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ISSN 1757-2134 August 2012 Volume 05 Issue 06
Copyright

Palladian Publications Ltd 2012. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the
copyright owner. All views expressed in this journal are those of the respective contributors and are not necessarily the opinions of the
publisher, neither do the publishers endorse any of the claims made in the articles or the advertisements. Printed in the UK.
On this months cover >>
Oilfield Technology is audited by the Audit Bureau
of Circulations (ABC). An audit certificate is
available on request from our sales department.
contents
Pipe coated with Bredero Shaws innovative Thermotite

ULTRA thermal insulation coating system is spooled in Norway

for the Goliat project, the first project in the Arctic that requires wet thermal insulation pipe coatings. Thermotite

ULTRA is
an end-to-end system that includes both the line pipe and the field joint coating.
| 03 | EDITORIAL COMMENT
| 05 | WORLD NEWS
| 10 | FORECASTING THE WEATHER WINDOW
John Mitchell, The Met Office, UK, discusses the role of specialist
weather forecasting services for oil and gas operations in the
North Sea.
| 14 | DECOMMISSION IMPOSSIBLE?
Brian Nixon, Decom North Sea, explores the challenges and
opportunities posed by the decommissioning of offshore oil and gas
facilities in the North Sea.
| 19 | ROLE MODEL
Tyson Bridger, Emerson Process Management, Norway, examines the
role of reservoir modelling in EOR.
| 22 | SUBSEA CONTROL AND SIMULATION
Simon Marr, Fugro Subsea Services Ltd, UK, introduces simulation
tools for the subsea oil and gas industry.
| 27 | DISCIPLINED COLLABORATION
Achieving accurate reservoir description through the integration of
multi-disciplinary information is possible. Erick Alvarez, Laure Pelle and
Jaume Hernandez, Senergy, UK, explain how.
| 33 | MOVING MOORING FORWARD
Wolfgang Wandl, Viking SeaTech, Norway, investigates the significant
cost and efficiency benefits provided by pre-laid subsea moorings.
| 35 | COMBATING CORROSION
Glenn Weagle and Ron Maltman, Champion Technologies, Canada,
analyse a new technology that is bringing precision to SAGD
water quality management.
| 40 | LIGHTWEIGHT IS THE NEW HEAVYWEIGHT
Kelly Soucy, Brett Huckerby and Karen Luke, Trican Well Service,
Canada, explore the strengths of specially designed lightweight
cementing solutions.
| 47 | REMOTE-CONTROLLED HOT TAPPING SUBSEA
George Lim, T.D. Williamson, the Netherlands, discusses a new
remote-controlled hot tapping machine that can be used to facilitate
pipeline tie-ins by tapping into pre and post-installed tees, without
diver assistance.
| 53 | PORTABLE PIPE COATING
Paul J. Kleinen, Bredero Shaw, USA and Vlad Popovici, ShawCor,
Canada, explore the practical and financial rewards that are offered by
mobile coating technologies for offshore projects in this months cover
story.
| 57 | CLEAN GREEN ANTI-SCALING
David Wilson and Kelly Harris, BWA Water Additives, UK, discuss
the development of a green hydrothermally stable scale inhibitor for
topside and squeeze treatment.
| 63 | THE POWER OF SCOUR
R. A. Lind, Nortek, UK, and R. J. S. Whitehouse, H.R. Wallingford, UK,
explain why it is vital to understand and monitor the effects
of scour on offshore structures.
| 68 | ENSURING INTEGRITY
Gordon McCulloch, INTECSEA Ltd, UK, gives us a look into the
development of a model for asset integrity management in the oil and
gas industry.
RISERLESS LIGHT WELL INTERVENTION
OPTIMIZING RESERVOIR DRAINAGE / AIN RISERLESS LIGHT WELL INTERVENTION
MEET US AT ONS 2012 MEET US AT ONS 2012
VISIT US AT STAND #507 IN HALL E TO LEARN MORE
ABOUT OUR INNOVATIVE RLWI CAPABILITIES
Welltecs strength and motivation is to challenge
the status quo and push the boundaries of what
can be accomplished using e-line. Through our
direct contract with Statoil we have worked close-
ly with Island Offshore and FMC to perform com-
plex RLWI work. The operations we are capable
of performing today would only a year ago have
resulted in using a rig or coiled tubing to clean
and mill obstructions in the wells.
THE CAPABILITIES WITHIN
EXPANDING
RLWI
we are the intervention in RLWI we are the intervention in RLWI t
Anna Scordos
Editor
Contact Information >>
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comment
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O
n 6 August this year, Nasa successfully completed the
astonishing achievement of landing a US$ 2.5 billion
ROV (arguably one of the most remotely operated
vehicles ever at a distance of 248 million km from its control
room) on the surface of Mars. The purpose of the Curiosity
mission to Mars is to establish whether, at some point in its
history, Mars could have supported life at a microbial level.
Essentially, the rovers task is to explore for the presence of
hydrocarbons; specically organic carbon compounds that
constitute the building blocks of life. Amid scenes of excited
jubilation at the successful execution of this exploratory
endeavour, Nasa appears to have restored its own, and its
countrys, reputation in the global public consciousness as
a world leader in space exploration. John Grunsfeld, Nasas
head of science has been quoted as saying, There are many
out in the community who say that Nasa has lost its way, that
we dont know how to explore, that we have lost our moxie.
While [Curiosity] is certainly an international collaboration,
this feat is something that only the US can do and the rover
is made in the USA.
