factor from the measurement. If the
constant, then the response of the
force level
be kept
order
beam
must
be divided
current
by
the force input in
to
obtain
the
normalized
transfer
function. The
30
signal applied
to the force transducer
can
be
the
an alternative
way to
the
measure
the
force
beam
since
the two are proportional. The first

not
mode of vibration of
properties
the cantilever
should
be
used
to
calculate
of
material
being
is necessary because nonlinear effects may be produced from the high amplitudes given by the first mode [12,16,24,25]. It is very important to pay close attention at all times when making any
precaution
investigated.
This
damping
response,
measurements.
It is usually
very
complex and
involved
the
process
because
of
it involves the
details
of
material
specimen, the type

and so on.
of excitation,
sensing
to
the
instrumentation
The
It is necessary to pay
of
attention
all
the
the experiment from
fabrication
the
material
to the
analysis of
the
data
mount the bar in being a heavy rigid fixture and clamp the root thickness of the beam to simulate a fixed boundary condition. It is very important in using a non-contacting instrumentation and to avoid anything else that could influence the damping characteristics of the
measured.
procedure
for setting up the
modal
test is to
test specimen. The method suggests using

which
either a random or sinusoidal
signal
can
be
applied
to a
electromagnetic
transducer type
for creating the
excitation via power amplifier.
The
sketch
below describes
a typical
laboratory test
setup for the vibrating beam test
[3,9, 16, 18].
Figure 3.3
Basic Diagram of Experimental
Setup for Testing Vibrating Beams
Once the data has been measured and stored, the suggested method for dynamic response of each mode is determined calculating the loss factor from the Bandwidth (-3db down) [9]. in terms of the using the Half-Power
frequency
Therefore,
the
loss factor is
calculated as:
Ml
fn
(Eq. 3.
7)
31
The
estimate of precision
for individual temperature-frequency

should
not exceed
evaluations on
the
of
extensional variation
damping
materials
25%
of
the
coefficient
specify all the dimensions concerning all the involved in the test and any special chemical treatments made to the beam's surface for preparing adhesion of the damping material. The report shall
materials
for the loss factor [9]. The report basically should
include
all
data
and
such as
the
damped include
all
and undamped
a statement
frequencies, temperatures,
was
and
pressure.
These tests
should
that it
done
by
an accredited
laboratory
not
the tests were
followed in
accordance with made
this procedure. If
it is
true in every respect,
list
the exceptions
[9,16].
32
4. SENSORS 4.1
Laser Vibrometer
4.1.1 Description
The Dantec 55X-Laser Vibrometer is
an optical system
for measuring the

sensor permits
of
instantaneous velocity
laser beam
of vibrations of solid or
of
liquid
surfaces.
This
non-contact, point measurement
the velocity component in the direction
the
within a wide range of velocities.
The laser
system
provides wide
digital outputs proportional to the instantaneous includes the indication of sign for forward and velocity reverse direction. These signals can be further analyzed to provide the displacement or acceleration of the motion. The laser vibrometer is primarily designed for non-contact optical measurements of vibrations of rough, diffusely
real-time
bandwidth,
analog
and
of
the surface
which
reflecting
surfaces.
This laser is
also
capable
continuously moving surfaces or single events This type of laser vibration thus distinguishes itself from
vibration
measuring the velocity [32,33,34].

of other
of a
optical
only because of its non-contacting ability to measure specularly reflecting surfaces but it also possesses the capability of measuring non-harmonic and random motions as well. With such potential, it has found a
meters
not
wide
variety
of applications
in the
and
measurements
audiological
vibrations
in
buildings, biological
flow-induced vibrations, research and the list goes on

of
[32,33,34].
4.1.2 Technical Background

The laser
Doppler
shift
vibrometer measures
velocity
by
means of
the
detection
of
the
from moving surfaces. In the accompanying figure found in the Dantec Laser Vibrometer Instruction Manual [33], the Doppler Shift is shown in order to understand the relationship of the
of
light
scattered
or
reflected
vibrating
surface and
the laser beam
components with respect
VIBRATING SURFACE
Jj j
Figure 4.
1 Doppler Shift of a
Vibrating
Surface
by Dantec
Electronics
33
to the
optical
axis.
Figure 4.1 identifies the laser

wave vector
components
kj_
and
k2.The
component
of
kl is the
coming from the laser
and
k2 is the
wave vector
laser beam. 0 is the angle between the incoming and scattered beams. Vz is the velocity component in the direction of the optical axis of the laser vibrometer Figure 4. 1 illustrates the Doppler formula which can be expressed by
the reflected
.
coD
(k2-ki)V
(Eq.4.i)
and
fD
(2/A)sin(0/2)Vz
coq The
=
2VZ/A
iEq.4.2,
equations
wave vector
4. 1
and
4.2. The Doppler
shift
length is
represented
=
by
A,
where
frequency is A, 27t/|k|
=
.
litf^
The laser beam

180
magnitude of the wave
|k|
is
|kl|
which allows
|k2|. In using the 1 [33]. sin(0/2)

=
standard
objective,
0 is approximately
The
reflected
optical system
in the laser
vibrometer
detects the Doppler
shift of
the
laser beam
by
an optical
heterodyne
process.
Heterodyning is
the
optical
mixing of two different frequencies where in this case the received laser light beam is mixed with the laser reference beam yielding a signal with a frequency
much
smaller
than the absolute

new
frequency
equal
of
the
original
signals
as
shown
in
Figure 4.2. The
frequency
(YT^
is
to the
(Dl
difference
<d2
of
the Doppler shifted
\j~Js vu<Aj \}y vhH iy~irr
r *
aA-aO.
1 1 U VJ
laser beam
40Mhz.
and
col
^\Y
^
Vy
V1 > /\
Figure 4. 2 Doppler Shifted and
and
Non-Shifted Beam
by Dantec Electronics
co2 which
the
non-doppler
shifted
laser beam
has
fixed
optical
the
new
frequency shift. cc>2 is considered to be frequency exits the photo detector as

attempts
the
co2
reference
laser beam laser
col-
[34].
the
By illustrating
complete
Figure 4.3, it
vibrometer.
to
show
the
optical
path
through
X19
X25
X29
X23 X66
166
Figure 4.3 Side View of the Laser Vibrometer Component Identification
by Dantec Electronics.
34
The 55X19
then split
adapter supports
the 5 mWatt
coaxial
He-Ne laser.
The laser beam is

co
by
the 55X25 Beam
frequency
better
shifted and
Splitter. In the 55X29 Bragg Cell section, focused on the object by the fronts lens at L\, L2 and
1 is
representation of
L\, L2
and
R\
is found in Figure 4.4.

upper and
L2 is a "standard
part of
Rj
TV
the
lens
and can
be manually
adjusted.
The
beam labeled A is focused

the
the
on
object
being measured by the transmitter/receiver optics
Figure 4. 4 Optics Path of the 55X Laser Doppler I 'ibrometer by Dantec Electronics.
reflected or scattered
light
which reenters
the
receiver aperture of reflected
is
collimated to a
beam
parallel
to the outgoing beam. The beam
light reaching the
be orthogonally polarized to the outgoing beam and the reference beam. Notice the dotted lines surrounding the return laser beam is the only
must effective amount of
optical unit utilizes
detector
light
seen
in the
optical
only one ray or one scattered, it makes a lock loop very difficult at times to maintain frequency feed back of the Doppler frequency. The lock loop will be discussed with more detail
heterodyne detection. In theory, the speckle of laser light. Since this light is
Setup and Operation section since it plays a major role with the initial setup. The Frequency Tracker performs the phase-lock loop feature and the Tracker output is an analog voltage directly proportional to the input frequency. The solid state photo detector section is located by X and Y in Figure 4.4 which is where the new frequency (co 1- co2) exits [32,33].
in the Experimental
On the
next
page, Figure 4.5
will attempt
to
give a
brief
the
overview of
the
Frequency
is
seen
Shifter Shifter
and
Frequency
Tracker in
operation with connector of
laser
vibrometer.
It
here that the
signals exit
the front bnc
the laser
and enters
the
Frequency
which communicates
by
the
mixer
to the preamplifier of the the
Tracker. The The
preamplifier signals
in the Tracker is
used
unit enters
Frequency
Cell
unit
Tracker
module where
the analog
output signal
by
the B&K 2032 Signal to the
Analyzer.
Frequency
Shifter delivers the 40Mhz.
signal
Bragg
(X29)
of
35
the laser vibrometer.
Depending
signal
on
the setting
of
the
Frequency Shifter,
the
resulting
output
from the
with
processor
is
signal
linearly
related
to the
the
combination fixed velocity offset V0. In velocity Vz Frequency Shifter, Frequency Tracker and the Laser Vibrometer, a frequency shift is achieved allowing us to measure vibration [33].
and
with
variable
X25
X29
*66
L66
'
jr
G
55X
LASER
Laser Doppler Vibrometer
1
Mixer
1
1
1
1
Preamplifier
Frequency
Tracker
i
i
55N20
40 MHz
Loral
1
1
'
Doppler
Oscillator
Frequency
I
' I 55N10 Frequency Shifter
.
Tracker
l_.
Analog Out
Digital
'
Out
Digital in
Figure 4. 5 55X Laser Doppler Vibrometer with 55NI 0 Tracker bv Dantec Electronics.
Frequency Shifter and 5SN20 Doppler Frequency
4.1.3 Experimental
Setup
and
Operation
4. 1
.3.
Technical Preparation
an application
Before starting
using the laser vibrometer, it is

vibrometer
advised
to
learn how to
providing
use the
laser
by
itself first. The laser
is
beautiful tool
you
have
studied your environment
in
relation
to the laser's operating
36
window.
Even
with
the
help
of
the
instruction
manual, it
was
the alignment signals
from the
oscilloscope to what was conveyed
difficult to interpret in manual.

some
a real
Through trial
patience,
an
in adjusting the alignment of the laser and with understanding of its sensitivity will be helpful in the setup for
and error
application.
First, it
basic setup
only
suggested to start with a
basic
model
to
experience
the
laser. The
The The
will consist of
using
purely
a
reflective surface such as a mirror.
other piece
of equipment
that
would
be
needed
is
an
oscilloscope.
oscilloscope
vibrometer.
should
be
considered
standard
tool
whenever
using the laser
The
purpose of the oscilloscope
is to
monitor
the
output signal
from
the Doppler
Frequency
Tracker. As There
an overview of
the
constructed as a visual aid.
are
many
properties
basic setup, Figure 4.6 was that effect the laser in which
BASIC LASER SETUP
EXCITER POWER BOXMin Distance
UZ3
OSSCILL OJTCOPE
1 2m
-\
?
FREQUENCY SHIFTER
MIRROR
V"?=[
LASER
A^
FREQUENCY
TRACKER
SA GOGGLES WEAR LASER SAFETY
Figure 4. 6
one must
be familiar
the laser
of
with when
using the laser. These

speckle
alignment of
are
depth
of
field
the
(cavity
rate,
objects'
length
of
beam), lens
effects, electronics,
focusing,
as well as
slew
reflectivity
surface,
the objects surface,
both the laser
wind and
temperature [32,33].
The depth
given optics
cavity length is determined by the type of laser and the built into the device. The measurement range is 1.2 to 20 meters but
of
field
or
Another words, measuring distances giving cavity lengths of n/2 must be avoided. a path length difference of one half of an integer number of cavity length should be disregarded. At smaller or greater distances, a special optics adapter is available
for
focusing
The
[33].
speckle effect
is the
result of
the
random composition of
the phases
of
light laser.
the
objects'
scattered upon
the
surface and
reflecting these
paper
rays
back towards the

of
By taking
from the
a sheet
of paper and
placing it vertically behind the TV lens
laser,
you should notice
that part of the
is
covered with
a speckle
pattern
laser light. When using
a mirror you
may
not see much of
this
37
because it is
reflective
almost
perfectly
reflected.
In
an application where can
the surface is
not
enough, there are many things you suggestions to help make the surface more
do to
enhance
it. Some
off
oil
of
these
reflective
painting
surface,
electroplating applying reflective tape. Some retroreflecting which means the light hitting the
a reflective coating,
or
or
sanding removing any dirt or

of
are
any rust, from its

are
these
reflective
tapes
tape will disobey Snell's Law. I found that the packaging material from Peanut Brittle works just as good or even better. Other candy wrappers such as York Peppermint Patties, work, but I recommend not using them. In applying the peanut brittle packaging, just cut into circles or squares and stick it on the surface by using double adhesive tape. The best tape of this kind is Ludlow #8602. Once you have obtained a good signal
from using any

care
of
these reflective tapes, it is tape
now possible
to cut away
with great
any
unused portion of reflective
not seen
by
the laser.
This
enables
the
reduction of natural
any localized
mass which
may be
sensitive enough
to change the
frequency of the
The
purpose
object. speckle pattern
for the
is to
gain
feedback
to the PIN-diode
a
optical
heterodyne detector for

which allows
signal processing.
This detector has
high
quantum
efficiency
for the
suppression of unwanted cell.
beat frequencies induced

the electronics and the to act as the
by the
laser
or even
from the
the
Bragg
circuit
In
at
combination of
Si PIN diodes,
as shown
which
in figure four
P\
and
P2,
are combined
light detector in
is tuned to the
center of
the shifted Doppler
frequency. The resulting
frequency
shift retains all properties of variable optical
frequency Frequency
the range and bandwidth selection made at the along Tracker. With these properties kept in mind, it can now be seen more
shift
with
signal-
clearly how important they become through the relationship in the power to-noise ratio at the photodetectors. In general, the equation is as follows:
/^
where
s/
^
2 1 2A/(P1+P2)+hk^
e2rp.L
k is Boltzmann's
quantum
constant, T the temperature

of the
of
the
detector,
Rj^
the
load
of a
resistor, r\
efficiency
detector,
the
electron
charge, hv energy
quantum of
light
back
of
frequency
light
strong
of v and
A/
the detector
bandwidth. This
much greater
equation
assumes no changes
ground
and
dark
current.
The
previous expression
for S/N
if we
assume a
reference
beam
where
Pl is
than P2:
r}i?2
S/m
hl
J
vt
C+4-4>
2P,e277RL
38
The
above expression can
be further
can
simplified
if enough
reference
beam
power
is
used such
that the
denominator
be
hv
neglected.
The important thing to
note
s/
...
N" rh
Af(\ +
livkT
2P,e2nR.
(hq- 4"J
from these
equations
is that temperature
reference
attention
could
play
a role
in obtaining
of
good
S/N
I
depending
would
how strong the

paying
beam
to
and
the adjustment
the optics.
recommend
laboratory. The
settings at the
can
signal-to-noise ratio
any periodically strong drafts in the becomes obviously sensitive to the chosen
symptom of poor signal-to-noise ratio
Frequency
Tracker. Another
be found
The
can
the coincident cavity length of the laser beam [32]. focusing of the laser on the object determines the quality
at
of
the S/N
which
be
observed
by
using
an
oscilloscope.
The laser beam has been

-
observed
following
Guassian
characteristics with a
The
The
small spots
from the
speckle
pattern,
as seen
intensity diameter of d\. by holding up a sheet of paper

have targeted.
of more
1/e2
back behind the TV

spots on
lens,
can tell you a
lot
about the surface you
the
surface of
the object are
made
inversely
proportional to
the focal the
spot size.
spots, these spots are up This implies that the spot diameter,
d0, is inversely proportional to depth of focus, l0, is inversely

focal length
and of
expansion of the
beam
and
(/V/i)
whereas
the
proportional to
the
square of
the expansion. The the
the optic's objective
determines the
of
d0
by
lens
system
f\
the
f2 following equations
respectively.
j
The importance
distance from the object, /, is

32A/,2/
evident
by
[32]:
(Ri-4-6>
W'l
do=-7T7T nd,
f
This
can
&
, lo=n-
(Eci-4J)
ndj2
be
viewed when
turning
the TV lens
and
watching the
object
expansion grow on
the test
on
object.
The
selection of
distance from the
to the laser is
dependent
is
The The
the
expansion as well as
the type
can
of spots reflected.
When the
spot
speckle pattern
very coarsed-grained, this
indicate that the focal is to

control all
is
at a minimal.
of
function
beam
of
the
laser's lens
the
system
these properties
the laser
such as
focal spots, but
confined
to the limits
of
the
collection aperture.
optimum size of
collection aperture
=
is found to
occur
in
an optical antenna
by AQ 'Kr where A is the area of detector aperture and Q is the solid angle subtended by the illuminated spot as seen by the lens. This collection aperture is satisfied by the antenna condition when the width of the illuminating beam becomes equal. The downfall to this means that a larger
condition.
This is
represented
aperture would not
improve the
an
signal-to-noise ratio of
even
the detector
current when
sensitivity becomes
issue. Alignment
becomes very
critical at
the optical
39
axis of
the laser
because it becomes
sensitive to characteristics of the surface and
the amplitude of vibration. It
simply becomes a trade off of properties depending on the measuring conditions. Another interesting situation that could occur under unfortunate situations is that the aperture could be trapped between two bright speckles giving rise to a poor S/N. The optics could be adjusted slightly to increase
the power of the
beam
or
make
the sacrifice in realigning the laser [32]. the
Of the two
pieces of equipment,
Frequency
Tracker
Shifter, any
must
adjustments made to the signal processor on the
Frequency Frequency Tracker

and
the Frequency Shifter as well. Figure 4.7 is a sketch of both The top box is the Tracker with selected ranges which can be chosen by the RANGE knob and the FILTER knob controls the analog output with a cutoff
also made on
units.
be
frequency
the
cutoff
as shown
in
Table 27 any
of
Appendix J. Frequencies
selected
of vibration above column

will
frequency
[33].
under
of
the
BWs
or
OUT
be
filtered
out
1-lOMHz
ft
OUT BW3
BW2
BW1 ft
NOT USED
0.3-3.3MHz ft 0.11MHz
*
33-333KHZ ft
LOCK O DETECTOR
OUT
NOT
USED
10-lOOKHz
55L97
ft ft ft
lXYEL
3-33KHz 1-lOkHz
SCAN
REMOTE
HV
SUPPLY
?
GAIN
?
FILTER
55N24
DISPLAY
MODULE
RANGE
TYPE 55N21 TRACKER MAIN UNIT