The exploration of space serves the advancement of
mankinds understanding of the universe, but clearly also
carries with it the powerful weight of national pride. Space
agencies around the world compete and collaborate with
each other in their work to explore our solar system, just as
global energy companies compete and collaborate to explore
our own cold, hostile and remote regions here on Earth. The
hydrocarbons that our industry is searching for at the moment
are located in the Arctic, a region that endures a similar climate
to Mars in terms of temperature. Mars surface temperatures
can plummet to - 87 C (- 125 F) while the coldest recorded
temperature in the Arctic is around - 68 C (- 90 F).
Aside from rivalry between nations to claim their piece
of the Arctic pie and establish for themselves improved
geopolitical positions, the debate continues as to whether the
companies choosing to explore and operate in the region are
truly prepared to handle any technological failures that could
lead to environmental damage. And despite investments
of billions of dollars into state-of-the-art technology and
equipment such as innovative horizontal drilling, advanced
capping stacks and research into how spilled oil would
dissipate and be collected in an icy ocean, failures do
happen. Just ask Nasa. And, while ignoring the possibility of
such failures is optimism in the case of those launching and
guiding Nasas unmanned probes into the vast emptiness of
outer space, it would be downright reckless for oil companies
operating in the Arctic to just go ahead and hope for the
best. Contrasting with Nasas public image of exploration,
we should not expect to see scenes of nervous OGCs
crossing their ngers at the moment of rst production in
increasingly difcult locations. Time and investment must
continue to be channelled into researching and practicing
solutions to all the potential problems the industry will face
as it inevitably explores deeper into this region. Companies
should also be prepared to walk away if, as Totals head of
development, Michel Hourcard explained in a recent issue of
The Economist, they dont feel prepared to take on the task:
Drilling in the Arctic is not being considered by us. Not at
all. Our gases are enough for the moment. There are many
technical challenges there is too much ice, darkness and
stormy weather.
Exploration should continue, but continue with care. The
last thing that anyone wants to hear again is, Houston, we
have a problem
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world news
05
OILFIELD TECHNOLOGY
August 2012
inbrief
Delays continue to hamper Shells
efforts to begin its long-planned Arctic
drilling programme. Despite managing
to score a legal fait accompli against
opponents of the programme (such as
Greenpeace) by securing a court ruling
that the US governments approval of
Shells oil spill response plan complied
with federal law, the companys plans
have still yet to bear fruit.
According to a Shell spokesman,
ice thickness in the Chukchi and
Beaufort seas is at its highest level for
more than a decade. Consequently, the
ice has taken far longer to melt than
usual, meaning that the brief window of
time when drilling operations can take
place has been significantly reduced.
Despite the adverse weather
conditions, Shell remains optimistic that
it can complete at least some of the
drilling it had planned to perform this
year. Curtis Smith, a spokesman for
Shell was quoted by Reuters as saying,
Weve recalibrated whats possible,
based on weather and logistics this
year. No matter how that turns out,
were trying to make the most of the
time that we do have in the theatre.
In addition to unusually thick
ice, delays have also hampered
the permitting and approval of the
companys oil spill containment system.
Despite reducing the safety standard
by which the vessel, a refitted barge,
will have to be judged (from a stationary
offshore platform to a mobile offshore
drilling unit), the US Coast Guard has
yet to approve the required certification.
Its unfortunate that they may not
be able to drill to depth, but thats yet
to be seen [...] The most important thing
is that Shell demonstrate [...] that it can
conduct safe operations in the Arctic
said Robert Dillon, an aide to Alaskan
Senator Lisa Murkowski.
NIGERIA
According to Andrew Yakubu,
Managing Director of the Nigerian
National Petroleum Corp., Nigerias
production has reached an all-time
high of 2.7 million bpd. According to
Yakubu, The security measures put in
place by the federal government in the
Niger Delta region was beginning to
yield positive results.
A 2009 amnesty for militants in the
Niger Delta region saw production rise
once more after attacks on oil facilities,
which caused a 28% drop in output,
began to decline.
SUDAN & SOUTH SUDAN
The governments of Sudan and newly
independent South Sudan have finally
made an agreement over oil transit
fees, over which a dispute threatened
economic disaster and all out war
between the two nations.
According to the South, a transit fee
of approximately US$ 9.48 will be paid
per bbl. of South Sudanese crude oil
transported through Sudans pipelines.
In addition to the per bbl. fee, a one-off
payment of US$ 3.028 billion will be
made by the South. Sabir Hassan, one
of Sudans negotiators said that this
was the equivalent of US$ 24 per bbl.
in fees.
BRAZIL
Brazilian state player, Petrobras has
signed chartering and operations
contracts for 12 new offshore drilling
rigs. The contracts with Sete Brasil,
Queiroz Galvo, Petroserv, Odebrecht,
Odfjell and Seadrill will ensure that the
rigs are made with a minimum of
55 - 65% local content.
The rigs, due to arrive in 2016, will
be able to operate in water 3000 m
deep, drill up to 10 000 m and will
primarily focus on the Santos Basin.
// Shell // Arctic drilling programme faces delays
Indias Ministry of Petroleum and Natural
Gas has released a document outlining
draft legislation for shale exploration in
the country.
One of the most exciting aspects
for international oil and gas majors is
the fact that the legislation states that
foreign investors would be eligible to bid
on exploration rights and Up to 100%
participation by foreign companies and
participation through unincorporated
Joint Ventures would be permitted.
Many oil producing countries
limit the extent to which foreign oil
companies can operate independently,
with local-content laws, compulsory
joint ventures, or restrictive contracts.
Leniency towards foreign investors will
likely make Indias debut shale bidding
round (due 2013) an enticing prospect.
Thailands PTTEP moves one step
closer to acquiring Cove Energy
as it reports that it has received
valid acceptances of its bid from
shareholders whose combined stakes
equate to 91.37% of Coves total
issued shares.
With this latest announcement,
PTTEP has met the minimum threshold,
as set out in its initial offer, of 90% of
Coves shares. The next step for PTTEP
is to request that Coves shares are
removed from trading on the
London Stock Exchange.
PTTEP had originally been
competing against a rival bid from
Shell. However, Shells bid of
1.2 billion only secured 1.2% of
Coves shares. Shell eventually pulled
its bid and avoided a bidding war.
// India // Draft policy
for shale exploration
// PTTEP // Cove bid
nears completion
world news
06
OILFIELD TECHNOLOGY

August 2012
diarydates
28 - 31 August
ONS 2012
Stavanger, Norway
E: info@ons.no
http://www.ons.no
17 - 20 September
Rio Oil & Gas
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
E: riooil@ibp.org.br
www.riooilgas.com.br
08 - 10 October
SPE ATCE
San Antonio, Texas, USA
E: meetings@spec.org
www.spe.org/atce/2012
08 - 11 October
Gastech 2012
Excel London, UK
E: info@gastech.co.uk
www.gastech.co.uk
04 - 09 November
SEG 2012
Las Vegas, USA
E: meetings@seg.org
www.seg.org
11 - 14 November
ADIPEC
Abu Dhabi, UAE
E: adipec@dmgeventsme.com
www.adipec.com/conference
20 - 22 November
PETEX 2012
London, UK
E: petex@pesgb.org.uk
www.petex.info
// Venezuela & Argentina // Oil alliance formed
President Hugo Chavez of Venezuela
and President Cristina Fernandez of
Argentina have formed a strategic
alliance between the state oil
companies of their nations.
As part of the alliance the two
firms, YPF (Argentina) and PDVSA
(Venezuela) are to co-operate more
closely in all areas. A joint statement
that was later released said the aim of
the alliance was to identify strategic
participation schemes for joint planning
across the hydrocarbon value chain,
both in Venezuela and Argentina.
President Fernandez recently
caused controversy after she led
her government to nationalise YPF,
Argentinas largest oil company, which
was at that point owned by Spains
Repsol. The move was however,
greeted with praise by the Venezuelan
government, which has been involved
in the nationalisation of its own oil
production. President Chavez was
quoted as saying, We celebrated in
Caracas when we learned about the
expropriation.
As part of the agreement, PDVSA
is to take part in projects to develop
the vast shale oil and gas deposits
that have been recently discovered in
Argentina. For its part in the deal YPF
will begin to operate in Venezuelas
huge Orinoco belt, the worlds largest
single hydrocarbon reserve.
Representatives from the two
companies are to meet in order to work
on implementing the alliance.
The press conference at which the
alliance between YPF and PDVSA was
announced also served as a platform
for President Chavez to refer to his
countrys recent entry into the Southern
Common Market (MERCOSUR), a
trade block made up of Argentina,
Brazil, Uruguay and Paraguay.
CNOOC has signed an agreement
worth US$ 1.56 billion with
China United Coalbed Methane Corp.
(CUCBM) to explore for coalbed
methane reserves in China. The
contract is to last 30 years, with a
preliminary exploration period of five
years.
Almost 11 000 km
2
are to be
analysed during the exploration phase
of the contract.
As part of Beijings ongoing
strategy to ensure Chinese energy
security, investment into unconventional
resources has continued to grow. The
Chinese governments current goal is to
double the amount of natural gas used
overall, replacing dirtier fuels such
as coal and helping combat the high
levels of pollution brought about by the
countrys rapid economic development.
BHP Billiton, the worlds largest mining
company has announced that it has
had to shave off US$ 2.84 billion from
the value of its assets in the Fayetteville
shale, which it purchased from
Chesapeake Energy Corp. in 2011.
BHP originally purchased the
shale assets for US$ 5 billion when
gas prices in the US were significantly
higher than current levels.
Despite the writedown, a 2%
drop in the companys share price
and the companys CEO and head of
the petroleum division foregoing their
bonuses for 2012, Jac Nasser, BHPs
Chairman said, Notwithstanding the
prevailing environment we are confident
in the outlook for the United States gas
market and the role our shale assets
will play in BHP Billitons portfolio in
continuing to deliver long term returns.
// CNOOC // Chinese
CBM deal signed
// BHP Billiton //
Shale asset writedown
AD00337P
world news
08
OILFIELD TECHNOLOGY

August 2012
// Iran // US tightens sanctions on Iranian oil industry
// Total // KRG contract drives Baghdad to cancel
// Global // Brent drops
near US$ 108 per bbl.
// Devon // Prots
down; JV conrmed
Total has announced that it has acquired
a 35% stake in the Harir and Safen
blocks in the region of northern Iraq
known as Kurdistan. Marathon Oil Corp.,
will see its stake in both blocks fall to
45%. The company will remain operator
of both blocks.
Annel R. Bay, Marathons VP of global
exploration said, We are pleased to have
Total join Marathon Oil in exploring these
high-impact exploration opportunities in
the Kurdistan region of Iraqs world-class
hydrocarbon province.