FREQUENCY SHIFT IN KHz 4*6
POWER
>
g
2
1
9
9
MULTIPLIER
< F, lo
40MHz
X1
xioo
X1000
_
X1
am X100
(BLANK) F, i
>
40MH*
55NH
FREQUENCY SHIFTER
MAIN UNIT
X1000
FREQUENCY SHIFT CHANNEL
Figure 4. 7 Front
by
The
green
Display of the Frequency Tracker Dantec Electronics

on
and
Frequency Shifter
light
the Tracker labeled LOCK DETECTOR
will
flicker
even
flicker
at all
depending
is
on
point, to
see
an oscilloscope
required
step you are at in for tuning in this signal. The

the
what
your
may not setup. At this

that we want
or
signal
is
a sinusoidal clipped wave which
basically
appears as a square wave.
In
figure 4.8, I have sketched a picture to illustrate this wave form. The as illustrated means success. By studying the waveform seen on the while tuning the laser vibrometer, you can begin to recognize features
that
will
square wave
oscilloscope
of
the
signal
indicate the
closeness of a square wave.
40
OSCILLOSCOPE
o
VOLTS/DIV
O
SEC/DIV
O
CH. 1
CBNC)
Figure 4. 8
Laser Alignment
by Identification
of a Square Have Signal
For instance
increasing
or
decreasing
the GAIN
on
the Tracker
can
help
clean
up
the signal even more

close
if it looks terrible. I
the gain at the to
prefer
to
keep
the GAIN
somewhere
to
midrange on
the Tracker usually
at the
12:00
a clock position
if possible.
If
you
find
the
yourself with
some of
other parameters
bring
far extremes, you may wish to tweak it back midway. This will give you greater
gain
flexibility
in in
respect
to probe a
distorted
signal
using the
knob. The
most common cause
which one
may have trouble obtaining
a good signal
is
the alignment of the laser
to object, the distance to the object, the

the object and
out of
speckle pattern created at
the
surface of nine
focusing
the beam
expansion on
the
object.
I have found
times
ten that the one
speckle needed at
the
photodetectors
is the
problem.
If this occurs, the only

would start
suggestion
can offer
four back
parameters while
viewing the
oscilloscope untill
is to try and optimize these the ideal wave form appears.
Usually
by
in
support
leg
of
adjusting the lead screw (one or two turns) which is the the laser. Sometimes creating this angle will match the
the reflective tape.
curvature or wrinkle
Another hint that the
wave
form is
there
but just
needs
to be focused
is
seen
in the
following
sketch.
Figure 4.9 Pre-alignment Wave Form Signal
Other bits
random
of
details
can
be
observed
by
the
square wave
form
and
that
is the
erratic,
fluctuations
of
the
period.
If the
period of
the square
wave appears
this indicates that there is this type

of noise can
still noise
in the
system somewhere.
I have found that

room.
be
attributed
to the
ambient vibration
from the
Just
by
41
walking hard
you can observe
the entire
square wave oscillate
like
a sine wave
but
on
exponentially decaying. This may
require a vibration
other set
isolation table
depending
how
sensitive
the application. The

than what the
much greater
laser is
possibility could be the object vibrating to receive. This can occur if the cantilever
vibrometer
beam is tapped too hard. I found that this laser

vibration,
in
especially amplitude. Though you think the actuality, it has not. The time domain of this could very well be up to 30 seconds. To prove this take your fingers and dampen the beam even though the cantilever beam appears to have stopped vibrating. You should instantly see the
all
is very sensitive to beam has finished vibrating,
square wave
with
lightly
cleanup with a crisp consistent period. This is because we are dealing damped structures that are not heavily damped. This finding was
encountered
during
the excitation of the

number of averages
of
beam;
one
tends to become impatient in
taking
the required
amount
to
gain a
decent
minimum
time.
Since the Doppler

can
frequency response in the frequency is proportional to

hyperbolic
shown
frequency
of vibration and
amplitude, it
be
visualized as a
d
where
K is
some
factor
q
u
some
constant
'W
Amplitude
(A]
Figure 4.10 Doppler Frequency
vs.
Amplitude
by
Dantec Electronics.
in the
sketch above. slew
When the
rate of change of
the Doppler
frequency
up
with
exceeds
the
Tracker
rate, the
processor
is
no
longer J
able
to
keep
can
the changing
frequency
MHz.
the
and
the
green
light
goes out.
appendix
The Tracker
and
as seen
by
Figure J. 1 in
only measure up to 10 in Table 26. of Appendix J displays

the Tracker [32,33]. the
maximum slew rate
for the
range selected on
None the
less,
the
other settings such as

position.
SCAN, REMOTE
on
and
OUT
buttons
should
be left in
their out most
These buttons
are not used
in the
The
application of
the laser
as
vibrometer
The LEVEL light

Shifter is
the Tracker
will come on
automatically
long
as
the
Frequency
is
on and connected properly.
proper configuration
for these
connections
among the
equipment
is
seen
in figure back
of
4.11.
Basically
the diagram
self evident
switch
but
remember
to
ensure
in
the
the Tracker that the Diode Detection
is
up.
42
55X Laser Doppler Vibrometer
to
Exciter
40MHz Output
55N10
Frequency Shifter
Mixer Out
CH. B
of
the
Up
Diode Detec )
B&K 2032 Analyzer
(Photodetec
in)
55N20 Doppler Frequency
Tracker
to
Oscilloscope
400 mV Scope 0 1 V/cm
Max
Figure 4.11 Block Diagram of the Laser Vibrometer Equipment
The
settings
on
value and multiplier is found in the Appendix J of Table 25. At this point, things tend to simplify because the B&K Analyzer is only capable of capturing a maximum frequency of 25.6 kHz. This is known by looking at the
decided the vibration in the frequency shift
Frequency Shifter are quite simple once you have frequency range and Tracker range. The selection for dialing
the
screen on
the Analyzer for ch. A and ch. B.
where the
filter
should read
25.6 kHz.
You
can now
ignore the
upper
Multiplier,
as understood
by
half of this table. When making the Dantec, the f\0 < 40 MHz. button is
selection
for the
selected.
/j0
is
43
the subsequent electronic
frequency
shift
in the
mixer as seen
back in figure 4.5
[33].
4.1.3.2
Basic Operation using
Mirror for Signal
Conditioning
At this point, all the equipment should be connected and set up in a similar fashion as specified in figure 4.11. There should be wooded blocks already cut if
needed
to
help
level the laser. Also there is

small enough
digital level that

of
can
be
used
to level
the laser and
it is
on
to
fit
on
the
base
the laser.
I had
always turned
the equipment
this in particular
order
(Laser Goggles On).
Power Exciter On (power light
goes
on)
2.
Frequency
Adjust the
Shifter (On
range
switch
.
located in back
and
and power
light
goes
on)
knob to
1-1 MHz.
the filter
set
to OUT.
3.
Frequency Tracker (On switch located in back and power light goes Adjust the frequency shift to 5 and multiplier to XI 00 on the Fi0 <
40Mhz.
on)
4.
Oscilloscope
Adjust-
on
(use
ch.
A)
lOOmV/div
of
the
vertical
to
the horizontal to a vicinity the 10X knob
100
msec or
.5p.sec
by pulling
out
Trigger the
signal
If the
the
signal
for
some reason or another
does
not
appear,
scan
for
signal
using the horizontal

at
knob.)
in the technical beam is
preparation
5.
6.
Ensure the laser is The
.2
meters as given
mirror should
be
adjusted
to
ensure
the laser
reflected
back
into laser.
7.
Verify
In the
the
output pattern
.
from the TV lens
on
laser
appears as given
in the
diagram
on
Figure 4. 12a is the

to right
of
output pattern with
the
frequency
shift.
picture
figure 4. 12b, the
frequency
be
shift will not appear.
If this does
at points so
not
occur,
several adjustments can
made
by
the
an alien wrench
R, S,
and
as seen
in figure 4.13. Point R
will adjust
reference see
beam
it
can
thus optimally hit the detector diodes
we should expect
to
the
largest
44
signal.
Point S
of
changes the angle of
the
Bragg
cell
in
order
to
gain maximum
intensity
I
would
the laser
which
the TV lens
beam. Finally point T will adjust the outgoing beam exiting passes 6 mm from the centerline as sketched out in figure 4. 12.
I believe I
was
strongly
recommend not to touch these settings.
able
to
Shitted
A.
B.
Figure 4.12 TV Lens Shift Pattern
obtain an optimal
setting for R, S,
the optics
users
internally by
would
T. Another possibility would be to adjust removing the cover plate. As discussed more briefly in the
and suggest not even
manual, I
really strongly
or
to
consider
this
option of
adjustment without on site
technical supervision. The reasoning
behind this is
that
of
if
you
break
prism
accidentally disturb something, the laser is
out
commission.
X25
X29
X66
>AuU
jr
M
SLV
* Figure 4.13 Side View ofLaser with Adjustment Locations
Open the
aperture all
the way till the dial

45
reads
1.4
and
the XIA plate should
already be
at
its
marked position.
Focus the TV lens

and you should
as needed
to
enhance
the
signal seen at
the oscilloscope
be receiving the desired
signal as sketched out
in
45
Figure 4.8. If the distorted

and
signal
persists,
review
the technical
background
technical preparation for any possible the laser in
oversights.
would now suggest
testing
use with
the B&K analyzer while in

channel
this setup.
Simply
make
the connection from the Tracker to

calibration
of
the
Analyzer
and
input the
factor from Table 1. found in

inverse
as
of
appendix
K.
Remember the Volts/(m/sec).

section,
analyzer's units will request the
the calibration factor
Using
the
the
of
impact hammer setup

the mirror's
tap
on
top
heavily
damped
response.
None the
base, less, this
and you should
discussed in the excitation be able to obtain a
should now provide you with some
confidence
in using the laser.
4.1.3.3
Laser Vibrometer in the Application Beam
of a
Cantilever
This
excitation
section
is
comprised of
applying the laser using two different types

technique
employs
of
techniques.
and
The first
excitation
the
B&K 8202
Impact Hammer
secondly the B&K Vibration Exciter System. The subject of
interest is the different

It
restrictions
classical cantilever
beam. The beam is found to be setup in two

of
arrangements
because
of
the
excitation
techniques
as
well
as
the
due to
flexibility
the laser
setup.
order
found necessary to build a special fixture for the cantilever beam in for the laser beam to sense it. The following sketch shows how the specimen
was
was clamped
to this fixture.
General Area
of
Impact
Adjustable
in the Vertical
Laser Beam
FRONT VIEW
SIDE VIEW
Figure 4.14 Vertical Test Fixture
It is
also shown
that the clamping ability
is
adjustable
in the
of
vertical axis and
is
bolted to the
the fixture
vibration
gave more
isolation block. The adjustability flexibility in adjusting the height of the laser table. It
the cantilever beam on

was not
46
possible
to
gain access
test
was
fixture
setup
and and
isolation table in which I could set both the datum. The next sketch describes how the laser the distance between the fixture and laser is 1.2 meters. The only
to a
vibration
laser
on
the same
problem with
this arrangement obviously is that
some of ambient vibration
from
General Over View
of
the Laser Configuration
used
in Impact Excitation
B8K 2032 Analyzer
Isolation Table
~U^>
rv3
PreAmplifier
7 /Impact Swing MotionJ

V
Impact Hammer
Figure
-/./_>
the
building
The
or
from
people could
be
a problem at
times. The
excitation procedure
for the impact hammer is found in

next
chapter
five, Excitation Techniques.

application of random noise system
laser setup contains the B&K Vibration Exciter System. In this

Exciter
it
contains and
using the the 4801 Vibration
Body
with general purpose
Head Type 4812
the Power Amplifier
Type 1047. In the
following
the sketch, the output
signal
from the B&K 2032

a
Analyzer from the Signal Generator Output is Signal Input located in the back
of
connected
by
bnc
cable
to the DC
the B&K 1047 Power Amplifier. The Exciter

and
Body
Power (3 phase), Interlock Cables

connected as sketched out
Signal to Exciter Head
should
of
be
the
already
in the
given
following
in the
figure. Greater detail

It is
excitation method and
setup
will
be
excitation chapter.
shown
that
the shaker table
was rotated
from its
normal upright position
to a side position.
With the
cantilever
beam locked into
position
by
1.2
the fixture
on
the shakertable, the
laser
was set on
the tiled floor and
positioned
meters away.
In both
settings
of
the laser
setups
for the laser
should
using the modal hammer and the shaker table, the follow the same guidelines as previously discussed.
to
Overall the
obtained
oscilloscope proves
when
alignment
be the only way to really know if you have adjusting the parameters of the laser. I hope the
minimization of
suggestions given will aid can
in the
time wasted so that the real time
be
spent
not run as
was not
in analyzing your application. The random vibration application did smoothly as it did in the application of the impact testing. This problem
understood as
really
to
what was
causing the
poor
frequency
response.
47
Getting
the laser to
work was a real
challenge,
and
there
will
be further discussions
concerning this matter in Results and Discussion
of chapter six.
GENERAL SETUP OF THE LASER IN APPLICATION WITH THE SHAKERTABLE
PREAMP
POWER AMPLIFIER
SHAKERTABLE
\
\
ACCELEROMETER
Figure 4.16
48
4.2
Piezoceramics
4.2.1 Description
The
of
piezoelectric ceramic was purchased

selected
the Electro Ceramic Division. The
from Morgan Matroc Incorporated shape for this application exists as a

or generator
square plate and
is
made of a
lead
as
zirconate a
titanate material. The PZT-5A (DOD
Type
II) hydrophones,
plate
can
be
used
receiver
in
accelerometers,
and vibration sensing.
This type
of material
permittivity and time stability. The piezoelectric ceramic inch. The weight of the by 1 inch and a thickness of
.009
has high sensitivity, has dimensions of 1 inch

piezoelectric ceramic
is
1.13
grams
[28,29].
Piezoelectricity
materials and
was
property that exists in certain types of crystalline discovered by Pierre and Jacques Curie in the 1880's.
a
is
Piezoelectric
ceramics
are
hard dense
materials
that are chemically
inert
and
immune to
this
moisture as well as other atmospheric conditions.
These
materials will
change shape while under mechanical pressure and produce a voltage pressure.
The
voltage
is
created
by
is
the
change
in the
crystalline
according to structure. The in

which are all sorts of
opposite can occur when a voltage produced of
applied across these materials ceramics can
dimensional
and
changes.
Piezoelectric
be
made
into
shapes,
the plate shape ceramic

of
was selected
for this
application
because
of an
the
orientation
the poling axes.
Poling
a
is referred to as the polarity in dimension from
the
ceramic
element
when
it
experiences seen
change
applied
voltage or mechanical
force. As
can
axis
of a
ceramic element
in the Figure 4.17 below [28,29], the poling be identified by the y axis where a potential is
created
by
EFFECTS OF POLING
AFTER POLING
BEFORE POLING
AB'
f-B
1
0 0
49
Figure 4.17 X lorgan X latroc Inc.
the pos and neg.
leads. The
change
change
in dimension A is greatly
of
exaggerated
but the
poling
process
does
the
the
dimensions
Other
the
ceramic element.
The
electrodes
are created on
parallel
opposite ends of the ceramic

planes
that is
being
stretched and
the sides
create
to Y axis constrict. through
of
the ceramic element
can
electrodes
dimensional
shear and
changes as seen
in the Figure 4.18 below [28,29].

potential
The deformations in these

thickness shear,
more of
will
planes can show
how the
It is
is
created
during
face
thickness
shear.
also not uncommon
for two
or
these actions to
occur at
the same time.
Obviously
the dimensional
change
be dictated
by the
shape of
the ceramic as
well as
the composition, the
POLING OF PLATES
0 0
^^
A]
LZ3
THICKNESS SHEAR
0~~
J
FACE SHEAR
B]
o-
0-
C)
THICKNESS EXPANSION
Figure 4.18 Morgan Matroc Inc.
orientation of
the poling axis

will stretch
and
the location
the
of
the
electrodes.
cantilever
beam
and contract
piezoelectric plate as analyzer.
In my case, the it vibrates and
create a voltage which will
be fed back into the
As
seen
in Figure 4. 19,
PIEZOELECTRIC VOLTAGES FROM APPLIED FORCES
TENSILE FORCE
POLING AXIS
COMPRESSIVE FORCE
I
+
+ ' COMPRESSIVE
FORCE B
>
TENSIL
~~
'
FORCE
1
1
A
i 1
[T
r.
Figure 4.19 Morgan Matroc Inc.
50
the compressive and tensile terminals
forces
will alternate
the polarity of the voltage at the
[28,29].
aspect of ceramics
Another
and
over
that
one should
be
aware of
is the time stability

in
which
aging
time
rates.
The aging
on
rates of piezoelectic ceramics will change
depending
The time
the
composition
and
the
process
gradually it is
of
manufactured.
period
between poling apparently

to
effects
the stability
the piezoelectric ceramic.

material will
According
become
be
more stable
Morgan Matroc, it is found that the if the time period is longer after poling. The
ceramic
aging
process will
accelerated
in any
if
exposed
to
one or more of
the
following
conditions:
high
mechanical
stress, strong electric
depoling
field
and
high temperatures approaching the Curie point. The Curie point for the PZT-5A plate is around 365 C as listed in the typical values of Lead Zirconate Titanate Materials. I have enclosed this table of information concerning the Lead Zirconate
Titanate Materials from Morgan Matroc Inc. in Appendix M. The Curie
the
maximum exposure
point
is
temperature
which
the ceramic
material all
can withstand. piezoelectric
When the
ceramic element
is heated
above
this temperature,
the
properties are
lost,
and
it becomes
This type
unit
a centrosymmetric structure.
Below the Curie
temperature, these
crystalline moment
within
materials
.
are considered noncentrosymmerric

of crystalline
because
a net
of
its
structure
structure
provides
dipole
the
crystal
cell.
The
voltage
limitations
can
of a
ceramic
is
a
typically between 500V/mm and 1000 V/mm for a Another important factor is a piezoelectric ceramic which
strong
comes
electric
continuous
application.
be depolarized
voltage.
will
by
field
with
polarity
opposite
to the
original
poling
of
When it It
to
high
upon
mechanical
stress,
the
piezoelectric
ceramic
depolarize behaves
The
the
dependent is
the type to
note
of material as well as
the duration
the
applied stress.
interesting
that
for
impact
applications of a
the
material
quasistatically
piezoelectric millisecond
or non-linear
for
pulse
durations
when
few
milliseconds of more.
effect
becomes
linear
the
pulse
duration
reaches
time frame. This is the
due to
the
the short amount of
application
time in
comparison with
relaxation of
created
dipole [28,29].
4.2.3 Experimental
Setup
and
Operation
next
After receiving the piezoelectric ceramics from Morgan Matroc Inc., the the ceramic to the aluminum step was to determine the best adhesive to bond
of adhesives were was
beam. Three types

that the
adhesive
investigated
and at
this time
it
was
thought
playing a major role in affecting the damping of the aluminum beam. Later it was discovered not to be a material bonding issue at all and I will discuss in the results and conclusion section what had caused the
damping
some
problem. what
None the less I thought it
would
be
interesting
to
discuss in
This
detail
I had learned concerning these
adhesives.
The best
adhesive of
the three I had
experimented with would
be
the
silver conductive adhesive.
51
was
purchased
from the Acme Division

which
of
the Allied Products

this as an
Newhaven Ct.. Acme Division

purpose
identifies
Corporation in E-solder No. 3021. The
for selecting this type
of adhesive was
its
resistance and capacitive effects could
for its conducting properties, and be assumed negligible in affecting the

a
damping. The primary benefit of this adhesive is that it allowed pathway through the beam to the fixture where it could be grounded
the beam. This
resistance of
conducting
rather than at
helped
minimize
any
mass
loading
effects seen at
was
the beam. The to be

about and
the ceramic through the thick
section
measured superior
0.0201 Ohms. The
silver conductive adhesive material
has
strength,
it
is very difficult to
Devcon 5-Minute
remove and
from the beam. The
other
two adhesives were the
Epoxy
for
double sticky tape

tape
was
was used
the Ludlow Technical Paper double sticky tape. The in the attachment of the piezofilm, and I believe this
periods of
will work well
long
the
testing before detachment. Also

at
the tape
thin
enough
to
still allow
grounding
table
the
fixture. The Devcon 2

to
withstand
part
when
in
application with and at mid
shaker
was not able

.
long
epoxy durations
of
cycling to break away from the aluminum damping problem that I had investigated high levels
start
would
to
high levels
of stress
The Devcon epoxy would simply beam. It was for reasons due to the
of gain.
High levels
table
of gain
be
considered
as with
and
up
on
the
amplifier on
the
shaker
equipment. at
Similarly
fixture
the Ludlow
tape, the Devcon
adhesive allowed
grounding
the
as well.
capacitive coupling.
These nonconducting adhesives allow a conducting path due to These adhesives act as an insulator when sandwiched between
two metals that if any
with an applied
AC
signal.
Another important
underneath
note
to be
remembered
is
of
the conductive material from
the
ceramic were
to leak out
and no
and make contact with the

signal will
top
surface of
the ceramic, it
will short
itself out
be
present.
The first idea in attempting to bond the

combination of
ceramic
to the beam
was
two
adhesives so
the
prevention of
any
conductive material could ceramic.
not
was
leak
out and make contact with

a square piece of
the
top
surface of
the
What I did first

of
to size
the double sticky tape to fit the

center of
dimensions
This
the
ceramic and then cut out square of
in the
this
piece another square.
middle
sticky tape
then
was removed and
filled
with conductive adhesive material.
This
would
guarantee me a conductive path as well as
creating
a mechanical
barrier further
the
which
successfully
eliminated
experimentation with
any leakage of conductive material. After these materials, I found it was possible to use the
get some of
conductive on
epoxy
alone and
if you happen to
the conductive
material
top
surface
by
accident,
it is
possible
to
scrape
away the
the
excess amount
with a razor
blade. The Figure 4.20 is

beam along
a representation of
ceramic
bonded to
thin
the
aluminum
with a wire solder on
to it. The
wire was a
bnc
cable and
the shielding that

soldered at
was stripped
back
and soldered could now
to
another wire with a
banana clip
its
end.
The banana clip
be fastened to anything
52
on
the
beam fixture in
order
to close the
loop
back to
ground.
I had found any

clip.
of
the nearby clamping screws to
be
a good place
to attach the
banana
PIEZOELECTRIC CERAMIC CONFIGURATION
CONDUCTIVE ADHESIVE
-,
"
SIDE VIEW
j
\
CERAMIC
TOP
VIEW
WIRE SOLDER TO CERAMIC
Figure 4.20
In Figures 4.21
and
and
4.22,
these sketches are the setup for the impact
testing
would
the
shakertable
testing.
on
In the impact testing
figure,
the
hammer
the free side of the beam just behind the ceramic area. generally be impacted The impacts were lightly tapped and the hammer was held in a pendulum format
General
Setup for the Piezoelectric Ceramic
Grounded Lead from BNC Cable
attached
by
silver conductive adhesive
from Acme Division
Figure 4.21
Top view of the
ShakerTable
with
Fixture Screws
j-
ShakerTable
Fixture Plate
'
BBNC
Cable Taped
Cantilever
Beam
with
Figure 4. 22
53
for
striking.
Each time the beam
was
torque
was applied and a square was of
inserted in the fixture, the same amount of always used to ensure the beam was normal
to the edge
square
the
fixture. The beam

maintain
in
order
to
identified precisely at 10 inches using the repeatability whenever the beam was taken off the
was
fixture.
applied
Any
slack of
the wire would
to the beam and the same
be taped up in order to minimize any stress was done for the shaker table setup as well. The
only other thing left to do is to plug the bnc cable into channel B of the analyzer. Again the shaker table setup is essential the same as in the impact case and a
sketch of
this setup
of
is
shown
in figure 4.22. Ensure the beam is

table
and connect
clamped
into the fixture
the
shaker
the
microdot cable
to
channel
correctly B of
tape the
the analyzer. Proceed to fasten the banana clip to a nearby

cable where needed.
screw and
54
4.3
Piezofilms
4.3.1 Description
The
piezo
film
components were purchased

was
Sensor Division. The type FDT1-028K
from ATOCHEM Piezo Film selected and can be used either as a

This
piezo
dynamic
sheet of
strain gage or as a contact microphone.
film is
made of a thin
Kynar
with a
film
of metal on each side.
The film
elements contain silver
ink
patterned electrodes and
the circuit
piezo
lead lines
weighs
are made of mylar which allows

grams and without
it to be very flexible. The female connector it weighs
film
grams
.6772
the blue
.1759
[30,3 1].

The
piezo
film
can come
in
variety
of patterns
Many designs
have already been

well
optimized
for
patterned
fit any application. electrodes for convenient

to
lead attachment,
common mode rejection and shielding.
These
patterns are made as sputtering.
through a process
known in the photolithography field
The
custom patterns are sputtered
through a mask and photo-etched or screen printed
conductive
ink [31].
peizo
The FDT1
mechanical
film is
applied as a
dynamic
strain gage where of piezo
it
performs
used of
to
electrical work or vice versa.
This type
film
will
be
in
the
application of
the
vibration
sensing
of a cantilever
beam. The sensitivity
the
ATOCHEM PIEZOFILM
FDT1-028Kwith
protective
coating
y
44mm X 20cm
Figure 4.23
piezo
film is
quite remarkable and requires no external power.
charge amplifier would
be
needed
is in the
operation of
The only reason detecting a fraction of
hertz. The
where
other alternative signal
is to
use simple
high impedance FET buffer

extreme
circuits
the
levels
are
relatively high. The

material.
sensitivity is
are
largely
due to
the format
of
the piezo film

of
Very
large
stresses
created
by
the
longitudinal forces because
the very thin thickness of the
film. This is why the
piezo
film becomes very sensitive to vibration normal to its sensor between two compliant materials, it can effect the
length directions up to
to a
piezo strain gage a ratio of
and
1000:1. The
as
piezo
placing the in the width sensitivity film transducers can be

surface.
By
compared
but
as
long
the area
is
uniform.
The
output
energy
Thicker
from the
film is
proportional to the volume of the
film
stressed.
films therefore
generate
higher
is be
voltages
but form if
smaller capacitors.
Remember
the area of the film that
not under
going
stress will act as a capacitive required.

when
load
on
the active area and should

occur
minimized
Corrosion
can
sometimes
because
of
the
metallization
especially
they
are
handled. Some
and
conformal
adhesive systems will promote
tarnishing
on some of
the electrodes. The acrylic
type of adhesives are generally the most active in

coatings or acrylic
tarnishing,
of
laminates
are
are
frequently
applied to maintain good surface quality.

procurement
If In
adhesives
needed
in the
order
the
film,
the
electrode
thickness should
general
be increased in
to
minimize
such
corrosion effects.
the synthetic
and
rubber resins, epoxies and cyanoacrylates are applied
in the
lamination
assembly [31].
that could effect the piezo
Other
considerations
at a
film's
performance
of
is
the
driving
the film
high
voltage and
high frequency. The dissipation factor
film may lose

resistivity
which
a substantial amount of
of
the electrodes may

encountered.
be
effected as well as outside
energy in the form of heat. The surface very high localized currents
the
recommended
may be
Operating
limits may
result
in arcing which usually destroys the device. The capacitive nature of the piezo film may become sensitive to electromagnetic interference such as the fluorescent
lights. The
and
effect
from the lights
will
drown the
output signal
from the analyzer,
any strong alternating currents nearby can be a problem as well. Therefore you may need to ensure the leads are shielded. Another common problem could exist especially in self-sensing actuating applications when one element is driven while
another
is receiving the
vibrational
signal.
Great
care must
of
be taken in
order
to
avoid crosstalk or
interference. The
piezo
film is incapable
gain
large displacements, but if sufficient elements in a structure, it can cause it to

Figure 4.24
model
on
producing large forces is applied between two piezo
self oscillate at
its
natural
frequency.
useful
the next page shows the

which applies
equivalent circuit
for
a piezo
film. A
for the film

divider
in
most cases except
for
ultrasonic applications
is
a strain-dependent voltage source
in
series with a capacitor.
Any
resistive
load
The
will
form
off
network with a simple
RC high-pass filter
where r
=
characteristic.
cut
is frequency y 1
given &
by J
Jo
fn
RC
is the
time
constant.
2;rRC
Operation below the

the rate of the
level followed
extend the
frequency will give an output signal proportional to input parameter. Applying constant stress will generate an initial by an exponential decay rate (Exp{RCY). The capacitive load will
cut-off constant
time
will
but decrease
the
magnitude of
the
response.
Note
to
also
that energy
be lost
when
transferring
charge
form
one capacitor
another.
56
Large
capacitive
powerful
modal
loads are useful in attenuating the very large signals arising from impacts on the order of hundreds of volts. But in this application a
using
we need not
hammer,
concern ourselves
about
this
as
long
as
the
impact is
Equivalent Circuit for the Piezo Film

Charge Generator
Voltage Generator
(Cf
Piezo Film capacitance]
Figure 4. 24
soft.
Tapping
the structure
an overload.
with great
force
would most
likely
mass
load the input

table,
never
signal
causing
get
When using the
power amplifier with
the shaker
the gain could very

saw
well produce a
high
voltage
from the
piezo
film but I
it
any
greater
than
100
volts.
It
could
be
possible
to achieve
several
with
hundreds
piezo
of volts
depending
upon what
kind
of amplifier you
build in line
the
film [31].
4.3.3 Experimental
At
shunted
Setup
and
Operation
piezo
first,
I had I
some
difficulties in getting the

load. This
can
film to
achieve
any
discernible
to
connected
was
results.
started out with the presumption that the piezo

was prepared on a
parallel some resistive
by
bnc
cable.
The
frequency
response
be bread board and of the cantilever beam initially

to
film had
terrible,
and some of
with several people
in Appendix H. After consulting from Eastman Kodak Company, particularly Mike O'Brien and
these plots
be
seen
Richard A.
the source
source next
Berg (my father),

of
a plan of action was
the
problem.
It
was
developed to try and determine thought to be noise interference from some
in the room, or the signal could be just too weak for whatever reason. The decision was what type of adhesive to use for bonding the peizo film to the
cantilever
beam; later,
to
the
bonding
material was
thought to
be the
source of our
noise problem.
I
with
was able
conclude after on
exploring many types

was
of resistors
in
to
parallel
the piezo film
the bread board that this
the wrong
thing
do. The
order
frequency brainstorming
solve
responses
were
very
poor
using this circuit arrangement.

program of experiments
From the
process, I
of
was able
to set up a
in
a
to
this
problem
noise.
The first discussed
suggestion signal was
was
to
build
voltage
preamplifier,
thinking
that the piezo film

was
too weak.
Determining
the
type
of amplifier
to build
with several
people, and the diagram is
57
drawn in Figure 4.25

AD545
where
on
the
next page. pot gave
the adjustable
as
The op-amp used in this circuit was an 2.2MQ to 22MQ. The box allowed for
the need to add a the
banana jacks
tried
an
the
input but later on, I found

the preamp in
again
bnc input
was
connector as well.
Applying
conjunction with success.
bread board, I
to
array eliminating the
of resistors and
found
no
The
next
thing
try
r~|
|
2.5
m
T<; 1
The
Berg Preamplifier
MVvHlA-vW
Figure 4.25
bread board, resistors and preamp. The but a strong 60 Hz signal was knocking
next
frequency
out
response
looked
much
better,
as an
the
first
resonance of the piezo
beam. The
but last
suggestion was
to ground the
fixture. The
film acting
antenna though coupled with the
fixture
gone!
was most
likely
was
seeing the 60 Hz signal
from the lights in the

success.
room.
By
grounding the fixture to a nearby outlet, I

The fixture
grounded
had
The 60 Hz.
signal was
using
thick
other
wounded copper wire where one end was end was
tied to a welding clamp and the
inserted into the
ground section of the wall socket.
The ironic thing
was
double sticky tape had nothing to do with the noise problem at all, and I did not have to worry about the adhesive having any profound effects. After finding that grounding the fixture eliminated the noise, I also found the voltage
that the
preamplifier was not needed anymore.
The
signal strength of
the peizo
film
was of
excellent
material
by
I
itself. This type

and
of adhesive
tape
worked
better than any
other
type
found,
it is
made
by
Ludlow Technical Paper
product
#8602. The
peel
advantage of this
tape
is its
strengtrTof
bonding
to the aluminum and ability to the general
back up for reusing

On the
piezo next
or repositioning.
page, Figure 4.26

modal
represents
film
when
using the any time
hammer
on
excitation method.
setup for applying the The bnc cable was film

could
adapted with a
female
connector when
the
end so
setups.
the
piezo
be easily
disconnected
at
changing
Taping
the
lose cabling to the
58
fixture is important because its

Another important
point
weight will add stress and could effect piezo
the
results.
to make is that the
film
should
be
positioned close
to the clamped section of this

of
area of
the cantilever
beam. This is because the strain energy is the highest in beam. The hammer will strike softly on the opposite side
type
motion.
the
beam in
a pendulum
Figure 4.27
represents
the setup
when
General
Setup
for the Piezo Film
Welding Clamp
B&K
2032 Analyzer
Outlet Input Piezo Film
attached
by Ludlow Double Sided Sticky Tape

Figure 4. 26
using the
needed
piezo
film
the
with
the
shaker
table. In this case the only

on
modification well as
is to
secure
cantilever
beam to the fixture

use
the
shaker
table as
grounding it. To
ground
the
fixture,
view of
the
same copper wire and
wrap
one end
Top
the ShakerTable with Piezo Film
Fixture Screws
ShakerTable
Fixture Plate
BNC
Cable Taped
Cantilever
Beam
with
Piezo Film
Figure 4.27
around
nearby
grounded
electrocuted of
by by
All plumbing must be risk is taken in getting standard building code; therefore, less insertion into a wall socket. It was found by bending the other end
pipe
located
near
the
shaker
table.
the
copper wire
into
hook
as
the fixture
would work
just
simply placing it in good. Again make sure the bnc

and
an unused
threaded
hole
on
cable
is taped to the
to
reduce
fixture
and
if needed, to the
side of
the
shaker's exciter
body
in
order
stress on
the
first
taped
section.
59
4.4
Piezoelectric Accelerometer
4.4.1 Description
The
was of
piezoelectric accelerometer type 4344

available
is
made
by
Bruel & Kjaer
and
readily
in the
was
vibration analysis
laboratory
at the
Rochester Institute 2.7
Technology. The
accelerometer
has
detachable
microdot cable and weighs
grams.
The type 4344
the smallest accelerometer available in the
laboratory
weighs
.65
but the lightest

grams
accelerometer that
Bruel & Kjaer has to

attached and cable.
offer
today
The
excluding designed to operate
the
permanently
These
ranges.
accelerometers
are
over wide
frequency
and
dynamic
accelerometer meet or
is
considered
the standard product in measuring
vibration and
is tested to
exceed all relevant products are
IEC, MIL, DIN
CISPR
standards.
The Bruel
and
Kjaer
designed
of
and manufactured
to the most
stringent standards of
quality,
performance and reliability.
The 4344
accelerometer calibration
is traceable to the
National Bureau
Standards in Washington D.C. [35,38].

The
an
piezoelectric material used

polarized
in the
small
type
of accelerometers
today is
Like
can
artificially family. The PZ 23
lead
zirconate titanate
PZ 27;
very
a
similar
to the PZ 23
family basically
differs in that it has
higher
sensitivity.
the other piezoceramic sensors, it comes from
ferroelectric
of
ceramics where
it
be
produced
in any desired
shape and their composition can
be
altered
use
in
order
to
give
them
special
properties.
Accelerometers in
these
type
piezoelectric
and
monocrystalline materials such as quartz where
the
composition
is fixed
the
shape
is
restricted
by
the
crystal
size
which
they
are
cut.
Monocrystalline
than those
elements
with
generally have a lower sensitivity ferroelectric ceramic elements [35].
and
internal
capacitance
The harsh
environment where an accelerometer
is
exposed can sometimes
be very
able to
and must meet
many types
of
of
industrial demands for
successful vibration
measurements.
The list in
demands
that
placed on
the accelerometer must
be
withstand several effects and can
be
crucial
order
is why selecting the appropriate to minimize the sensitivity. Some of these
accelerometer
environmental
effects can be humidity, electromagnetic fields, high sounds, transverse vibration, base bending, temperature fluctuations, high and low operating temperatures, and
even radiation
[27,35].
that Bruel
It is
quite remarkable
& Kjaer has
an accelerometer
to offer for
each of these extreme cases. There are three types of mechanical structures used in
60
the design the Planar
of
the Bruel and Kjaer accelerometer. These three

and
accelerometers are
Shear, Center Mounted Compression Design,
the
superior
design
the
Delta Shear. The Planar Shear

piezoelectric material
and Delta Shear undergo shear deformation of in their designs as seen below in Figure 4.28. Figure 4.29
Planar Shear
Delta
Shear*
Planar Shear
and
Delta
Shear?
designs. M=Seismic Mass,

and
P=Piezoe-
lectric Element,
R=Clamping Ring
B=Base
Figure 4. 28 Planar Shear and Delta Shear Accelerometer Designs
by Bruel &
Kjaer
Figure 4.29 Centre Mounted Compression Shear Accelerometer Design
by Bruel &
Kjaer
describes the
type
compared
compression
type design. The 4344

gives a
accelerometer
is
a compression mass
design. The Delta Shear design

to the other
high sensitivity to
ratio
designs. The Delta Shear type

vast product
of accelerometer
offered
through the Bruel
& Kjaer's
and
line is
a good example where
it may be
effect,
deployed
with
the right
piezoelectric composition
for resisting
of
acoustic sensitivity, pyroelectric
pyroelectric
effect
base
The
strains.
In the
ceramics
case
the
piezoelectric crystals and
ferroelectric
to
become
charged
by
temperature
type
of
inequalities
and changes.
piezoelectric element
in the
compression
accelerometer
is
more susceptible
erroneous ouput results
than the
shear
type
can a
designs due to these temperature

sometimes
control
transients.
which
The
compression
design
be
affected
by
base
bending
as
is
another
disadvantage but in
accelerometer
environment,
it is
used
standard
reference
for
61
accelerometer
accelerometer
calibration.
In humid conditions, generally the
is
welded or
piezoelectric materials
epoxy sealed from its effects [35].
in its
the
construction
housing of therefore isolating

it does
the
the
The
other concern
your
is how to
mount
accelerometer so
not effect
of
the results of
measurements.
Such factors
could
be the location
In my
the
accelerometer and aluminum
the way it is attached to the

wax was
specimen.
case with the
When mounting an free from dirt and grease. The bee's wax was supplied with the accelerometer kit and its officially called Wax YJ0216. Needing a little the recommended wax, only way of applying it is to spread a thin layer on the location where you wish to mount the accelerometer but ensure the area
of attachment.
beam, bee's
the method
accelerometer, be sure the surface is
covered
roll
by the
wax
the
is larger than the foot print of accelerometer. You may need to in around in your fingers in order to warm it up so it can flow better
wax
over
the test surface. While applying pressure,

wax as an option over stud
rotate and slide
the accelerometer a
small amount until of
it feels securely fastened to the beam's

mounting the
surface.
The
advantage
using bee's
accelerometer
is that it is
quick and easy.
that
of
of stud mounting. wax
bee's
wax mounted resonance frequency is slightly lower than Stud mounting is the best of all methods. The disadvantages mounting is the serious temperature limitation of 40C and a
The bee's
maximum vibration
will
level
of
approximately 100
ms2.
Having
too
much
bee's
wax
limit the measuring frequency range. The reason for the temperature limitation of bee's wax is simply because it will melt at these high temperatures and eventually the accelerometer will fall off.
mounted resonance
lower the
frequency
and
Though it is
given much placed
fairly
obvious, the location

main of
of
the the
accelerometer
should should
be be
on
thought. The
sensitivity
axis of
accelerometer
in the direction be
the
the
desired is
measured
direction. The
of
red
dot
accelerometers should
vibration.
positioned
in the direction
the
the
maximum
transverse
Make
sure
accelerometer
never mounted on a nodal point and
understand
that the dynamic
response of
structure can
be
changed as well.
a structure.
The The
mass of the accelerometer can alter accelerometer can small compared negligible.
the dynamic
properties of
of system
influence the
mass of
mechanical
impedance
the
but if the
mass
is
to the
the structure, then the changes in
vibration will
be
general rule of
thumb is to
keep
accelerometer mass
less
than one
natural
tenth
of
the mass
of
the
structure.
In the
case of our aluminum
beam,
the
frequency was
A
this
affected
slightly
by the
addition of
the
accelerometer mass
[27,35].
in
vibration preamplifier model
2626
made
by
Bruel & Kjaer

preamplifiers
was used
application
for
of a
several
reasons.
The
vibration
essentially
perform the role
converting the high impedance
output of
the piezoelectric
accelerometer
into
low impedance
as a
signal which allows
for direct transmission.
This
preamplifier
is designed
for
low
noise charge amplifier which can
be
used as
a transducer as well as
and
accelerometers.
It
also
high frequencies to
reject unwanted signals.
has the capability of filtering low The preamplifier has an overload
62
light to
the
are
voltages that may exceed the preset voltage and it can be set by knob located in the center of the preamplifier. Charge preamplifiers sensitivity in preference to voltage preamplifiers because the charge preamplifiers are guard
for
insensitive to
the system
changes
in lengths
of cables.
When using the

amplifiers
voltage
preamplifiers,
charge
voltage
is
sensitive to cable changes.