Despite the potentially lucrative nature
of operating in Kurdistan, such a move
risks angering Iraqs central government
in Baghdad, which views contracts
signed between foreign companies and
the Kurdistan Regional Government
(KRG) as illegitimate. The KRG, however,
says that the countrys constitution allows
it to make such deals.
It is well known that signing such a
deal would annoy the central government.
Chevron and ExxonMobil have both
already been blacklisted by Baghdad
for making deals with the KRG without
permission. Both have been barred from
bidding on contracts.
The risks were rather greater for Total,
which already had a contract in place
with Baghdad; a contract that is now
in jeopardy. Abdul-Mahdy al-Ameedi,
a spokesman for the Iraqi Oil ministry
said, We are working to cancel Totals
stake in the Halfaya contract. We will
disqualify and terminate the contract of
any company signing a deal with the
Kurdistan region without the approval of
the oil ministry.
Contracts handed out at the last
Iraqi licensing round expressly forbade
companies from making deals with the
KRG. However, the restrictive nature
of the contracts that paid a set fee
per bbl. (a system usually disliked by
oil companies) caused many major
companies to steer clear of the auction.
At the time of writing, Brent Crude
has dropped in value towards
US$ 108/bbl. Recent positive economic
data from the US had actually helped
boost Brent prices by approximately 3%;
some analysts have pointed to
profit-taking as the cause of the decline
with investors keen to cash in on the
earlier rise in prices.
Prices continue to be buoyed up by
severely restricted exports from Iran and
a maintenance-related fall in production
in the North Sea. The shutdown of
production from South Sudans oilfields
have also placed additional pressure on
global supplies. However, progress in
talks between the two countries, means
that production may soon start up again.
According to analysts from ANZ,
Brent is testing a longer term resistance
at around US$ 109 a barrel. If Tropical
Storm Ernesto were to move towards the
GoM and disrupt operations, prices could
potentially hit US$ 111.
Devon Energy Corp. announced that it
was to take part in a joint venture deal
that would see the Japanese company
Sumitomo Corp. take a 30% share
in Devons Cline Shale and
Midland-Wolfcamp Shale fields.
Sumitomo is to pay approximately
US$ 1.4 billion in total for its role in the
joint venture. The Japanese company
is to pay US$ 340 million up front and
invest the remaining US$ 1.025 billion in
a drilling carry, which is expected to be
realised by the middle of 2014.
This news was overshadowed
by reports that earnings had missed
predicted levels, which led to a 3.8%
drop in the share price. The company
posted a profit of US$ 477 million,
compared to US$ 2.7 billion a year ago.
The US and its allies have continued to
pile pressure upon the Iranian oil industry
in a bid to strangle Tehrans nuclear
programme and prevent the country
from developing a nuclear weapon; an
objective that Tehran emphatically denies
targeting.
The latest round of sanctions have
been devised in order to make it even
more difficult for the earlier sanctions to
be evaded. The original sanctions had
made the purchase of Iranian oil and oil
products sanctionable and would see the
perpetrator excluded from much of the
international financial system.
The latest sanctions are designed
to punish companies or organisations
that have dealt with the National Iranian
Oil Company, The Naftiran Intertrade
Company or Irans Central Bank or
have helped Iran obtain US currency or
precious metals.
These new measures have already
seen two banks, the Chinese Bank of
Kunlun and the Iraqi Elaf Islamic Bank,
fall foul of the sanctions. Both of these
banks are to be cut off from the US
financial system. As one US politician put
it, the new legislation seeks to tighten
the chokehold on the regime beyond
anything that has been done before.
According to some sources, Iran is
now losing approximately US$ 133 million
a day in lost revenue as a result of the
constraints upon its oil exports.
Initially, there were fears that
sanctions could cause a steep rise in
prices and strain global supply, but a
stumbling world economy and reduced
demand has helped counter such effects.
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A
ccurately predicting a suitable weather window can
make all the difference to the safety, successful
completion and ultimately the fnancial success of
weather sensitive offshore operations.
During offshore construction, transportation, heavy lift
operations and routine maintenance activities, the weather has a
huge impact on the overall success of a project, and gives rise to
a whole host of issues. The role of forecasters is to work closely
with the oil and gas industry to reduce weather related risk.
Forecasting and the accurate identifcation of weather windows
help companies minimise health and safety risks, to protect
staff and assets, maximise operational effciency and improve
resource allocation.
The application of expert, impartial advice and an in-depth
understanding of the science behind the weather and sea-states
are helping the industry make their operations safer.
The ability to forecast the weather with increasing accuracy
means forecast services are playing a more important role in the
offshore oil and gas industry. For weather sensitive tasks, delays
due to weather downtime are reduced and therefore companies
are able to improve their operational effciency.
A challenging environment
Changeable weather makes the North Sea one of the most
challenging working environments in the world.
Statistics suggest that in a given 50 year period, (i.e. one
in 50 year return) at the northern end of the North Sea wave
heights could reach approximately 17 m (or 56 ft). During
an extended period of stormy weather, the occasional
wave could be even higher; these are known as extreme waves.
In terms of wind, also within a 50 year return period, winds could
reach up to 80 knots (or 92 mph); these do not include gust
values, which can be even higher during stormy conditions.
These conditions can pose a hazard to offshore operations and
a risk to workers on platforms, vessels and helicopters operating
in this area.