an
Charge
do
not
amplify
but
produce
output voltage
that is proportional to the charge. The
preamplifier
voltage changes
does amplify the

the
voltage
but is
proportional
to the
input
use
voltage.
The
preamplifier can also affect

of
the low
frequency
cable.
performance
caused
input
resistance
from the
In
of
the
of
very
by long
will
accelerometer
cables
and
low
gain
settings, noise
the charge amplifier
increase,
at
therefore
can
the input
be
decreasing caused by
the signal to noise
ratio of
the
measurement.
Noise
a combination of two effect
effects, ground-loops and the

generation
of charge
triboelectric
effect.
The triboelectric
is the
in the
coaxial cables
due to the
onto
movement of the cable
during
vibration. can
It is better to
fasten the
machines
cable
where
the vibrating surface.

accelerometer not
Ground-loops
grounded
occur
in large
the
is
not
properly.
For example,
machinery
cables
housing
may
be
at earth
potential,
and a voltage
drop
will exist
along the cable.
Lastly,
remember
that
high
electromagnetic
fields
can affect
these
therefore creating noise as
well
[35,37].
4.4.3 Experimental
The setup for the
Setup
and
Operation
is
rather straight
accelerometer
forward for both impact

the
same
excitation and random excitation.
The impact
excitation method utilizes
fixture
The
as
used
for the
other
three types
of sensors.
The
microdot
cable
was
centered
along
the aluminum
cable
was
beam
and taped off
in the
clamped area of
of of
the beam.
microdot
Conditioning
connected
inserted into the input jack Amplifier Type 2626. The output jack
of
the
the
Bruel & Kjaer

amplifier was
to Channel B
the Bruel
and
Kjaer 2032 Analyzer. This
requires a
of
BNC
and microdot split cable.
The
accelerometer was mounted on
the end
the
aluminum
beam using bee's

General
wax
supplied
by
Bruel & Kjaer. The Figure 4.30
Setup for
the B8K 4344 Accelerometer
B&K
2032 Analyzer
Accelerometer
attached
by Bee Wax
B8K. CONDITIONING AMPLIFIER
TYPE 2626
Figure 4.30
illustrates the
general
calibration sheet can
setup for impact testing. With each accelerometer kit, a be found that contains much information concerning your
63
type of accelerometer. The

sheet
calibration chart of
the
accelerometer
is
basically
data
describing
the resistance, polarity, capacitance, cable capacitance, charge weight,

maximum
sensitivity, voltage sensitivity,

undamped
transverse sensitivity and the
natural
frequency. It
contains
environmental
maximum
temperature and shock and
magnetic and of
information concerning acoustic sensitivity. The data is then dialed in

under
sheet even provides physical
dimensions
the accelerometer as well. The charge

which
sensitivity
of
4344
accelerometer
is 2.97 pC/g
the
Conditioning
Bruel 8 Kjaer
Amplifier Type 2626

semitivitypC/Unit
(T
Ve'1ad Vol. /Unit Out
ft
I0dbfi.m
Overload
Q RESET
KT
piAUiut
..(-0)
.OlV^w ->1
Upper kHz. 30 1
Low^rlfa.
3db
JO
10
0
Q
Input
&
0
Output
Figure 4.31
Top
view of
the ShakerTable
with
B&K 4344 Accelerometer
Fixture Screws
ShakerTable
B&K 2032
Analyzer
CH. B
Fixture Plate
J
B8K CONDITIONING AMPLIFIER Cantilever
TYPE 2626
Accelerometer
BNC
Cable Taped
Beam
with
Figure. 4.3shown in Figure 4.31. The red light will indicate sensitivity of 2626 amplifier as turned to 3 Hz. and the the decimal point. The lower frequency knob should be knob can be set at 3,000 Hz. Similarly, the shakertable setup will upper
frequency
be
no
different
when
using
the
accelerometer
and
preamplifier
in
this
64
arrangement.
The only difference could be the setting of the volts per unit knob. Even in the setup using the shaker table the preamplifier will be the same except for the Volt/Unit Out may be different and that is dependent on the vibration level
seen
by
the accelerometer. The units

channel
of
the
charge
sensitivity
overload
will
be
matched
of
under
the
will
menu of
the B&K 2032
analyzer and
the coefficient
these
units
be the
how
volts/unit
from the is
preamplifier.
The
light
will come on
depending
excitation
much vibration
seen
by
the
accelerometer
from the
The
amount of
input to the
can
structure.
The
overload and
excitation
20db from
section.
overload will
be
the
discussed in
accelerometer
further detail
under
the
on
cable
of
be
seen
taped
the fixtures in both

them to
setups. stiff
The
other
precaution with of application. never could
these type of cables

seen
is that I found
be too
for this type

that it
As
in the
shaker
table sketch, the cable was
stiff enough
touch the aluminum
the
matter
in
which exhibited minimum stress so
beam. None the less, the cable was positioned in the best dynamic response could
be
measured.
Also the
creation
minimize
the
energy was intentionally small so that it could of these noises. The accelerometer was placed at the end of
excitation where
the beam simply

the case
at
with
because this is
it
would see
the most
acceleration
just
as
the laser
vibrometer.
Also the
accelerometer's
wax needs
base
can not
be
placed
the very
edge of the
beam because the bees
to come past the
base for
secured mounting.
65
5. EXCITATION TECHNIQUES
5.1
Impact Excitation
5.1.1 Description
is the striking of a structure through the use hammer. Impact excitation can be a veiy fast method of performing a for determining the dynamic characteristics in a structure. A Type
excitation
Impact
of an
impact
nansient test
hammer from Bruel & Kjaer features
a calibrated
tips, an additional end mass, an optional dot cable routed through the shaft for protection
8202 impact force transducer, three different built in line drive amplifier and a micro
as well as
preventing it from
very important
interfering with the

the analyzer. The
impact
of a
test. The
hammer
also comes with a
specification sheet which gives the calibration
factor that is
figure below is
a sketch of what
for operating the Type 8202 impact hammer

needed
looks like [12,38].

Bruel
and
Kjaer Impact Hammer Type 8202
<2
/A
Figure 5. 1

The impact hammer creates a force that transfers energy into the structure. The energy going into the structure occurs for a small amount of time, and the shape of the force signal is dependent upon the type of tip on the hammer, the
mass of sensed
the
hammer,
The
and
the type of structure
under
investigation. The force is
by
a sensor called a
pulse.
force
transducer
viewed
located
at
the
tip
of
the hammer called
the
force
pulse can
be
by
selecting Time Channel A. from the
66
B&K 2032 Dual Channel Analyzer

the
upper
and
an example of a such plot can page.
be
seen
in
trace in Figure 5.3
on
the next
The
frequency
the
effect of
bandwidth from the

the
signal
force
signal will
be dictated
by
the
characteristics of
hammer. The increase in
stiffness of
the hammer
tip
and structure
has the
decreasing
length
and
increasing
the
the
frequency
signal and
bandwidth. The
effect of additional
hammer
mass can widen
force
subsequently lower the
cut off
frequency. The
taken
when
impact hammer
should
be
recalibrated
making a change in mass of Impact excitation has
before any the hammer [6, 12].

are
measurements are
several advantages and
disadvantages in its testing.

and
The
advantages
of
impact testing
that the
testing is very fast

fixtures
required and
usually
portable
requires a
low
number of
averages; there are no
it is
as compared with
the shaker
are:
the
impact hammer
technique
table; lastly, it is easy to use. The trouble areas using the force signal creates high crest factors making the
for
nonlinear
impact
inapplicable
systems,
it
requires
special
windowing, gives
control
desceptive
of
the
excitation
results, is easy bandwidth. The
to misinterpret ringing and

crest
has limited
the ratio
factor is defined
the
signal
as
between the
peak and
the standard
deviation, RMS, in
Operation
[6,7,1 1, 12,36].
5.1.3 Experimental
Setup
and
The setup involves the following equipment: the Bruel and Kjaer 2032 Dual Channel Signal Analyzer, the 8202 Type Impact Hammer, the 2626 preamplifier
for the impact hammer, the isolation table, the fixture for the beam and a selected The diagram below gives a general overview of the setup. When sensor. Kjaer's Analyzer, Channel performing dual channel FFT analysis on the Bruel &
B. is
always
General Overview
of an
Impact Excitation
Setup
B8K 2032 Analyzer
1 {Impact Swing Motion)
Figure i 2
dedicated for the sensing input and Channel A. must be the excitation input. The 2626 charge B&K impact force transducer hammer is connected to the input of the
67
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,
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ihjE
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+
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'd
X CO
in a
,1
'
*~
7. i
a a
*-4
in
S a
amplifier,
analyzer.
and
the output cable from the

sensor
amplifier
goes
to channel A. of the
of channel
B. of the information for each sensor can be found in corresponding setup chapter four. The beam's fixture is made of aluminum, and it is designed for the face of the beam to be set vertically as seen in the above sketch. This is due to the
connected
The desired
the
is
to the
input
analyzer and
requirements
of
the
laser
was
vibrometer.
The
area
of
impact
was
located
as
approximately 1 inch away from the
clamped end of the
beam. The
method of
tapping
hammer
the beam
by hand
investigated;
the end
of
I found it best to swing the hammer
a pendulum.
The thumb
and
index finger
would act
like
pin
joint for pivoting the

arm
which was
located
at
the
handle.
Using
my
to generate the
momentum
for the hammer, the hammer would swing slightly back and then tap beam. Upon reflecting back towards myself, I would squeeze my thumb and finger to stop the hammer from tapping the beam again. The elbow would always
the
rest
on
my
leg
while
sitting in the
chair.
If the
a
beam
was
fixtured
lying
horizontally
where
the
tapping
would
be in
downward direction, I found the

of small
wrist muscles would often
twitch
for these type
taps and cause problems
such as mass overloads and
double hits [12,24,25].
5.1.4 Experimental Procedure for

The
This
process steps
Calculating
the Loss Factor
Kjaer 2032 Signal Analyzer
for calculating the material damping using the Bruel & and impact excitation are listed below in five parts.
the
user
written procedure assumes
has
some experience and
familiarity
with
moving
around through
the menus
on
this
analyzer
[39,40].
1)
in
Choose the type

chapter
of sensor
to be
four. Connect the
cable
follow the setup instructions given to the channel A of the analyzer to the output of
used and
the Type 2626
charge amplifier and attach
the impact hammer to the input

pC/unit on
of
the
charge amplifier.
stated on
Set the sensitivity to 1.00
the charge
amplifier as
the
calibration sheet
from the hammer.

to Measurement
2)
the
In the B&K analyzer,
go
Setup
and enter number
19 for
Dual Spectrum
Averaging
A
and
windows
for
channel
setup using the default transient and exponential channel B respectively. The following changes made
at this point will
be:
set
AVERAGING CH. A
and
to
LIN,
100
and
MANUAL ACCEPT
CH. B
must
be 3 Hz. DIR.
BASEBAND
of
CENTER FREQ.
choose
Move to the very bottom

press
the
screen
(under the
generator
function)
and
will
the
number
and enter
key. The SPECIAL PARAMETERS
69
activate and enter
2032 for the DEC VALUE

on
at
the very end
of
the
line. This
acts as a
key to
turn
the special
parameters.
Set the FREQ. SPAN, to the desired

will
frequency
of
range and
the
other settings
correspondingly default.
should
DELAY
be
set at
less than 10%
the period
(T)
3)
Go to the DISPLAY SETUP

objective
at
A.. The
this point
weighted window
in
channel
and set to 14 or toggle to TIME CHANNEL is to set the shift and length of the transient A. The shift of the transient weighted window will be
or
the same as the exponential window
transient
window
in
channel
B. The
following
steps
in
determining
these time
values are:
While tapping the beam
with
the amount
of
force
you expect
to
tap during
the
test, Output
monitor
until
the overload light from the charge amplifier. Set the Volts/Unit
out and the 20 db from overload light stays lit. from the Volts/Unit Output in the measurement setup for channel A. ( ex. V/Unit was determined from the charge amplifier so key in lOOmV/N in channel A.)
this light goes
Set this
value
.001
Note: The Set the
same
must
occur
when
using the
charge
amplifier
with
the
accelerometer sensor. scale
to 80db
and change
Prepare to tap the beam and immediately begin tapping the beam
tapped
off and
REAL to MAG. (at the top of the screen) press the AUTORANGE button. Then,
at
the amount
the
of
force
expected to
be
A.
during
the
the test. Continue
tapping
This
beam
until
the single
light turns
continue
light
goes on.
will preset
the
voltages on channel
and channel
well as
B.
and create an overload signal that will

amplifier when you
flash
on
the screen as
on
the charge
of
accidentally tap harder than the

channel
expected
level
force.
when
Press the START button in the MAG.

necessary.
response
mode.
ready to tap the beam. Ensure Remember to Autoscale the
A. is
when
screen
On the screen, move the of the curve begins. The

value
cursor
to the left
of
the spike where the smooth part
in the X: (under MAIN) is to be inputted in the SHIFT for WEIGHT CH. A: and WEIGHT CH. B: Cursor to MAIN and toggle this field till the DELT. is seen.
Press the SET SPECIAL CURSORS button
spike. and cursor
to the
right of
the
Read the AX: field A:
and
input this
value
for the transient LENGTH in
channel
70
4)
Cursor to TIME CHANNEL A:

objective
channel of this
and toggle to
TIME CHANNEL B:. The

window
section
is to
set
the
exponential
LENGTH in
B. The
following steps are:
Set the
scale
to 80db and change REAL to MAG.
Press the AUTOSCALE button if needed. Under the TIME CHANNEL B: field, change the
ms
max value
from the X: 0.0

FREQ. SPAN.
76
max
value
to equal
the time record T from the to

view
information. This
or
will allow you
the
entire
time
record.
either number
Go to the SPECIAL PARAMETERS

77
trace.
area
and
input
(lower) (upper) for identifying if the screen is in the lower or upper By pressing the FORMAT button, you are able to identify which display item is on what trace. Enter a 2 in the DEC VALUE: at the end of the line of selected trace, the artificial damping created by the exponential
window section
will
be displayed. Refer to
appendix
J in the
special
parameters
for
more
information if needed.
is to have
a
At this
point the objective
fair
amount of signal mode
to noise from the to about 40 db if
maximum value of
the
exponential
decay
in the MAG.
would
possible.
In the
case of
lightly damped beams,

change
this amount
of signal
to noise ratio, and it
it may not be possible to obtain have to be determined for
that
particular setup.
The way to
of
the
decaying
and
slope
is to have the
value till
cursor
in
channel
B.
exponential
LENGTH
increase the
the
as
slope reaches the appropriate

understood
db
range.
It
could
be
as much as
10 to 15 db
from Bruel
and
Kjaer. Therefore, the

this is
value placed
here
directly
of
effects
chapter
the
damping
calculation and
referred
to
as
as
discussed in
the
3.
According to
Bruel & Kjaer, the larger the T
the accuracy
damping
If the
will
be improved.
window
exponential
was
replaced
with
transient
same
window,
as above
the
LENGTH for this

the
window would
be determined the
independent
the
of signal
way
but
damping
calculation
is
now
the
window ratio.
length. This
would also
involve the
consideration of
to noise
5)
This
part will
frequency
involve producing the range; zoom in on the
frequency
resonance
response
of
the
interested
and
frequency
of
choice
determine the
damping for this
resonance.
Toggle the FORMAT button till
dual
screen appears.
Select
at
the
top
set
of
the
screen
FREQ. RESP HI
and ensure and at
to the
right
of
this that
it is
to MAG. Go to the bottom
trace,
its top, toggle till the
COHERENCE is displayed.
71
Prepare to tap the beam once and then press the SINGLE button and then PROCEED in order to quickly take the 100 averages. If the coherence screen looks good and the does not produce
tap
any
overloads or
and
double taps, proceed to cursor in determine the resonance frequencies.
the FREQ.
RESP. HI trace
Go to CENTER FREQ. choose ZOOM Select and toggle for the frequency in FREQ. SPAN, to the desired
frequency
range and
the
other settings will
correspondingly default. See the

and
experimental plots
in Appendix B.
as reference.
Prepare to tap the beam once and then press the SINGLE button PROCEED in order to quickly take the 100 averages.
then
Assuming
tap was good and the beam did not break, proceed the cursor in the FREQ RESP. HI. to determine the resonant frequency. Press SET SPECIAL CURSORS ( this will zero out the X and Y)
our
talented
to
Change the MAIN to REF.