10
Forecasts are critical at different stages of a project, starting
with the operational planning. Knowing how wind and wave
conditions, such as wave height and wind speed, will be during
the period of execution of a particular task is essential to
ensure safe and timely delivery. This also enables identifcation
of suitable craft and derivation of suitable contractual
arrangements around these weather risks to ensure fnancial
return on investment on that particular operation.
Forecasts can help these companies minimise the risks
of their operations and maximise health and safety of their
personnel, providing them with the necessary notice they
require to take the appropriate measures needed to prevent any
unnecessary disruption to their operations, as well as protecting
the welfare of their staff.
The Met Offce's work with the valhall PH Topside Project in
the North Sea in 2010 was weather critical, and the culmination
of three years' work between BP Norge, Saipem Ltd and the
Met Offce. The topside units were lifted into place while the feld
continued uninterrupted production of oil and gas. This
large scale and high profle operation, which required a long
weather window, was scheduled to take 12 days, involve
430 personnel on the Saipem S7000 crane barge and nine major
lifts under dynamic positioning. This meant working in areas
close to the fare boom, which could start automatically at any
time. For this reason, in addition to forecasts of wind strength
and wave height, extra consideration was given to the wind
direction at deck height and how it would affect the fare boom
should it start to burn. The lift was ultimately completed to a high
level of accuracy in a safe environment with no interruption to
production.
Understanding the science
Accurate forecasting demands a high level of science and
expertise, as well as the capability to execute a number of
complex calculations in a timely manner. Over the last three
decades, signifcant advances in computational power have
11
12
OILFIELD TECHNOLOGY
August 2012
enabled enormous improvements in the sophistication of
operational atmospheric and ocean wave forecasting models.
The benefts and the potential applications of such systems
will continue to push computing capacity to its limits; the
Met Offce's own supercomputer is capable of 125 trillion
calculations per second.
The Met Offce's forecasts provide predictions of wind,
wave and sea conditions and site-specifc forecasts, tows
and routes. ln addition, 24/7 telephone access to specialist
marine forecasters based in Aberdeen is provided and during
Figure 1. Narrow country roads in Caithness, Scotland, meant
that Subsea7 had to transport a large tow head by sea from Nigg,
Cromarty Firth, to Sinclairs Bay.
Figure 2. Tow head attached to pipe bundles (up to 7 km in length)
fabricated at Sinclairs Bay.
Figure 3. Pipe bundles towed out to the Jura oil production eld.
extremely weather sensitive operations, onsite forecasters
can be deployed offshore to provide guidance to the project
management team.
When the Frigg oilfeld in the North Sea was
decommissioned in 2009, the Met Offce worked with the
owners and contractors, and provided Saipem Ltd with
detailed wave energy forecasts, which acted as the foundation
of its Motion Forecasting and Monitoring System. These
forecasts providing wind-wave spectra, combined with the
motion characteristics of the Saipem S7000 semi-submersible
crane vessel, gave extremely accurate predictions of how
it would react to the sea conditions. The fnal phase of the
decommissioning project required a 72 hour weather window
to remove a 113 m high structure with four legs (the QP jacketj
and carry the complete structure to Stord in Norway. lt was
challenging but the lift and the move went smoothly.
Case study: Jura project - impacts of the
weather on sensitive operations in the North Sea
ln 2007, narrow country roads in Caithness, Scotland, meant
Subsea 7 had to transport a large tow head by sea from Nigg,
Cromarty Firth, to Sinclair's Bay. The tow head was to be
attached to pipe bundles, up to 7 km in length, fabricated at
Sinclair's Bay and then towed out to the Jura oil production
feld.
Appropriate weather windows had to be determined to
transport the tow head via sea, construct a temporary roadway
on the beach to transfer the tow head, land the barge and
tow head on the beach to attach the pipe bundle and then
launch and foat the bundles, ready to tow them offshore out
to the Jura feld for installation. Additionally, transit from Nigg
to Sinclair's Bay and back required a 48 hour weather window
that ensured a force 5 wind or less, with associated seas during
landing operations and a signifcant wave height that did not
exceed 0.5 m for a period of 12 to 16 hours. ln addition, the
transit required that the tide on approach and departure was
on high water and roll-off was on low water. It is worth nothing
that the length of the bundle makes it highly sensitive to wave
height and period, as both place stresses on the bundle.
Hindcast analysis was carried out to help the project
team identify the most likely times when there would be a
weather window for the operation. Close involvement in
planning meetings allowed the project team to have a better
understanding of critical limits. Probability forecasts were
provided illustrating the outlook for wind and wave conditions
out to 14 days ahead. These were used in tandem with fve day
forecast conditions to provide the details required to avoid the
high costs of maintaining crews onsite, waiting for weather, but
ensured suffcient notice to make sure crews arrived on time.
Tow/move forecasts were used to ensure the safe transit
of the barge and tow head from Nigg to Sinclair's Bay. As the
weather window approached, precise advice was critical so a
forecaster was deployed to be on hand to brief the operational
teams. This enabled all opportunities to be taken and for
contingency plans to be made. Consequently, the barge
landing and tow head transport went smoothly.
The key to success is ultimately in the careful planning
and understanding of the environment in which operations
have been planned. Accurate forecasts can only maximise
the weather opportunities that would be available during the
planned operations.
O T

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DECOMMISSION
IMPOSSIBLE?
Brian Nixon, Decom North Sea, explores the
challenges and opportunities posed by the
decommissioning of offshore oil and gas
facilities in the North Sea.