Move the
cursor
cursor
from the
of
resonant
frequency
in FREQ. RESP. HI trace

-lOdb
and
to the left
the resonance
peak until a minimum of
change
in
AY
can
be
read.
Toggle the AY button till ELEM. (element
#)
appears and
copy this
at
value of
into the DEC VALUE

the
screen. parameters
resonance.
of
SPECIAL PARAMETERS #41

a typical
the bottom
See Appendix B for

and
data
sheet with
the table
of special of
DEC
value
information
needed
in the
extraction
the
Cursor to the right
of
the resonance
and note
its
element number.
Subtract the
left
A
element number
from the right

of
element number and
input the difference
in the DEC VALUE

number
SPECIAL PARAMETERS #42
should
be
for
placed
in
the
DEC
VALUE
of
SPECIAL
PARAMETERS #40 for the transient

the
special parameters more
weighted window. on
See Appendix J in
information
#48
#40.
Special
Parameters
response
#47
and
correspond
frequency
VALUE.
from the
applied windows
by
in viewing the weighted entering a two in the DEC
At this point, the resonance should look filtered as sketched on the data sheets used in Appendix B. The response will look sharply cut off and now needs to be tapered to smooth out the resonance. This can be subjective to a small
extent
in how
much
taper should
be
given
but in general,
resonant
give
as
little in
tapering
as possible until satisfied.

and
The way to taper the left the DEC VALUE in

respectively.
the right
side of
the
is to input
#43
values
the
SPECIAL
PARAMETERS
and
#44
other.
for symmetry purposes these The tapering could range from 15 up to 25.
Generally
values should equal each
72
Go to the
upper
trace and cursor to the FREQ. RESP. HI
and enter
28 to
bring
says MA. for the Hilbert Transform to activate. Inspect for the straightest portion of the slope from the IMPULSE RESP. MAG. and cursor to the top of the smoothest portion of the slope. Press the SET SPECIAL CURSORS to clear the AY in the REF. area. Note: never start on
up the IMPULSE RESP. function. Ensure to the right that it
any
portion of the
knee
on
of
the Impulse Response Magnitude.

while
Move the
cursor
to the right
the screen
watching the AY containing

now
change
in
db. When the

slope within
cursor reaches a
-8.7
db
and
is
still
decent
straight
this
bound,
the time constant T
is
determined by reading
the AX from above the AY.
The
material
damping
can now
be
computed
from
equations
3.5
and
3.6 in
chapter
chapter
3, Modal Testing. Figure 2. 1 1 may be

2.
process
used as well which
is found in
Repeat the
for the
next resonance
if desired.
5.2
Random Excitation
5.2.1 Description
Random
and
excitation refers
to the
amplitude and phase of
the
excitation
force
it is
a continuous signal which never repeats

and
itself. This
signal
is
generated
from the Bruel

the
Kjaer 2032 Analyzer

cantilever
and
fed
through the power amplifier to to the shakertable

which
the shakertable. The

produces
will
beam is rigidly
the
attached
random excitation and
application of
the four types
of sensors
have the opportunity to sense the response of this type of excitation from the cantilever. Figure 5.4 below illustrates what a random signal may look like in
acceleration versus
time
[12,26]
Random Noise Signal
Figure 5.4
73

The
called
amplitude of the random signal
can
only be
predicted
in terms
of
statistical parameters.
This
can
be described in
terms of
its
power spectral
density
the
Autospectrum, its Autocorrelation
Function
and
the
amplitude
probability density. The Autocorrelation is related to the Autospectrum via a Fourier Transform, and the amplitude probability density is the probability of containing amplitude values within an interval of Ax which is divided by the size
of
that
interval Ax
The
amplitude
probability
density
average, the
instantaneous
content
amplitude of the signal

not contain
describe how, on the is distributed as a function of

can
the amplitude level

the
but does
[12].
signals
information concerning the time

will
history
or
frequency
The
random
used
in
practice
will
have
normal
or
Gaussian
records
probability distribution.
will
The
analyzer
have the individual time
containing the amplitude and phase for
each
frequency
of
and across
the
spectrum
it
have,
on
the average, the same amount
random signal should
be
a constant spectral
energy for all frequencies. The density in the frequency range being
examined,
and
the Autospectrum should be
is
sometimes called a a
wide
over
range
flat in this frequency range. This signal band limited white noise signal. The structure is now excited of force at each given frequency due to the random
[6,12,26].
a random signal
characteristics of
the
signal
The
main purpose
for using
is that it
randomizes
any
non
linear
effects
and
averages
them to give the
best linear
dynamic
approximation.
One
a
advantage of
zoom or
using
random noise excitation
is that the
more
signal can
be
shaped range
to fit
baseband
Thus the
measurement
for giving
the
frequency
excited.
in the
analysis.
frequency
[12].
outside
analysis will not
be
An
advantage
in using
created
a shaker table over

user
impact testing is that it

considered as noise at
eliminates
the
skill and error
by the
The
random signal
is
the
input because
of
the
non-
linearity
estimate response
in the signal, and therefore, the Frequency Response HI is the best of a linear fit to the system because we are trying to approximate the rather than describe the non-linear behavior. Frequency Response HI
the
output channel
relates as much of
while
(sensor)
to the input
channel
(excitation)
minimizing the
amount of noise at
which
the output.
Frequency
Repsonse HI is
may be encountered when using these sensors. Also, another type of noise that is created at the input is the impedance mismatch between the shaker and the structure. This will cause the input force signal to drop
ideal for
expected noise
at
the
resonance
frequencies
effect at
of
the
structure.
Frequency Response
H2 is usually
insensitive to this from the

minimize
used sensors.
the input assuming that there is no output noise coming Frequency Response H2 is similiar to HI, but its purpose is to
that come from the input. The weighting
any
noise
in
random excitation
is
Hanning
window
because
of
function commonly its smoothness at the
74
entry
and
exit of
the
data
record.
The
smoothness
of
the
window
will
cause
leakage in the
could also
spectral estimate.
To
minimize this effect
Frequency
Response H2
be
used unless a zoom analysis
is
performed.
zoom analysis
is the
extra
time needed to
conduct
The only problem with the test. In my case, I decided it

zoom analysis when
was
best to
go with
window
Frequency
[6,12].
Response HI using
applying
the
Hanning
5.2.3 Experimental
Setup and
Operation
The setup involves the following equipment: the Bruel and Kajer 2032 Dual Channel Signal Analyzer, the Bruel and Kjaer Vibration Exciter System, the 2626 preamplifier for force sensing using an accelerometer, and a selected sensor. The
vibration exciter system
general
purpose
up Head Type 4812
is
made
of
the 4801 Vibration Exciter the
Body
with
the
and
Power Amplifier Type
1047. The
diagram below
channel
When performing a dual Bruel & Kjaer's Analyzer, Channel B. is always dedicated for the sensing input and Channel A. must be the excitation input. The B&K Type 4369 accelerometer is connected to the input of the 2626 charge
gives a general overview of the setup.
FFT
analysis on the
amplifier and
the output cable from the charge
amplifier goes
to
channel
A.
of
the
the
analyzer. shaker's
The B&K Type 4369

cantilever
accelerometer was screwed
to the
top
plate of
fixture. The
beam
the
was sandwiched shaker
between two
parallel plates
that
were attached
to the
head
of
of
table. The desired
sensor
is
connected
to the input
of channel
B.
the
analyzer and
the corresponding setup information
for
each sensor can
be
referenced
back in
chapter
four [2 1,22,23,24,25].
GENERAL SETUP OF THE BRUEL AND KJAER'S SHAKERTABLE
DC Input PREAMP
POWER AMPLIFIER
Cantilever Beam SHAKERTABLE
Figure 5.5
The
random signal
is
via a
bnc
cable and
from the Signal Generator on the B&K 2032 Analyzer connected to the DC Signal Input on the Power Amplifier
sent
75
located in the back. The

connected constant
exciter
body
The
3-phase The
power cables
should
already be
to the power amplifier.
settings on
the Power Amplifier were

settings
are as
kept
except
for the
gain
control.
standard
followed
[21,22,23,40]:
1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8)
The
the
Range
A(rms)
10
=
Head Constant(mm/s)/V
58.4
=
Displacement Limit (mm)

Current Limit
12.7
A(nns)
=
22 5
Ouput Impedance Amplifier Gain

Range V
rms
=
low
Direct Current Output

=
(amps)
operator select
accelerometer was chosen to sense the

were no available on
force
signals
from the
shaker off
because there
force transducers
and noticeable
that I could
find. I did take
force transducer
I did
the
impact hammer
any
tested it in
comparison with
the
accelerometer.
not see
differences in the
coherence
among the
two types in the
hammer in
second
frequency response. I did use the force transducer from the impact determining the damping problem that I ran into with the loss factor for natural frequency on the shaker table. Chapter 6 will discuss this problem
was also
in futher detail. This
done to illustrate the
coherence comparison.
5.2.4 Experimental Procedure for

The
Calculating
material
the Loss Factor
process steps
for calculating the

the Bruel and
Kjaer 2032 Signal
Analyzer,
using the Bruel & Kjaer Vibration Exciter System and
damping
random excitation are
listed below in four

and
parts.
This
written procedure assumes
the
user
has
this
some
experience
familiarity
with
moving
around
through the
menus on
analyzer
[39,40].
to be
follow the setup instructions given in chapter four. Insert and position correctly the cantilever beam between the parallel plates and tighten all the screws. Connect the cable to channel A of the
1)
Choose the type
of sensor
used and
analyzer
to the
output of
the 2626 Type

of
charge
amplifier and attach
the 4369
accelerometer
to the input
the
charge
amplifier.
Set the sensitivity to 2.16

the
units
pC/unit on
on channel
the
charge amplifier as stated on

analyzer
its
calibration sheet and set
A in the
to
V/m/s2
In the B&K analyzer, using the same Measurement Setup number 19 for the Dual Spectrum Averaging, make the following changes as listed and some
2)
76
these windows
this point
will
will
fall into their default
settings.
The
following
changes made at
be:
to DUAL SPECTRUM AVERAGING
and
Ensure MEASUREMENT
.
set
AVERAGING
number of
set
to
LIN,
400
OVERLAP: MAX. (user
select
for
averages) CH. A and CH. B must be 3 Hz. DIR. CENTER FREQ. choose BASEBAND Move to the very bottom
press
of
the
screen
(under the
generator
function)
and
will
the number 3 and
enter
key. The SPECIAL PARAMETERS

at
activate and enter

acts a
2032 for the DEC VALUE

on
the very end
of
the line. This
key to
turn
the special parameters.
Set the FREQ. SPAN, to the desired

will
.
frequency
range and
the
other settings
DELAY
correspondingly default. should be 0.0 ms

set
TRIGGER
to FREE RUN
set
WEIGHTING
window
will
to HANNING (hint:
untill
Cursor to
Weighting instead
of
type
and
toggle
just the
one
Hanning
window comes up.
This
be
applied
to
both channels.)
3)
are:
This
part
will
introduce the activating

Bruel
and
generator
function
and the
using the Kjaer Vibration Exciter System. These steps

of
random
the
noise
Follow the instructions

analyzer
given
above
to the
power
supply
and
for connecting the cable from the ensure the power box on the wall is turned
on.
Go to the bottom
right.
of
the
screen where
it
says
GENERATOR
and cursor
to the
Toggle the
menu
till RANDOM NOISE appears. The button to turn
this on from the
analyzer
is
off
to the right
of
the
screen and near
the
button
in the
that is
pressed
for printing
plots out.
The
generator should
"on"
say
analyzers'
screen.
Turn the Gain knob to
zero on
the
power supply.
Then,
turn the SET-UP
CONTROL knob to STAND-BY
and
listen for the
shakertable to turn on.
If
it does
not
turn on,
switch
back to LEVEL,
and again go
to
STAND-BY.
Once the
should
shakertable on
is
running, turn this

shaker
switch
to
OPERATE.
(Nothing
be moving
the
table)
While slowly turning up the Gain to 1 in my case, or for whatever setting is desired, monitor the overload light from the charge amplifier for channel A.
Set the Volts/Unit Output

overload
until
this light goes out and the 20
db form
light
stays
lit.
77
Set this
channel
value
from the Volts/Unit Output in the

.001
measurement
setup for
A. ( ex. V/Unit in lOOmV/N in channel A.)

Note:
was
determined from the

using the
charge amplifier so
key
the
The
same
must
occur
when
charge
amplifier
with
accelerometer sensor.
Set the
scale
to 80db
while
Press the AUTORANGE button

expected amount of
generator off when
the
shaker
is
still on.
This
will
be the
force
to
be
excited
during
A.
the test. Turn the analyzer's the continue
the single
light turns
on
off and
light
goes on.
an
This
will
preset the
voltages on channel
and channel
B.
and create
overload signal
when
that
will
flash
the
screen as well as on
the charge
amplifier
you
accidentally
excite the
system more
than the expected
level
to
of
force.
Turn the LEVEL
power amplifier
SET-UP CONTROL knob to STAND-BY

when
or
depending upon
the test
is going to be
started.
4)
involve producing the frequency response of the interested frequency range, zoom in on the resonance frequency of choice and determine the damping for this resonance.
part will
This
Toggle the FORMAT button till
dual
screen appears.
Select
at
the
top
set
of
the screen FREQ. RESP. HI
and ensure
to the right
of
this that
it is
to MAG. Go to the bottom trace and at
its top toggle till the

level
while at
COHERENCE is displayed.
Turn
the random generator on and the power amplifier to
the
selected
Gain level. Press the SINGLE button to
start the number of selected
averages.
Once the averaging has stopped, power off the amplifier to level. If the coherence screen looks
occurred,
then
proceed
generator and set
the
power
good and no overloads
have
and
to
cursor
in the FREQ.
RESP. HI
trace
determine the
sensor and or signal
resonance green
frequencies. Remember to
and oscilloscope
monitor
the accelerometer
the
light
for the laser
sensor
for
overloads
conditioning problems. CENTER FREQ. choose ZOOM Go to
Select
and
toggle
for the
the
frequency
in FREQ.
SPAN, to the desired
frequency
range and
other-
settings will
correspondingly default. See the

to the operate mode.
experimental plots
in Appendix C.
the
as reference.
Proceed to turn
on
generator and
the
power amplifier
Press the SINGLE button to take the

Proceed to the
cursor
number of
desired
averages. resonant
in the FREQ RESP. HI. to determine the
frequency.
Change the MAIN to REF.
78
placed in the DEC VALUE of SPECIAL PARAMETERS #40 for the Hanning weighted window. See Appendix J in the special parameters for more information on #40.
should
number
be
Go to the
upper
trace
and cursor
to the FREQ. RESP. HI
and enter
28 to
bring
up the IMPULSE RESP. function. Ensure to the right that it says MAG. for the Hilbert Transform to activate. Inspect for the straightest portion of the slope from the IMPULSE RESP. MAG. and cursor to the top of the smoothest portion of the slope. Press the
SET SPECIAL CURSORS to

start on
portion of
clear
the AY in the REF. area. Note:
never
knee of the Impulse Response Magnitude. any Move the cursor to the right on the screen while watching the AY change in db. When the cursor reaches a -8.7 db and is still containing a decent straight slope within this bound, the time constant T is now determined by reading
the
the AX
from
above
the AY.
can now
The
material
damping
be
computed
from
equation
well
2.26 found in the
chapter chapter
2, Damping. Figure 2.11 may be

2.
used
as
which
is found in
Repeat the
process
for the
next resonance
if desired.
5.3
Other Excitation Techniques

The
other excitation
techniques that
were
briefly
examined was
the pseudo
random excitation and
the sinewave excitation. Both these methods
were applied
using the B&K 2032 Analyzer and

to the right
technical
presented of
they
are
easily
selected
by toggling
the
window with
will
the generator
of
window.
This
section
is
to
become familiar discussions that length T

where
the
background
in the
these
methods
for
purposes of
be
next chapter
[6,
1 1, 12].
Pseudo-random
excitation
is
a random signal
of
which repeats
every
exist
period of at
time T. The
spectrum
becomes discrete
in the
analysis.
the energy only

period
the frequencies
being
length
sampled of
The
length is lines in
matched with the record

of
the
analyzer so
that the
the
pseudo-random signals will coincide with
the computed
frequency frequency
with
components
the
analyzer.
Rectangular
of
weighting
should
be
used
pseudo-random
no
leakage in the This is the spectral estimates as long main advantage of using pseudo-random excitation because the signal is designed so that each frequency component has the same amplitude in the frequency range
excitation
because
its
periodic nature; as a result as there
there
will
be
is
no noise at
the input
or output.
of
interest, but
good
the
phase angle
between the different

work, and
components will
be
random.
This is
for low
frequency
only
low
number of averages are
79
needed.
lineai-
Pseudo-random
excitation and
rectangular
weighting is only
valid
for
approximation of a
system; it is
not valid
for
a non-linear system
because
the
non-linear effects will not
5.6 is
a plot of
time channel
.
be periodically averaged out. On the page 81, Figure A. that was measured from the force transducer from
traditional
method
the impact hammer [6, 1 2] Sinewave testing is

and
for creating
an excitation source
the sinewave
is
applied
usually
of
by
stepping
controlls
or
sweeping through the
frequency
crest
range of
interest. This type
testing
the input signalvery well, the
factor is
low,
and the signal to noise ratio
is
good.
It is
also
linear
systems.
slowest
The only disadvantage to conduct [1 1,26].
with
this type of
best for studying non testing is that it is the
80
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DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
6.1
The loss factor
was
of
the Loss Factor
determined for
10 inch
aluminum
cantilever
beam
The
and
using four different types
of sensors and two types of excitation techniques.
four types impact
of
sensors
are
the laser vibrometer, piezoceramic, piezofilm,

and
piezoelectric
accelerometer,
and
the two types

of
random
of excitation
methods
are
the
a
method
the
application
of
noise
through
the
use
of
shakertable.
The determination
the
loss factor for the first
and second modes of
the beam
to be investigated. The analytical solution of the natural frequencies for these modes were determined by two representative models of the beam. The first analytical model was a free cantilever beam and the second
were chosen analytical model was
cantilever
beam
with
an
end
mass.
These
models
are
assumed
to represent the general
physical characteristics of
the beam. The free

the the
cantilever
beam
model of
the predicted natural

of
frequencies
was compared with
beam
used
in the
application
the
laser
vibrometer,
piezofilm,
and
piezoceramic.
effect
the
as an end cantilever
In this application it was assumed that these sensors would not dynamic characteristics of the beam. The accelerometer was simulated mass in the second model for predicting the natural frequencies of the
model can
beam. This
be
compared with
of
the
model of
the
was
free
cantilever
beam to determine dynamic from the
whether
the mass
the
accelerometer
affecting the
To test this
what amount
characteristics of
accelerometer
the beam. I assumed that any
partial amount of weight negligible.
cable was
very small, therefore
assumption
I incremented the
match
end mass
in the
model
to determine
was
needed to
the
measured natural
several grams more was
than the 2.7 grams of
frequency. I found this only to be the accelerometer. Learning this, I felt it

amount of cable
not worth
trying
beam
to
measure of
the
partial
mass
since
the the
measured natural
frequencies
model.
the
free
cantilever
beam did
to
not even match

of
free
cantilever
Since
the predicted resonant
frequencies
the two
other
models were sensors also
different, I
their
should expect
the
damping
the
be different from the

of
due to
weight
being
much smaller than

upon
that
the accelerometer and
because the
The
damping
is dependent
are
resonant
frequency.
of
analytical
and
experimental
natural
frequencies
the
ten
inch
aluminum cantilever
beam
listed in the summary Tables 6. 1

the
ten percent
and
6.2
on pages
frequencies of difference. The measured the first natural frequencies by the piezoceramic sensor using the impact excitation was the closest to the natural frequencies predicted from the model. The natural frequency
81
and
82
respectively.
The
experimental and
analytical natural
and second mode are well within a
measured
from the laser
vibrometer and piezofilm
essentially the same for both the first frequencies from the piezoceramic sensor
and second modes.

varied
using the impact excitation was The measured natural

the
most
between the two
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methods of excitation.
and piezofilm
The
measured natural
frequencies using the

the
natural
accelerometer
did
not
vary
much with
the
method of excitation.
The
Appendix A
analytical
models
for
determining
frequencies
are
in
and the plots of

and
the
experimental
frequencies
are
in Appendix B for
the Impact Excitation

analytical
solutions
Appendix C for the Random Noise Excitation. The for these natural frequencies were solved by the classical
approach
using the method of continuous systems. The results for the loss factor were very
applied sensors and
interesting
As
in the
comparison
of
between the
the
excitation methods.
shown
in Table 6.2
the second mode, the
difference in the loss factor

in the
immediately
stands out
what was
between
causing
the the
the two excitation techniques. It was not apparent to me at
first
the extra amount
of
damping
second natural
frequency. The
proved
outcome of
investigation
shaker of
as
to why there
was such a
difference
to be caused
by
table.
By inspecting
was
the
frequency
order
response of
the second mode, the
peak
the resonance
blunt in
comparison with the response
from the impact test. for this difference

and
Several ideas
such as
were attempted
in
to
determine the
cause
examining the
the to
mode
adhesives used
in the
bonding
of
the sensors
varying
the
of
gain control on
power amplifier of
the shakertable.
the second the beam
other resonant modes was attained
Shifting the frequency by changing the length

the
of
and
applying
using the
alternative methods of excitation such as the random

modal
impact
shaker
excitation
hammer
and pseudo random excitation on
table.
The determination
excitation equipment.
of
the loss factor began
with
the
use
of
the
random
After
determining
from the
the
loss factor for
the modes using the
piezoceramic, the
shape at
response
second mode was observed

response of
to have
blunt
the
resonance.
In examining the
the second mode from the

piezoceramic sensor.
piezofilm, the
same effect of
had
occurred as observed material was
using the
An investigation
with artificial
the
bonding
damping. It
the
was also observed
be affecting the response that the level of gain would effect the
thought to
sharpness of
when
resonance's peak.
Because the
damping
was
found to decrease
piezoceramic, the
was
increasing
the level
of gain
for
either
the
piezofilm or
impact test using these two

obtained
sensors was
conducted.
When the loss factor
using the
piezoceramic and piezofilm sensors

comparison of
for
each of
the two
modes
excitation were quite
in the impact test, the different. The

excitations
these results
between the two
methods of
peaks
from the
frequency
The
peak shaker
response
between
the
techniques was obviously different.

sharper where
from the impact

were
excitation
looked
the
results
from the
table
basically
of
blunt. The differences in

gain on
these
peaks resembled
Figure 2.4 back in Chapter 2. The

to
match
the
shaker
table was increased in the
attempt
the results
the
loss factor
high
The
with
those from the impact test
and overcome whatever was
causing the
table and I
damping problem.
accelerometer was
This idea failed
and
only
cracked
the piezoceramic sensor.

the
shaker
tested using the
random noise on
85
found the
response of the second mode to

response
be
effected
as
well.
In light
the
of
the
frequency
could not
from the
adhesives
accelerometer via the shaker

used
table, I
concluded that
it
be the
the
to bond the
piezoceramic
nor
piezofilm
because the bee's

the
results of
wax
is
a common material used
in
vibration
testing.
Secondly,
the second
impact test were assumed to be correct because the loss factor for mode was less than 0.001 as described in the A.S.T.M. Standard
Measuring Vibration-Damping Properties of Materials. The bonding theory causing the artificial damping must be false. By increasing the gain on the power amplifier, the material damping would
problem
Method for
decrease but the

The
or
peak on
the
frequency
at
response would appear
to be
less blunt.
(Gain
>
piezoceramic would crack quite

short
for
periods
of of
time
easily at veiy high amounts lower levels of gain (Gain
of gain
=
9)
5).
During
the
experimental
amount of
testing
gain
the beam using these sensors, the idea

a
of
using
a certain
the
as
variable
was
reassuring the
rest of
the setup
in controlling the test setup failed. Upon in order, the level of gain was selected for
second mode was chosen with a
random excitation method. approximation of
testing
the
sensors.
on
The loss factor data for the

power amplifier
gain set
to 9
the
for the
The
reason
for choosing
a gain
nine
is because it
was the
best
the
the
loss factor
very
as
compared with
the
impact
and
case.
Secondly,
to
frequency response
constant
was
poor at
level
of
one,
trying
determine the time
from the Impulse
Response Magnitude became

sensors
for the
second mode
difficult. This setting was applied to all the of vibration except for the laser vibrometer. The laser
quite
vibrometer would not work power amplifier.
for any level
of gain
higher than
The
about
0.5
on
the
The laser
the
vibrometer presented
the same problems for the

gain was chosen at
first
1 for
mode of vibration and
gain was set
to 0.5 as
well.
the rest of the sensors in the
first
mode.
might
The
resonant
next
thought
was
the possibility that the shaker table

of
be causing
second
the problem at the second resonance
the
aluminum cantilever
beam. The
using the
shakertable
caused
definitely
described
of
blunt
which could
be only
the
was
cause of external
by damping was
The
artificial
the influence
damping. The
the only
frequency response bonding material as

possibility left
was
eliminated and
other
the
shakertable system.
proposed method
in proving the
of
shakertable was
the
problem
causing the
damping
in the vicinity
236 Hz.
to
shift
frequency by frequency of 236 Hz. to be a third mode at another beam length and then force this frequency again to be a forth mode at another beam length. These new lengths of beam were estimated by assuming the following:
the second
natural
changing the length for the cantilever. I
decided to
force the
second natural
Cantilever Beam
with an
End Load
3FI
Figure 6. 1
^~
(Eq.6.1)
&M'=J
(Eq.6.2)
86
(Eq. 6.3)
l*{wj*
&l'*(w'nfi
(Eq.6.4,
v_
I
(
\
"
V?
(Eq.
6.5)
The stiffness, K,
proportional
of
the cantilever
beam using
and
to
the
length
cubed
of
approximated as
the square roof
the
The
new natural
mode and now
frequency, w'n, would the new length, /', can be

forth
and
inversely frequency equation was stiffness for the lightly damped structure. equal the natural frequency of the second
was assumed
an end
load
the
natural
estimated.
The
15
estimated
length for
on
shifting the 236 Hz to a third and
resonance was
and
and
30 inches. The true
lengths
were
found to be 17.5
of
24.625 inches
this is listed in Table 10
the next page. The modes were then

and at a
determined using the
random noise excitation
level
on
the
gain.
The
Hanning
weighting
window and
the
piezofilm
sensor were
used.
The
plots of
at
the three
different lengths
seen
show
how the
mode
damping
of
at
the
frequency
general
236 Hz
was always effected with
the greatest amount
damping. The
shows up.
trend that
can
be
in the three beams is how the
damping decreases
Hz
that
did
not
as the resonant mode increases but only until that mode of 236 The only small exception is with the longest beam at the fifth mode succeed in being less than the third mode. The fifth mode may be
seeing
the
some artificial
damping
out
from the
shaker
table as
well.
It is
intersesting
plots of
all
that
shaker
table turned
to be the
cause of
this
problem.
This is something that

the
I thought
would not
be
a problem
frequency
beams
and are
a
response magnitude and
in the testing environment. The impulse response magnitude for

shaker
the three
found in Appendix E. The

wooden plate
table also sits on three isolation pads

pads
were
has
fastened
the
the bottom. The three isolation
removed and response of
cantilever
beam
was still affected
by
the
artificial
damping. The
wooden platform was part of
the assembly for the
shakertable.
of mode
In the
future, from,
the shakertable
should not
be
used
for the determination

artificial
dampings.
In the search for understanding where the damping was coming I have learned that the application of different weighting windows and
87
Table 6.3
Determination
given
of
Artificial
Damping
by the
Shaker Table
of 236Hz.
in the vicinity
Material Gain
=
Aluminum
=
Weighting
Excitation Sensor
=
Hanning
Random Noise
Piezofilm
Beam Length
1 0 inches
Mode 1
Mode 2 237
0.0214
Mode 3
659.375 0.00167
Natural
Frequency
37.375
0.005
Loss Factor
H Mode 1 H Mode 2 0.025-1

0.02-
B Mode 3
0.015
0.010.0050-
Loss Factor
Mode 1
Mode 3
88
Beam Length
=17.5
inches
Mode 2
84.355
Mode 1
Natural
13.437
Mode 3
237.750
Mode 4
465.000
Frequency
Loss Factor
0.0051
0.001916
0.00858
0.001718
I Mode 1
) Mode 2
I Mode 3
0.01
0.005-
1 Mode 4
Loss Factor
Model Mode2
Mode3
Mode 4
Beam Length
24.625 inches
Mode 2
42.937
Mode 1
Natural
Mode 3
120.125
Mode 4
236.75
Mode 5
390.250
6.812
Frequency
Loss Factor
0.00454
0.00304
0.00204
0.00718
0.0047
1 Mode 1 ! Mode 2 9 Mode 3
I Mode 4 3 Mode 5
Loss Factor
Mode Mode Mode 1 2 3
Mode
Mode 5
89
Table 6.4 Rectangular Window & Psuedo Random Excitation

vs.
Hanning Window &
Random Noise Excitation
Material
Aluminum
Gain
3
=
Sensor
Piezofilm
=
Beam Length
?
1 0 inches
Effected
by Artificial Damping
and
Hanning Window
Mode 1
Natural
Random Noise
Mode 2
237.000
0.0214
Mode 3
659.375
0.00167
.98
Frequency
37.375 0.005
.36
Loss Factor
Coherence
Rectangular Window & Psuedo Random Excitation
Mode 1
Mode 2
236.750
0.0202
Mode 3
659.250
0.00161
Natural
Frequency
37.500
0.00318
Loss Factor
Coherence
90
excitation
may
the
affect
the true value

and
of
the
loss factor. It
noise
was
suggested that a
rectangular
window
pseudo
rather
random
may be
mode
better
choice
in
I
determining
a
damping
that
Hanning
the
window
investigated this
option and
found that for

88. The
first
using from the two
random noise.
setups gave
36.4% difference in the
calculated
loss factor. These

second mode and
results are shown

mode gave
in the
summary table 6.4

similar results
on page
third
relatively
that the
between the two

weak
setups.
The
other observation random
to
note was and
coherence
window window.
was
in the first
mode
using the
noise
Hanning
but the
The
I
coherence was
coherence
also
unity for the pseudo random noise and rectangular for the third mode in the random excitation appeared to be
a
less
than one.
built
was
fixture that have total
could
purpose of
this fixture
was
to
control
grasp the impact hammer. The of the area where the impact from
the hammer
pivot was
going to be repeated. The arm of the hammer was free only to in the fixture and a string was attached to the neck of the hammer where it bobbed up and down by my wrist. The random impact excitation was created
with
using this setup
the
Hanning
window applied.
Note: the
cantilever
beam
was
lying horizontally a random bobbing

was applied.
in
another
fixture. The impact hammer

of can
was struck
downward in
page.
manner
using the string

this test
the hammer and the
piezofilm sensor
The
results of
be
seen
in Table 6.5
on
the next
The
loss factor in the first

of
mode and
the second mode
was similar
to the measurement
not
the laser
vibrometer
using the impact
excitation.
Lastly, I did
have
much
time to
pursue
the
sine
testing setup using

in
feed back in the
loop
but
this
is for those
change
who wish
to know
a short cut
bypassing
the feed back loop.
Simply
the
excitation signal source
in the
generator window
analyzer and set
to sine.
This setup manually

and notice
can
be found in Appendix G. Next,

the
cursor
to the right
where one can
change
frequency
the
of
the sine
wave.
Activate the
shaker
table
system
by turning
the
knob is
you can scan
the frequency. Before collecting any
data
and while
system
running, tape the
knob
off so
that the rate
of
the
frequency
is
at suitable
level. The
plots were made of

are
the first mode only and
located in Appendix G. The loss factor that
results
also
shown
in Table 6.5
and
the
piezoceramic sensor was chosen

were much greater
for
no special reason.
This
produced results of
that the random noise excitation.

and second mode
The loss factors for the first

method turned out
using the impact testing
gave
very
close
to be very interesting. The piezoceramic and accelerometer results. The results of the laser and the piezofilm were similiar yet
of
different from those

the
piezofilm sensor
the
piezoelectric and accelerometer.
was
delighted that
compared
quite
well
with
the laser in the impact to

work with.
testing
to be
other
because the
the first the highest
observation
piezofilm
is really
an excellent sensor
The loss factor in

turned
out
mode
using the
even
accelerometer
in the
the
random excitation
value
compared
with
data from impact test. The

in the
random excitation
concerning the
accelerometer used
is how the
in the
loss factor
compared quite well with
the
piezoceramic and
the
piezofilm
91
Table 6.5
Random Impact Excitation using
Modal Hammer
Material Sensor
=
Aluminum
Piezofilm
=
Beam Length
?
1 0 inches
Different Fixture
and
Hanning Window
Random Impact Noise
Mode 1
Natural
Mode 2 229.750
0.000529
.68
Frequency
36.625
0.00183
.8
Loss Factor
Coherence
Variable Sine Excitation using the Shakertable System

Material
=
Aluminum
Sensor
Piezofilm
Gain
3
=
Beam Length
10 inches
Hanning
Window & Sine Excitation Excitation
Mode 1
Natural
Frequency
37.500 0.00318
Loss Factor Coherence
92
second
vibrometer.
is the loss factor from the laser Despite all the technical difficulties I had operating the laser the loss factor vibrometer, determined from laser vibrometer was the only sensor that gave similar results for the two excitation methods.
mode.
result
Another
interesting
Overall,
the values
of
the loss factor for the first
mode were
above
the
suggested value of
0.001
given
in the A.S.T.M. Standard Method for
Measuring
Vibration-Damping Properties
gave results of
of
Materials. The
agreed with
the loss
factor that
in the impact testing the standard, being less than 0.001.

second mode
6.2
Noise Sources in the Experimental

The
most
Testing
taking
experimental
important
part of
collecting
and
data is to
have
an
experiment.
understanding I found the

and
of all
the parameters that
could effect
the
results of your
measurement of material
process
damping
or rather
the loss factor

used of
to be a complex
involved
materials
due to
all
the necessary components

attention
in
determining
experiment
it. It is necessary to pay

I thought
careful
to
all
the
details
the
from the
tested to the
actual
data
was
reduction and analysis.
The
part of access
assumptions that
would not affect
the loss factor could just
be
the
problem as well as not
the optimum setup
knowing what for detennining the true
really involved in trying to mode damping for aluminum. In
review of
the
that
could
from the experiments, I decided it was best to list all the items have affected the loss factor and in this way, it helped me to understand
results
why the loss factor varied with the applied sensors and the excitation methods. The list of these items were broken down into six different categories and they are
as
followed.
Governing Parameters of the Experiment

Sensors
Excitation Equipment Analyzer
Setup
Environmental Conditions
Testing Materials Testing Fixtures

The possibility
of
the noise from the
sensors was of
with
the
utmost concern
because
of
the
problems
I had in the
beginning
the
piezofilm and
the laser
found to be very sensitive to the vibration. If the amount of force tapped in exciting the beam was deflected too much, the speckles in the speckle pattern would shift just enough to cause noise. This was oscilloscope become distorted. The observed watching the squarewave from the
vibrometer.
The laser
vibrometer was
by
It
piezofilm worked well after
the fixture
was grounded, so
the 60 Hz
signal could
be
removed.
also
helped to
eliminate all
the
other
circuitry thought to be
needed to
93
condition
the signal. Since the potential
of noise existed
from laser
The
vibrometer and
possibly the piezofilm, I thought
it
was
best to
use
the
Frequency Response
HI
as
it
was recommended
to
help
minimize noise at the output.
accelerometer was
Handother
checked
to
ensure
that it
was calibrated with
Held Exciter in
conjunction
correctly using Bruel and Kjaer's the B&K 2032 analyzer. The only
of
noticeable problem amplifiers.
through the course

the two,
or
doing
the experiments
was
the charge
One
of
possibly both the
irregularly
occur
from time to time. It
would sometimes
only intermittently. The other problem impact hammer. I am almost certain that the
the
acting but this would keep overloading, I had that was more frequent was the
microdot connector at
charge amplifiers were
the
bottom
of
handle
was
the
intermittent
and was
problem.
The
overload
signal
on
the
analyzer response
of
would
frequently
trigger
I knew then before collecting the
frequency
stiffness
data that
contamination
occurring
natural
at
the
input.
The
the
piezoceramic
may
suggest
why the
effected
frequency
was much
higher than the

the beam
other sensors and
therefore
the loss factor. The first

near non-linear
mode of
may
mode
was
imply
high
amplitudes
indicating
effects.
The A.S.T.M.
standard
for measuring the damping properties has suggested skipping the first because of non-linear effects. Maybe this is why the loss factor for the beam
suggested value of
higher than the in

an
0.001,
and also
was
the
fact that the

aluminum
test was not

at
conducted suggested
environmental
chamber
nor other
the
beam
the
of
dimensions for the testing. The

exactly the
same.
experimental of
possibility is the
selected
level
gain was not
The
change
in the
differences in the determination

from the type
of
setup could be enough to account for the mode damping. The stiffness and the mass
fixture
used
to clamp the beam could
have
an effect.
In Appendix
of
K,
there are four plots taken from a paper; "A State-Of-The-Art Assessment
Mobility
3000Hz)"
Measurement Techniques
Results for the Mid-Range Structures
(30-
by
D.J. Ewins
goal
and
of
J Griffin that
paper was
display
a superposition of
frequency
responses
[4]. The
this
the assessment of the accuracy and
consistency of mobility measurements; it occurred in Europe during the period of 1979 to 1980. Four test specimens were passed from facility to facility to be
measured,
various and
this
of
participation
takes into
account
many different techniques

plots
and
types
instrumentation.
of
These
These
six
superimposed
display
the
and
individual
France
results
the
15 to 20
participants
from the United Kingdom,

obviouly very
were
who
tested these that

was
structures.
results are
noisy.
The type
of excitation random
applied
to these
structures
sinusoidal
excitation,
excitation, and transient time

spent
excitation.
This
paper
included data concerning
the
average
producing
structures
each
mobility plot, the
testing
time
per
plot,
and
the lost time for these

the
resonant
experimental
besides collecting the data for the loss factor and frequency. It is very interesting to note how time consuming testing can be and this is an aspect I did not fully realize. The
producing
each
average time spent
mobility plot, the
testing
time
per
plot, and the
94
lost time for the
simplest structure was
150
min
27
min and
100
min respectively.
saying that about 79 % of the time required to conduct a test is lost. In my opinion, I believe my required testing time was much longer due to the
and also for the setup of the impact testing due intermittent overloading. The results from the first mode of the natural frequency and the loss factor for the simplest structure used in the testing from all
Basically
this is
setup time for the laser vibrometer
to the
the
participants and
including
my
results
are
shown
of
below in Table 6.6. The

was affected
purpose of
this table is to
and
illustrate
the statistics
used
how the data
from
the techniques
the equipment
to obtain the
loss factor
and
the resonant
frequency. The
column of
data from my
of
results without the accelerometer shows a

and
definite improvement in the spread and the results for all the sensors.
the loss factor between Ewins
Griffins
Table 6.6
Comparison of Testing Results for