Figure 1. DNS member, Perenco UK, safely
executed the heavy lift removal of the Welland gas
production platform in the southern North Sea.
14
T
here are many regulations
impacting offshore oil and
gas decommissioning.
Internationally they include OSPAR
(the Oslo-Paris Convention), IMO
(International Maritime Organisation)
and the EU, while the Department for
Energy and Climate Change (DECC)
has responsibility for reviewing and
approving all decommissioning
programmes within the UK Continental
Shelf. However, put simply, the current
rules dictate that all man-made
structures installed in northwest
European waters have to be removed
at the end of their economic life, unless
there are very specifc reasons why they
should be left in place.
Recent changes announced by
the UK Treasury regarding tax relief
for decommissioning are expected
to provide certainty of government
contribution to each project. This
will provide greater assurance over
liabilities on the one hand and thus
help to stimulate late life acquisition,
but also give greater confdence to
those operators that are approaching
the end of economic feld life. While
never wanting to increase the pace
of decommissioning, it is hoped that
this announcement will also result
in a steadier rate of activity in the
market, provide companies with more
confdence and hence encourage the
pace of investment and innovation
within the industry.
There are multiple reasons for the
owners and operators
of offshore oil and gas
production facilities to
defer the start of the
decommissioning
process.
Decommissioning
projects are
expensive and
there is no return on the expenditure.
New technologies have been
successfully introduced over the years
resulting in numerous felds producing
far beyond their original design life. The
ability to target and exploit marginal
satellite reservoirs has increased
signifcantly over time, and at ever-
greater distances from the mother
facility. The processing or transportation
of third party oil or gas can also defer
decommissioning. Decommissioning
projects are complex, with technical,
safety and environmental challenges,
so rigorous and detailed planning and
options appraisal add to the time taken
to fnalise the strategy for each bespoke
facility. And under current regulations
there are no conditions to drive the start
of the removal process, so there is no
time pressure.
Opportunities and challenges
Despite this, there is growing awareness
in the countries around the North Sea
that the industry is facing a bow
wave of decommissioning activity
in the coming years, as evidenced
by the amount of planning and
preparation currently underway in the
sector. Professor Alex Kemp from
the University of Aberdeen estimates
the cost of decommissioning some
550 fxed, foating and subsea
installations in the UK Continental Shelf
alone to be 30 - 36 billion between
now and 2040. On the one hand
this represents a sustained business
opportunity for the industry, and on the
other hand a cost to the operators and
UK Treasury of more than 1 billion per
annum.
The industry is responding positively
to this approaching programme with
signifcant attention being directed to the
planning and preparation of individual
decommissioning programmes.
15
16
OILFIELD TECHNOLOGY
August 2012
Different and often contradictory conditions safety,
environmental, social, technical and economic - infuence
the strategy proposed for these complex projects, calling
for rigorous comparative assessments to be undertaken by
operators with their various stakeholders and contractors in
order to ensure optimal balance.
New technologies, new techniques
Similarly, a lot of work is underway researching new
technologies and techniques. A recent industry workshop,
facilitated by Decom North Sea, the European decommissioning
industry forum, highlighted the following areas where innovation
or improved technologies would beneft the performance of
decommissioning programmes:
x Mapping of hazardous materials, including techniques
for identifying, quantifying and tracking wastes such as
heavy metals, naturally occurring radioactive material
(NORMj, asbestos, mercury etc. through each phase of a
decommissioning project.
x Cleaning of process equipment and pipelines, including
improved flushing techniques, separation and storage of
fluids, and the development of an industry standard for
cleanliness.
x Legacy and monitoring of sites following completion of
decommissioning, including remote inspection, long term
leach rates of drill cuttings, and the possibility of
accelerating the degradation of jacket footings (if granted a
derogationj.
x Removal methods, including cutting technologies, jacket
dismantling options, new designs for heavy lift and
transportation vessels.
x Well plugging and abandonment, including possible
alternatives to expensive drilling rigs, cutting techniques,
verification of subsea cuts, new barrier materials etc.
The associated business opportunities over the next 30 years
are many and varied, and it is important to recognise that
decommissioning expenditures will be in addition to the Capex
and Opex investments, which will continue to be made by the
industry. The facilities, service types and technologies that are
required in each phase of the decommissioning cycle are being
mapped out.
Figure 2. A diagram mapping out the facilities, service types and technologies that are required
in each phase of the decommissioning cycle.
An interactive map of the North Sea is being developed in
order to highlight onshore yards that are active, or planning to
become active, in dismantling, accompanied by a description
of each facility (water depth, length of quayside, lay-down area,
licences etc.j. A second phase of this web-based map will provide
a forecast assessment of available capacity at each yard to assist
operators and contractors to select the most appropriate facility
for their project. Yards from Norway, Denmark, The Netherlands
and the UK will be featured.
There is a clear need for careful maintenance and integrity of
offshore assets right up until the end of production, particularly if
the decommissioning process may not start immediately - offshore
infrastructure is likely to deteriorate quickly in harsh environments.
This is particularly true if there is a chance of reducing the negative
net present value (NPvj of the asset by refurbishing and re-using
plant, equipment or components.