D.J. Ewins
and
the First Mode
J. Griffins
Berg Summary Results

of
R.
Berg Summary Results

of
R.
Summary
of
Results
the Cantilever
all
the Cantilever
all w/o
the Simple
Beam for
Beam for
Structure IIB from All

Minimum 41.67
43.60
45.70
Sensors
Sensors but
the
Accelerometer
37.19
37.67
33.75
36.72
Frequency
(Hz.)
Mean Maximum
38.562
4.81
38.562
Spread
Minimum
4.03
(9.25%)
(13.11%)
3.64(9.67%)
0.0017 0.0027
0.00055
0.0074
0.0017 0.0038
Loss
Mean
Factor
Maximum Spread
0.0220
0.012
0.0103
0.0038
0.0215(290%)
(268%)
0.00210(78%)
The last
comment
wish
to discuss is the
analyzer setup.
I found that there using the

random random of
are several ways
to
set
the
different weighting
as
windows and excitations
impulse
typical
response setups via
function
the
the
means of
calculating the loss

and
factor. The three

pseudo
are
impact
excitation
using the transient window,

window,
setups require an
excitation excitation
shakertable
using the
Hanning
These
using the
rectangular window.
understanding
the
optimum
used
setting for the time record or the frequency the default settings that were provided by the analyzer
resolution.
when
In my case, I
selecting the
95
frequency
baseband
factor
span
for the test. The

other
other option provided
or a zoom analysis setting.
Either
one can
in the setup is to either use a be used to determine the loss

I have
well.
provided the
settings used are correct.
experimented with
changing the
windows and the
frequency
a
resolution as
I have found that I decided the

single
trying
to accommodate
both
worlds of noise
is impossible to
span of
satisfy.
optimum
resonant
setting
peak or a
was
going
to
be
frequency
50 Hz. surrounding the
and
by default from
the analyzer, the
62.5mHz.
zoom
time record of 16s. I tried to
increase the
frequency resolution of frequency resolution in the
The
and found very little difference in the loss factor. The time record is calculated as the inverse of the frequency resolution. The problem I ran into for the impact testing was the choice of weighting window for the output response. This is also another reason why the Frequency Response Mag. HI was used rather than Frequency Response Mag. H2.
analysis
using the impact hammer
calculation of
the
Frequency Response
The
choice, but
an
Mag. HI
would minimize
the leakage from the
output
signal.
choice was either to use an exponential
common
alternative choice would

well
weighting which is the most be a transient window. The

the time record
when
response signal
zoom
may
decay
before the
may
not
end of
using
analysis,
and an exponential
be
needed.
The transient
window can
any noise beyond the end of the response signal. I have used the transient window for the output signal on the following sensors as given in the table below:
cut out
therefore
Table 6.7 Transient Window
applied
for Impact
Testing
Sensor
Accelerometer Laser
Modes
1,2
2 1
none
Piezoceramic
Piezofilm
The
reason
for
doing
this
was
the
effect
it had
on
the
value of
the
loss factor that

above
was calculated
in the impact testing. The

Table 6.8
the
other modes not
listed in the table

accelerometer
used
the
exponential window.
shows
two cases comparing the

window.
loss factor
using the
shows a
exponential window and value of
the transient
The
difference in the
window
loss factor
as well a change close
in
clearly frequency for

and
the two the
types. The laser two
vibrometer
displays how
the lost factor
coherence are within the

show
windows.
The laser
vibrometer was
intentionally
length is
response
under
displayed to
that
either window can work out as

vibrometer
long
as
the
window
altered properly.
In the laser
section, the trace of the
decay
shows the transient windowing.
These
plots can
be found in Appendix B
96

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in
c S o> J
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t-l ,_
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in
%
^
ft
X
m ri
in
n
in Cl
g*^ 2 S
s
P-H
ri N
3*H
</5
Cs C4 SO
t^
rt
o o
o o o o
^H
<u
*-*
<u
O
<u
E
o
CO
CO
OO
"u J
o o
<
the respective sensor. The piezoceramic turned
testing
and
the only reason I

piezoceramic
can explain
be very noisy in the impact this is the possibility of microcrack in the

out
to
ceramic.
The
because the
very
plots shown
may have fatigued from being used on the shakertable in the random testing do not appear to be contaminated
impact testing did. The plots for the random excitation data are shown in Appendix C. The rest of the analysis for the impact testing was comprised of both windows making the analysis to some extent more difficult. I
much as
the
found it very interesting to study the effect analysis is correct. In my opinion, the random
setup than the
of
the
windows
because
of
no
one
excitation was
far
more easier
to
impact excitation. In another paper from the Journal Vibration called "Digital Filter vs. FFT Techniques for Damping
(March 1990),
type
with
Sound
and
,
Measurements"
a comparison was
shown
between the weighting
windows and
the
of excitation
using the FFT and Digital Filter [5]. The

of
paper was concerned of single
the
calculation
damping
for
lightly
damped
of
structures
mode
resonances
the relative
this
using these different techniques. The differences in the standard deviation

plate
were
end result of
this paper
discusses
mode of
loss factor. The first

other
freely hung
reason
15%
and
5-7% for the
resonances.
They
be
Also
concluded
that the deviation
was random rather
than systematic. This also may
the
why the first
mode of vibration mode shown
is
skipped
in the A.S.T.M.
method.
the results
from the first

For extremely
in Table 6.4
showed a great
difference in the
the
loss factor using the

windows.
pseudo random and random noise excitation with

small changes
different
is
shown
how the
values
in the test setup and in the environment, it of the loss factor can be influenced.
98
7.
Comments
and
Recommendations
The
application of sensors
in the
experimental
determination
of
the mode
dampings
mode
was
very challenging. Not only haved I learned

I
was also
how to determine the
damping, but
modal
exposed
was
to
new
and
intriguing
explored
subject area
concerning
analysis.
It
interesting
and
to
have
the different
of
weighting windows,
excitation
techniques
sensors.
The sensitivity
the
viscoelastic materials with respect
to temperature
of
was not expected
but it
would
have been
interesting
to
see
the results
the mode
with
dampings providing that the

shaker
temperature
was controlled.
The interference
of out
the
table concerning the

was
damping
learned
with
the second resonant
this cantilever beam
definitely
an
unexpected problem.
This turned
the
to be a
learning
it takes to
experience.
One lesson
testing.
most of all
is the
use
appreciation of time
sensors
perform modal
Learning was many especially challenging as well. The piezofilms are the best to work with simply because they involve little setup time and are just as accurate as the laser vibrometer at least in
the
how to
laser
vibrometer
impact testing using the modal hammer was time consuming and the level of complexity was greater than using the shaker table system. The values of the lost factor were the best I could achieve based upon experience with
this application. The the
testing
equipment and
knowledge
[4].
of modal
testing. I
am confident
that the
results of
the loss factor from the
second resonances
using the
impact testing for
this
cantilever
beam
are correct
would recommend so sensitive

would
learning
more about
the laser
vibrometer
finding
the
out
why it is
to small amounts
of vibration.
Another type
of excitation
technique that
have been
nice
to
investigate in
detemining
option
mode
dampings
of
the
cantilever
beam is the impulse
response
found in the
be to
generator window on
the analyzer. Another
interesting
mode
comparison would
rather
determine the
analysis.
mode
dampings in the baseband
than using zoom
A lighter hammer for the

thankful to
user would prove
invaluable for the impact

willing to lend
was able modal a
testing.
was
have
their
met some great people who were

experience
helping hand and to was happy to have made

invaluable field.
offer
in the field
to
of experimental vibrations.
this
choice as
my thesis topic because I

other areas
to
gain
experience which can
be
applied
in the
testing
99
REFERENCES
1.
D.J. Ewins,
"Why
and wherefores of modal
testing,"
SEE Jl,
18(3) (1979)
2.
S. H.
Crandall, "The 13(4) (1970)
role of
damping in vibration
theory,"
J.Sound Vib.,
D. I.G. Jones
materials,"
"Temperature-frequency of dynamic J. Sound Vib., 33(4), 451-470 (1974).
properties of
damping
4.
D. J.Ewins
and
J. Griffin "A State-of-the-Art Assessment
of
Mobility
J. Sound
Measurement Techniques-Results for the Mid-Range and Vibration 78(2), 197-222 1981
5. S. Gade
and
Structures"
H. Herlufsen "Digital Filter J. Sound

and
vs
FFT Techniques for
Damping
Measurements"
Vibration
pp.
24-32,
March 1990
6.
S. Gade
and
H. Herlufsen "A Hand-Held Exciter for Field J. Sound

and
Mobility
Measurements"
Vibration
pp.
16-21, March 1993
7.
W. G. Halvorsen
and
D.L. Brown "Impulse Technique for Structural

Testing"
Frequency
8.
Response
Sound
and
Vibration
pp.
8-21, Nov. 1977

Bruel &
J. T. Broch "Mechanical Vibration
and
Shock
Measurements"
Kjaer, 1984
9.
"Standard for measuring vibration damping properties of American Society for Testing and Materials, E756-80, 1980
materials"
10.
H. Ghoneim, S. Griffin, and B. Yost "Analytical and Experimental Investigation of the Mode Dampings in Laminated Composite Dept.
of
Beams"
R.I.T
Mechanical Engineering, Dr. Ghoneim
11.
Testing"
R. C. Stroud "Excitation, Measurement, and Analysis Methods for Modal Sound and Vibration pp. 12-27, Aug. 1987
12.
"Digital Signal Analysis using Digital Filters and FFT Techniques-Selected Bruel & Kjaer, Jan. 1985 Reprints from Technical
Review"
13.
N. Thrane
and
J.S.
Bendat,
et. al:
"Practical
use of
the "Hilbert
transform"
B&K Appl. Notes
100
14.
15. 16.
Et. Et.
al:
"An introduction to
testing"
modal
B&K Appl. Notes
al:
"Time
Windows"
B&K Appl. Notes

and
A. D.
Nashif, D.I.G Jones, Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1985
J. P. Henderson "Vibration
Damping"
John
17.
S. S. Rao "Mechanical Vibrations 2nd
Ed."
Addison-
Wesley Publishing
Co., 1990
18.
D.J. Ewins "Modal Testing:
Theory
Practice"
and
Bruel & Kjaer, 1986
19.
"Instruction Manual 2032 Vol. 1 Familiarization for Dual Channel Signal Analyzer Type Bruel & Kjaer, Revision June, 1987
2032"
20.
"Instruction Manual 2032 Vol.2 Operation for Dual Channel Signal

Analyzer Type
2032"
Bruel &
Kjaer, Revision Oct.,
1987
21
"Instruction Manual 1 047 Exciter Control Type

Revision Feb., 1979
1047"
Bruel & Kjaer,
22.
"Instruction Manual Power Amplifier Type

Revision
2707"
Bruel & Kjaer,
Aug.,
1982
V"
23.
"Instruction Manual Vibration Exciter System

Revision Apr., 1982
Bruel & Kjaer,
24.
O.
Dossing
"Structural
Testing
Part 1: Mechanical
Mobility
Measurements"
Bruel & Kjaer, Revision
Apr., 1988
Part 2: Modal Analysis
Simulation"
25.
O.
Dossing
"Structural
Testing
and
Bruel & Kjaer, Revision Mar., 1988
26.
27.
Et. Et.
al:
"Vibration
Testing
Booklet"
Bruel & Kjaer, 1983 Bruel &
al:
"Measuring
Vibration
Booklet"
Kjaer, 1983
Morgan Matroc
28. 29. 30.
"Piezoelectric
Technology Data for
Designers"
Inc., 1993
1993
"Guide to Modern Piezoelectric

"Application Notes: Product Film Sensor
Ceramics"
Morgan Matroc
Inc.,
Summary and
Price
List"
ATOCHEM Piezo
Division,
1993
101
31
"Piezo Film
Number 11
Components"
Rev.(7/91),
"
ATOCHEM Piezo Film Sensor Division, 1993
32.
P Buchhave
Frequency
33.
Shift"
Laser Doppler Vibration Measurements using Variable DISA Information pp. 15-20 No. 18 Feb. 1975
"Instruction
Electronics
and
Service Manual for Dantec 55X Laser
Vibrometer"
Dantec
34. 35.
"The Laser Doppler M. Serridge Preamplifier
Vibrometer"
Appl. Notes Dantec Electronics Vibration
and
T.R. Licht "Piezoelectric Accelerometer

Bruel &
and
Handbook"
Kjaer, Revision Nov.,
1987
36.
D. Corelli
and
D.L. Brown "Impact
Testing
Considerations"
Proc. 1st
International Modal Analysis Conf, Orlando, Fla.

37. 38.
39
pp.
735-742, 1982
Bruel & Kjaer
"Instruction Manual
"Master
Conditioning Amplifier Type

Instruments"
2626"
Catalog
Electronics
"
Bruel & Kjaer, 1980 Analyzer

and
Dr. Richard Budynas
SMS Star
40
Software"
Testing using the B&K 2032 Vibrations Laboratory #3, Feb. 1992
Modal
Methods"
Dr. Richard Budynas "Vibrations
Testing
Vibrations
Laboratory
#2,
41.
Jan. 1992
Engineering"
W.D. Callister, Jr. "Materials Science
and
John
and
Wiley &
Sons, Inc.,
1985
102
APPENDICES
103
Appendix A
Analytical Determination
of
Natural Frequencies for Materials

Aluminum
and
Laminated Graphite
Epoxy
104
Analytical Solution for determining the first three Natural Frequencies

of an
Aluminum Cantilever Beam
Governing Equation
cv FI
cfv
^
d'Y
r
=
dx4
pA
dr
:4r
=
o
( pA\
co:
where y
Y(x)e""
z4
and
Fh
General Solution
Y(x)
cosh(zx)
b sinh(rx)
+c
cos(rx)
-r
d sin(zx)
Boundary Conditions
Location
x x x
=
Physical Condition
0 0
Displacement is 0 Slope is 0 Moment is 0

Shear is 0
L
L
Table A. 1 Parameters for the Aluminum Cantilever Beam
Elasticity
Width
(lb/ in2)
10x10
[41]
1 1/8 10
(in)
(in)
(lbs-
Thickness (in)
Length
Density
Inertia
/in*) [41]
0.09729/386
1.63xl0"4
[in4
)
Results
Mode I
Mode 2 4695 252 2
Mode 3
.7855
.1875
Natural
Frequency
40 2
705.8
105
of an
Analytical Solution for determining the first three Natural Frequencies Aluminum Cantilever Beam with an End Mass
Governing Equation
CT
^V
dx
dA
dr
=
rs
Y"-z4Y
where y
Y(x)e,c"
=
and
z4=co2\^-) FI
General Solution
Y(x)
acosh{zx)
bsmh(zx)+ccoizx) + dsm(zx)
Boundary Conditions
Location
x x x x
=
Physical Condition Displacement is 0
0 L L
EIY'"
Slope is 0
Moment is 0
+
o):MY
0, End Mass
Table A.2
Elasticity
Width
{lb/ in :)
10x10
[41]
1
1/8 10
(in)
(in)
(lbs2
Thickness (in)
Length
End Mass
/in)
1.54x10
"5
Density
Inertia
(lbs2
/in4) [41]
0.09729/386
1.63
"4
{in4
)
Results
Mode I
\10
Mode 2
.4515
Mode 3
.7591
.1793
Natural
Frequency
36.8
233 2
659 2
106
Analytical Solution for

of a
determining
the first three Natural Frequencies
Composite Cantilever Beam
Governing
r.T EI
Equation
.d2v
cTy
-
pA~ = n
dx
df
-z4Y =
where v
Y(x)e"" =
z4
and
or
( pA
FI
General Solution
Y(x)
acosh(zx)
bsinh{zx)
ccos(oc) + d sin(zx)
Boundary Conditions
Location
x x
=
Physical Condition
Displacement is 0
0 L
L
EIY'"
Slope is 0
Moment is 0
+
x
x
arMY
0, End Mass
Table A3

Equilivant Elasticity^ Inertia
295.4
(lb in2)
Width
[10]
1 0.063
(in)
(in) (in)
(lbs2
Thickness
Length
10
Density
/in4)
Results
Mode I
1.507xl0"4
Mode 2
.4695
McxJe 3
.7855
~
.1875
Natural
Frequency
31.2
195.7
547.7
107
of a
Analytical Solution for determining the first three Natural Frequencies Composite Cantilever Beam with an End Mass
Governing
cf\' ....
Equation
.d2y
.
FI
+-
dx4
pA F ^
dr
=
Y"'-:dY
Y(x)e'01
=
where v
and
of
FI
General Solution
Y(x)
cosh{zx)
-r
b smY\(zx)
+ c
cos(zx) + d s\n(zx)
Boundary Conditions
Location
x x x
x
=
Physical Condition
Displacement is 0
0 L L
EIY'"
Slope is 0
Moment is 0
+ of MY
=
0, End Mass
Table A.4
Equilivant Elasticity& Inertia
295.4
(lb in1)
Width (in) Thickness (in) Length
[10]
1 0.063 10
1.54x10-'
(/'//)
(lbs2 (lbs2
End Mass
Density
/in) /in4)
Results
Mode 1
1 507x10
Mode 2 4308
164 7
Mode 3
7356 4803
.1653
Natural
Frequency
24 3
108
Appendix B Impact Excitation Data from
Accelerometer. Laser. Piezoceramics

Material: Aluminum
and
Piezofilms
109
<?
/A
ACCELEROMETER DATA
no
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Table B. 1 Data Sheet # 1 for the Impulse Excitation (Transient Window)

Sensor: Accelerometer
Materiakaluminum
Natural Frequency:34.0 Mode: 1
SPECIAL PARAMETERS
# 0
Dec Value 2032 2 392 14

15
40
41
42 43 44
47
15
2
0
7
48 76
77
FREQUECNY RESPONSE
-?
CO
LEFT
RIGHT
Left Element
392 406
Right Element #
From the Impulse Response Magnitude
Time Constant T
(sec)
3.023
Damping Ratio
Loss Factor
.001548
7]
.003097
113
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Table B.2
Data Sheet #2 for the Impulse Excitation (Transient Sensor: Accelerometer