Decomissioning as part of a lifecycle
lt is becoming increasingly clear that decommissioning needs to
be recognised and incorporated as an integral part of the asset
lifecycle, and not treated as a separate project tagged on at the
end of feld life. Decommissioning should be fully considered
at the design stage, throughout the productive life, and during
modifcations and shutdowns, resulting in reduced risk and
costs. Similarly, the sector stands to beneft signifcantly if
decommissioning is built in to career development programmes
for engineering graduates, project managers, commercial
managers and technicians alike; there are seriously exciting career
opportunities for a wide range of disciplines, but the opportunities
need to be promoted through education, training and development
programmes.
ln terms of current activity, the UK regulators (DECCj are
understood to be reviewing some 18 decommissioning programmes,
and expect to receive a further 20 in the coming months. ln support
of this signifcant workload, two standard templates for these
programmes, one covering assets that may attract a derogation
and a second for assets that will not, are being developed and will
be completed by this summer. The templates will provide guidance
to operating companies on the development of their plans for each
complex and unique project, while providing DECC with submissions
in a more consistent format and hence easier
to review, compare and contrast. lt is hoped
that once this Standard Decommissioning
Programme template is adopted in the UK
Continental Shelf, it can progressively be
introduced for projects across the whole
North Sea.
Overview
Since its formation in early 2010,
Decom North Sea has witnessed a clear
demonstration that its member companies
are setting out on this programme of complex
projects in a professional and reputable
manner, with every possible care being
exercised. Another encouraging aspect noted
over this period is the strong interest being
shown by university graduates in considering
offshore decommissioning as a possible
career choice. The industry certainly needs
such talent.
O T

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SPE is what you need.
For information about other SPE events visit www.spe.org/events.
Upcoming Americas Events
Attend these upcoming SPE events and meet with other professionals to learn
about and discuss the latest E&P technical advancements:
SPE Liquids-Rich
Basins Conference:
New Technology
for Old Plays
1920 September 2012
Midland, Texas, USA
www.spe.org/events/lrbc
Exhibit space and sponsorship opportunities are now available.
For information visit the conference websites.
Society of Petroleum Engineers
www.spe.org
2425 September 2012
The Westin Calgary
Calgary, Alberta, Canada
www.spe.org
SPE Hydrocarbon
Economics and
Evaluation Symposium
www.spe.org/events/lrbc
SPE Liquids-Rich Basins Conference:
New Technology for Old Plays
1920 September 2012, Midland Convention Center, Midland, TX, USA
Society of Petroleum Engineers
With the support of
the SPE Permian
Basin Section
This conference offers current operations
practices and the development of tactics
which are driving todays exploitation of
liquids-rich reservoirs. It will examine
case histories and highlight innovative
technologies and techniques applied
throughout the drilling, completion, and
production life of wells.
SPE Hydrocarbon
Economics
and Evaluation
Symposium
2425 September 2012
Calgary, Alberta, Canada
www.spe.org/events/hees
www.spe.org/events/curc
CALGARY TELUS CONVENTION CENTRE
30 OCTOBER1 NOVEMBER 2012
CALGARY, ALBERTA, CANADA
SPE CANADIAN
UNCONVENTIONAL
RESOURCES CONFERENCE
SPE Canadian
Unconventional
Resources Conference
30 October1 November 2012
Calgary, Alberta, Canada
www.spe.org/events/curc
This symposium focuses on hydrocarbon and
reserves evaluation and best practices and
techniques to apply during global volatility.
Experts from around the globe will share
their knowledge and present case studies on
reservoir economics, market growth factors,
and reserves, risk, and uncertainty.
This conference offers E&P professionals
the latest techniques and best practices
for discovering, developing, and producing
unconventional resources in North America.
T
here are few sectors
where the term
getting more from
less is more appropriate
than in the oil and gas
sector.
With demand continuing
to outstrip supply and yet
global oil and gas recovery
rates still in the region of
20%, the last few years have
seen a renewed focus on a
wide variety of technologies
to help improve recovery
rates. Typical EOR
(Enhanced Oil Recovery)
technologies include gas
injection, chemical injection
and thermal recovery.
Furthermore, potential
benefts to improving
recovery have never been
higher. There are predictions
that an oil recovery rate
increase of just 1% would
replace as much as
three years of global oil
consumption.
One previously
overlooked means of
extending reservoir life and
increasing recovery rates,
however, is that of reservoir
modelling.
Reservoir models
are becoming a default
platform for examining and
understanding subsurface
geology. It is the reservoir
modellers ability to build a
realistic representation of
the geometry of the reservoir
that is vital for representing
fuid fow and volumes as
correctly as possible.
This article will examine
the latest developments
in reservoir modelling and
the key role it is starting to
play in extending reservoir
life and increasing recovery
rates.
The many facets of
reservoir modelling:
embracing seismic
There are many elements of
reservoir modelling that can
provide crucial information
towards future production
strategies.
Just being able to
see the distribution of
porosity and the shape
of the reservoir structure,
for example, can make
clearer how and where
well placements should
Tyson Bridger, Emerson Process Management, Norway,
examines the role of reservoir modelling in EOR.
ROLE
MODEL
19
20
OILFIELD TECHNOLOGY
August 2012
be made. Millions of dollars can potentially be saved by inserting
proposed wells into the model, seeing how they need to be
routed, and changing them to maximise effciencies.
The incorporation of 3D and 4D seismic into the reservoir
model has also played an important role in combining seismic
and well data to generate the most accurate and
best-constrained models for describing which rocks are where.
It is this ability to leverage the seismic data and take it
through a completely integrated reservoir modelling workfow
- from reservoir simulation through to reservoir behaviour
predictions and uncertainty management - that defnes effective
reservoir modelling today.