Materiahaluminum
Natural Frequency:220.5 Mode: 2 SPECIAL PARAMETERS
#
0
Window)
Dec Value 2032 2 378 23

15
40
41 42
43
44
47 48
15
2 0 2 0
76
77
FREQUECNY RESPONSE
-><Q
LEFT
RIGHT
Left Element
378
401
Right Element #
Time Constant T
(sec)
1.5
= Damping Ratio
Loss Factor
.0004812
7]
.0009624
117
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SPECIAL PARAMETERS
#
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Data Sheet #6 for the Impulse Excitation (Transient Window)

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SPECIAL PARAMETERS
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2032
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Window)
Sensor:Piezoceramic
Materiahaluminum
Natural Frequency:38.562 Mode:l
SPECIAL PARAMETERS
# 0
Dec Value
2032 2
417
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13
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Appendix I
Climatological Data
of
Rochester New York
244
U6 HI 2
ROCHESTER.
HI
.MOM
ISSN 0118-StSO
NAT'L HE* SER ore
SREATER ROCHESTER IHTER'L MRP0RT
LOCAL
Monthly Summary
CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA
ROCHESTER-MONROE
COUNT"
AP
t
'
EXTREME FOB THE MONTH
LAST
OCCURRENCE
TRACE AHOUNT
DATA IN COLS b ANO 12-15 ARE BASED ON 21 OR "ORE OBSERVATIONS AT HOURLY INTERVALS RESULTANT HIND IS THE VECTOR SUH OF HINO
ALSO ON EARLIER DATE :S I HEAVY i-OG- VIS I BiL i T' '/4 HILE OR LESS BLANK ENTRIES OENOTE MISSING OR UNREPORTED OATA
SPEEDS AND DIRECTIONS DIVIDED BY THE NUMBER OF OBSERVATIONS PEAK GUST HIGHEST INSTANTANEOUS HIND SPEEO COLS lb S I': FASTEST ONE OF TUO HINO SPEEDS IS GIVEN UNOER COLS 18 i IS: KILE RECORDED SPEEO FOR HH1CH A HILE OF HIND PASSES SIATIDN IDISECTION IN FASTEST OBSERVEO ONE COMPASS POINTS I HIGHEST ONE HINUTE SPEEO (DIRECTION IN TENS OF MINUTE HIND DEGREESI ERRORS ul LL BE CDRRECTEO IN SUBSEQUENT PUBLICATIONS
hIGHES-
I CE'!CT THAT TH! S iS AN OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE NATIONAL GCEANI RECORDS ON F!<.E A; THE NATIONAL CLIMATIC DATA CENTER
AND ATMOSPHERIC ADHI Nl STRUT I ON. AND IS COMPILED FROH
NATIONAL
NATIONAL
NATIONAL
noaa
OCEANIC ANO
ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION
ENVIRONMENTAL SATELLITE, DATA ANO INFORMATION SERVICE
CLIMATIC DT CENTER
DIRECTOR
ASHEVlLLE NORTH CAROLINA
NATIONAL CLIMATIC OATA CENTER
Climatological Data of Rochester, New York August 1992 Page I of 4
Figure I. J
245
OBSERVAT IONS
A'
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3-HOUR INTERVALS
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Climatological Data of Rochester, New York
August 1992
Page 2 of 4
Figure 1.2
246
3BSERVA1I0NS AT 3-HOUR INTERVALS

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SUMMARY BY
AVERAGES
HOURS
RESULTANT
NINO
WEATHER
TORNADO
THUNOERSTORM
CODES
GROUND FOG
BLOWING DUST
TEMPERATURE
5U
SG
SP
SQUALL RAIN RAIN SHOWERS FREEZING RAIN DRIZZLE FREEZING DRIZZLE

SNOH
CEILING:
SNOH SHOHERS SNOH GRAINS SNOH ElLETS

ICE'
IC
IP
CRYSTALS
8L0UING SAND BLOWING SNOH

BLOHING SPRAY
z
31 04
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ICE PELLETS IPH ICE PELLET SHOHERS

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SMOKE
HAZE
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58
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64
|
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INDICATES UNLIMITED HHICh THE HIND BLOHS, INDICATEO HINO DIRECTION. DIRECTIONS ARE THOSE FROM SOUTH IN TENS OF DEGREES FROM TRUE NORTH: I E , OS FOR EAST, 18 FOR AN ENTRY OF 00 INDICATES CAlM 27 FOP HES! EXP IN KNOTS RESSED SPEED: THE OBSERVED AVERAGE ONE-MINUTE VALUE,
'MPH=KNOTS
'
07 10 13
6 JS 46o 61 7 2S.4BQ 60 6 2S.50O 61
57
57
88
so
87
6.4 21 6.3 22
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57
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s
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4.S
62
70
5.8 26 7 2 24
i.o
4.5 3,2
3,7
SB
83
ii-
15
'Hi 1
Climatological Data
of Rochester,
New York
August 1992
Page 3 of 4
Figure 1.3
247
NAllONAl
ClIMMIC DMA CtklfJ
TtDERAi
BUILDING 28801-2733
DQC
37 BAIURT PARK AVE ISHEVILLE, NODIK CAROLINA
FIRST CLASS
TACE ANO FEES PAID

IT:
PENALIT FOR
OFFICIAL BUSINESS PR1VAIE US[ HOC
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14768
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-
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31
Climatological Data of Rochester, New York August 1992
Page 4 of 4
Figure 1.4
248
SEP 1112 ROCHESTER. NY MT'l DEU SEN OFC..MM BREATER ROCHESTER L AIRPORT
INTER'
ISSN 0118-3660
LOCAL
Monthly Summary
.1
Of
CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA
ROCHESTER-MONROE COUNTY AP
"
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43
07
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77
40 H
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ASTERN
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Y COYER
TEMPERATURE F
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101AI
(0
6 1 1 5 11 6 8 0
F
SH
N U
H
12
10
10
11
32 25
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30 23 20
16
25
21
42
11
702
157
6 2
to 1
SUN 181 Alt
26
33
22
40
X
IH
Mill
6 3 1
B
SUN
281
TOTAL 1605S
mum
2131 71
1522
116 AIE
OfP
'
TOTAL 172
AVG
5,'
AYS
TOTAL 3 02
0t
IHE 1
8 1
0 0 21 55C
AVE. 0
50 7
60.1
-1
OEP 40 '0IAL
244
OE"
PRECIPI1III0N
??
4.0
41 1 SH IAlt:f7
33
1 25
27
1A1E:
NUMBER OF DAYS
SEASON 10 DATE
INCH SNOH. ICE PEL CIS

.<
01
8
0 0
36
GAF TES1
22414
IN 21 HOURS A ID OAKS MEAICS1 OERTH ON SNOUNO OF
7i
I 3
iSo AIE. It
10'Al
308
OCP
-221
',
0 INCH
mil UN IEHP
i
so
[
i
-.
32
<
IN NUN I HP <. tl'
V |
(
THUHDEHS10RH5 HE1YT TOG

CLEAR
'
PREC1P! IA1I0H
'
1 SNOH. IC
i
PELLEIS
SNON. IC
0
PELLEIS OR ICE AND 0A1
20
1
21-22
3.0
14
71
BAfitLI
10UDY
CLOUDY
LAST OCCURRENCE EXTREME FOR THE MONTH I TRACE AHOUNT. > ALSO ON EARLIER DATE (SI
.
IF
MOBE
THAN ONE
HEAVY FOG:
BLANK
VISIBILITY
1/4 HILE OR LESS
ENTRIES DENOTE HISSING OR UNREPORTED OATA
DATA IN COLS 6 ANO 12-15 ARE BA5E0 ON 21 OR HOSE OBSERVATIONS AT HOURLY INTERVALS. RESULTANT HINO IS THE VECTOR SUM OF HINO OBSERVATIONS SPEEDS ANO DIRECTIONS DIVIDED 8Y IHE NUMBER OF HIGHEST INSTANTANEOUS HINO SPEED PEAK GUST COLS 16 I 17: FASTEST ONE OF THO HINO SPEEDS IS GIVEN UNOER COLS 18 I 11: HIGHEST RECOROED SPEED FOR HH1CH A HILE OF HINO PASSES NILE FASTEST OBSERVED ONE COMPASS POINTS] STATION iDlRECTION IN IDlRECTION IN TEHS OF HIGHEST ONE MINUTE SPEEO MINUTE HIND DEGREESI. ERRORS HILL BE CORRECTED IN SUBSEQUENT PUBLICATIONS
. -
FROM I CERTIFY THAT THIS IS AN OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE NATIONAL OCEANIC ANO ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION ANO IS COAPILEO RECORDS ON FILE AT THE NATIONAL CLIMATIC OATA CENTER
NATIONAL
ENVIROHCNTAL SATELLITE. DATA
#%
I W\P4\ K\
^"V
O O
NATIONAL
OCEANIC AMD
ATNOSMPIC AOH1HISTRAIION
NATIONAL
CLIMATIC OATA CENTER ASKVILlE NORTH CAflaiNA
Alw^C ) 'Z}/lullA~'
/jr^w~~~
DIRECTOR
NAT I0NAL
A* [HFORWTION SERVICE
CL I HAT I C OATA CENTER
J
Climatological Data of Rochester, New York September 1992
Page I of 4
Figure 1.5
249
OBSERVATIONS Al 3-HOUR INTERVALS

V1SI-
SEP 1112
14 76!
Nl
ROE HESIFR
YISI-1
Sill IT
TEHPERAIURE
HINO
8ILIIY
IERPERAIUR!
HINO
BH
1Y
ItNPERAIURE
HINO
|
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s
~
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1
ft
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5
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64
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MAXIMUM IIME PERIOD IHINUTESI

PRECIPITATION ( INCHES '
ENDED:
SHORT
10
0 16
21 1038
DURATION PRECIPITATION
20
0.32
21 1038
5
0.08
2'
IS
0 24
30
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fed
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150
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HUE
21 1038
21
1114
ENDED:
1038
1038
1038
Ml)
1l2fe
1202
IHE HUE INOICAIED IS IH! OCCUR AI ANT TIME DURING IHE MONTH OAIE AND IIME ARE NOI ENTERED ENOING IIME OF IHE INTERVAL
.
IHE PRECIPITAIION AMOUNIS FOR THE INOICAIED IIME INTERVALS

FOR IRACE AMOUNTS
Climatological Data of Rochester, New York September 1992
Page 2 of 4
Figure 1. 6
250
OBSERVATIONS AT 3-HOUR INTERVALS

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'
SUMMARY
BY HOURS
RESUL1ANT
AVERAGES
WEATHER
1
ijU
l.
0
GF
il
S
GROUND FOG
3l.uu.nG OUST
TEMPERATURE
TORNADO
THUNOERSTORM
IJ
R au 7R
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F
BL
BN as
BY
K H
BLOWING SAND
BLOWING SNOH
BLOHING SPRAY
SnOKE
HAZE
OUST
1 fl'
"
"
"
"*
71
FREEZING ORIZZ'.E
SNOH
IF
FOG ICE FOG
6
7
51
4 ft.
hi
HO hi
S<!
5J
57 57 45
46
10
87
04
25.481
58
5S
hi
64
6.4 21 6 3 22
4.4
4.7
DIRECTIONS ARE THOSE FROH UHICH THE HIND BLOHS. INOICATED OS FOP EAST. 18 FOR SOUTH IN TENS OF DEGREES FROH TRUE NORTH: i.E 21 FOR HEST AN ENTPf OF 00 INDICATES CALH EXP RE5SED IN KNO.S VALUE. ONE-HINUTE SPEED: the OBSERVED AVERAGE
HIND DIRECTION:
.
07 111 il
fi ?S 401 25.511 7 2S 451
hS
70
hi
71
58
SB
'6 IS
72
fi 25 471 71 5 25 4 7C 61
M
62
60
62
58
70
81
7.8 23 S 3 24 5 1 25 5.8 26 1 2 24
i.o 22
4.1 5 S 4.S
4.5
1.2
3.7
125.485 JtL
58
:HPH=KNOTS
<
'5: lt( 1
New York Climatological Data of Rochester,

September 1992
Page 3 of 4
Figure 1. 7
251
NAIIONAL CLIHAHE DA1A CENIES FEDERAL BUILDING 17 8A11ERT PARK AVE SHV I LLE NORTH CAROL IMA 28801-2733
.
FIRST CLASS
POSTAGE ANO FEES PAID

NOAA
OFFICIAL BUSINESS
PEHAUT EOS PRUAlf USE 1300
PFRMIi G-11
SEP 1112
14768
nt
-
HOURLY
I
PRECIPITATION
'"
mATEfi
innii.ii
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luumulliii
IN INCHES! 1 11 i. n L 0 1
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1
HOUR ENDING AT
PM <i
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fc
10
i
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1
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=2
02 03
04
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02
03
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07
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06
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0 01
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71
72 71
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24 21 27 28
21 30
24 1
0 04 0.08 0.08 0,02 0 03 0,01 I 0 02 0 06 T I 0 06 0 04 0 01 0.01 1 1 1 I
76
77
28
21
30
Climatological Data of Rochester, New York
September 1992
Page 4 of 4
Figure 1.8
252
Appendix J
Tables
and
Figures
of
DANTEC LASER DOPPLER VIBROMETER
253
TABLE J. 1
Tracker Unit
and
Tracker Range
~ " "
Freq. Shift
MulL
Vibration
DC Offset
Calibration
Factor
Frequency
Range
-
[volts]
5 6 01
316104*
ci-
.3-3.3
1-10 MHz MHz

MHz
5 2 5 2 5 2
not used
XI 000
0.74 MHz
i
io-
Frequency
Shifter Unit
.1-1
Settings
33-333 kHz 10-100 kHz 3-33 kHz 1-10 kHz
X1000 XI 00 X100 X10

X10
ra/sec/volt
m/sec/volt
240 kHz 74 kHz

24 kHz 7.4 kHz 2.4 kHz
5 601
5 6.01
31.6 10
10.4 10
1.04-
3m/sec/volt Wsec/volt
3.16 10 Jm/sec/volt
10 "'m/sec/vol
Vibralion
Max. Doppler
Max.
Slev.'
Calibraiion
TABLE J.2
Frequency
Range
Frequency
Rale
Factor
0.74 kHz
10 kHz
210 kHz/sec
630 kHz/sec
0.3164-
10
m/scc/Voli
Operational Data for the

Laser Vibrometer
2.4 kHz 7.4 kHz
33kHz
100 kHz
1.04
10
-J
m/sec/Voli
-3
6.3 kHz/msec 63 kHz/msec 630 kHz/msec 6.3 MHz/msec 63 MHz/msec
3.164 A 10
10.4 A 10
m/sec/vol!
24 kHz
74 kHz
333 kHz
1 MHz
-3
m/sec/volt
31.64A10-3mAec/voll
104 A 10-3mAecA'oll
240 kHz
0 74 MHz
3.3 MHz
10 MHz
3I6.4A10-3m/secAolt
Range
Filter
TABLE J.3
1-10 kHz
BW1
19 Hz
BW2 59 Hz 59 Hz 59 Hz
194 Hz
BW3 194 Hz
194 Hz
OUT 27 kHz 27 kHz 27 kHz 27 kHz 27 kHz 27 kHz 27 kHz
Tracker Unit
3-33 kHz 10-100 kHz 33-333 kHz

.1-1.0
19 Hz 19 Hz 59 Hz
194 Hz
194 Hz
Settings
509 Hz
1.9 kHz
MHz
.3-3.3
MHz
590 Hz
1.9 kHz
509 Hz 1.9 kHz 5.8 kHz
1-10 MHz
5.8 kHz 19.4 kHz
FIGURE J. 1
Operating
of the
Window
Maximum Doppler
frequency
Dantec Laser Doppler Vibrometer
(Frequency vs. Amplitude of

Harmonic
Motion)
utmum
laser
coherence
254
I0"*10-*IO-,IO-*10-M0""n0~1l0"1l0-1
(m)
Appendix K
Mobility
Measurements
from
"A State-Of-The-Art Assessment of Mobility Measurement Techniques " Results for the Mid-Range Structures (30-3000Hz)
-
by D.J.
Ewins
and
J Griffin
255
Figure K. 1
Example I.
-
Variation of the Superimposed Frequency Repsonses

1
-kk>
"
(d)
-JOO
-
-400
y
-500
7-î^
-*oo -TO-0
/jRv
mi
JfflWl
-
->0
\l
-
-0-0
-IOO-0
-IIO-0
-120-0
1
t-OOOilO'
1
*OOOilO'
1
JOOOilO*
11
lOCOim1
1
10'
1
i
10'
-4-000i
MOO
6-000.
K>'
Frequency (Hz)
Figure K. 2 Example 2.
10'
tOOO
B-000
10
l-OOOilO1
JO00ilO
O00il0'
ÔOOilO'
-000iK>
Frequncy (H;)
256
Figure K. 3
Example 3.
400
Frequency (Mi)
Figure K.4
Example 4.
I 'ariation of the Superimposed Frequency Repsonses
-90-0
t-0O0il0*
Fr*4uncy (Hz)
257

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Application of Sensors in an Experimental Investigation of Mode Dampings

by Richard Hiram Berg A Thesis Submitted

Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements of the Degree of

Approved by: Dr. Hany Ghoneim - Thesis Advisor (R.I.T.)

Dr. Richard G. Budynas, P.E. (R.I.T.)

Dr. Guillermo H. Garzon (Eastman Kodak Co.)

Dr. Wayne W. Walter, P.E. (R.I.T.)

Dr. Charles Haines - Department Head (R.I.T.)

I, Richard Berg, hereby

to the Wallace Memorial to

Peter Grimard. Their

great encouragement and

support will not

to give special thanks to

this work, Paul

the Rochester Institute

the Eastman Kodak

The loss factor,

identified from its

sensors, and analyzer. It

this thesis to investigate the effect

of exciters and sensors on

the loss factor

Modal 3.1 3.2

2032 Digital Signal Analyzer

ASTM Standard Method for

Description Technical Background

4.1.3.1 Technical Preparation

36 Mirror for Signal

Description Technical Background Experimental

Experimental Procedure for

Random Excitation 5.2.1 5.2.2

Description Technical Background

Experimental Procedure for Loss Factor

Noise Sources in the Experimental

Analytical Determination Aluminum

Natural Frequencies for

Impact Excitation Data

Aluminum from Sensors Aluminum from Sensors

Random Excitation Data Impact Excitation Data Graphite

Pseudo Random Excitation

Pseudo Random Excitation

Random Impact Excitation using

Variable Sine Excitation Data Piezofilms

Unidentified Noise Source

Rochester New York

Dantec Laser Doppler Vibrometer Tables

spectrum of original time signal

Enhanced Time Function Enhanced Time Function

diameter from the laser beam in time

frequency expansion ratio

Hilbert transform function

transfer function in the Laplace domain

frequency response Gbh /Gha

spring constant, Boltzmann's constant, Tracker

slew rate constant

going away from the laser

wave vector reflected

lengths in the laser

Si PIN diodes in light detector

root mean square

complex conjugate poles

frequency bandwidth frequency