Emersons latest version of its reservoir modelling software
comes with new seismic inversion and seismic attribute tools.
The inversion tool and increased automation allow geoscientists
to use seismic data to create a rock property model quickly
and accurately. In addition, these inversion tools are supported
by new visualisation tools that enable modellers to extract
maximum value from their seismic data through the creation of
attributes that more clearly defne reservoir structure and guide
the user through the facies modelling process.
Fracture modelling
Fracture modelling can also play a key role in helping operators
understand their reservoir and as an input into EOR strategies.
Fractures have a direct infuence over the fuid fow
behaviour of many felds, both positive and negative, greatly
enhancing the permeability of rocks and changing the
distribution of fow in the reservoir. Today, approximately half of
the worlds proven reserves of oil and gas are in carbonate or
fractured reservoirs.
Despite the prevalence of fractures, however, conventional
reservoir engineering techniques are often not suitable for a
fractured reservoir development, due to the limited fracture data
available.
As an alternative, fractured carbonate reservoirs are
therefore often characterised through the integration of static
data sets, including seismic, well cores and logs, petrophysical
and geomechanical data, drilling and production data and data
taken from analogue outcrops and regional maps.
Reservoir modelling software and a fracture-modelling
module were used to develop a fracture model for a large
Middle Eastern carbonate reservoir, despite not having a fracture
data set in place and being reliant on geological concepts and
geo-mechanics principles.
This was achieved through incorporating specifc quantitative
fracture attributes, such as aperture, length and width, density
and fracture-surface morphology into the model, which was
derived using analogue and geo-mechanics principles.
The result was a static model with the fracture permeability
and sigma factor used for simulation purposes, for predicting
reservoir behaviour, and for supporting EOR programmes.
Figure 1 shows a discrete fracture network (DFN) of all the
fracture sets.
Addressing the challenges of upscaling
The huge amount of data and highly heterogeneous descriptions
of many oil and gas reservoirs bring with them a challenge
of their own, with too many grid cells for effective reservoir
simulation.
How can reservoir engineers upscale the models for
simulation without sacrifcing the reservoir's heterogeneity and
without losing the original structure of the geological model?
Rock properties, such as porosity, absolute and relative
permeability all need to be upscaled accurately to ensure that
the geological data affecting fuid fow is accurately transferred
to the simulation model and is later provided as input to EOR
strategies.
It is with this challenge in mind that a new methodology
and algorithm has been developed to upscale the model as an
irregular single layer simulation grid while still containing the
geological structure of the original model.
The methodology was recently applied on a reservoir in
the Middle East. In this particular example, the challenge was
to upscale a 20 million cell size fne geological grid up to a
2.5 million cell size simulation grid. The model included over
450 columns, over 250 rows, 300 wells and up to 75 faults.
The formula and script identifed the most similar layers with
the smallest variation changes in the model so that maximum
heterogeneity could be kept if the two layers merged. At each
stage of merging layers, the remaining heterogeneity was then
calculated and converted to a percentage. Figure 2 illustrates
how the heterogeneity is plotted versus model layers with the
point of infexion on the curve being the optimal point where the
minimised model layers combine with the maximum retained
heterogeneity.
Figure 1. A discrete fracture network (DFN) of all the fracture sets.
Figure 2. How heterogeneity is plotted versus model layers in the
upscaling of a reservoir model for simulation.
Through the application of the methodology on the reservoir,
a highly accurate upscaled simulation model was developed with
all tests confrming the high quality and geological heterogeneity
of the simulation grid and the close correlation between the
geological grid fne scale model and the upscaled grid model.
The result is an excellent approximation of the high-resolution
calculations performed in the original model within the simulation
model, more accurate predictions of reservoir behaviour and fuid
fow, and ultimately improved feld performance.
Well correlation
Well correlation tools are also playing an important role in
allowing interpreters to handle complex geologies and realistic
well geometries in a truly 3D environment and rolling out such
updates in the model. The result is a signifcant shortening of the
geological interpretation workfow.
Roxar RMS, for example, comes with a well correlation
system and interface that provides interpreters of well logs and
picks with the functionality they need. Templates can be
well-specifc, picks and interpretations can be tracked across
multiple wells, and log response snapshots or ghosts can be
dragged and compared between wells.
Increasing recovery rates
So how are these new developments manifesting themselves in
EOR programmes?
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Today, modelling software is being used on felds
worldwide to improve recovery rates and provide value and
input to EOR strategies.
Examples include Statoil's Statfjord feld, one of the oldest
producing felds on the Norwegian Continental Shelf, which
is delivering recovery rates of up to 66% and is scheduled
to remain active until 2019. According to lNTSOK, a joint
partnership between the Norwegian oil and gas industry and
the Norwegian government, Roxar RMS helped role generate
predictive models for the feld and provide input to well
intervention, 4D seismic, and water management decisions.
Another feld example where reservoir modelling is being
used to its full potential is Statoil's Gullfaks feld, where
recovery rates are now close to 60%. Outside the North Sea,
systems such as RMS have also been adopted by operators
such as PEMEX in its Kutz offshore feld, part of the Cantarell
asset offshore Mexico, and BPs Prudhoe Bay where recovery
rates are now also up to 60%.
From seismic acquisition and interpretation through to
fracture modelling, history matching, upscaling and simulation,
3D reservoir models have arguably become the most important
decision-making tool exploration and production companies
have at their disposal in reservoir management today.
The result is more reliable decisions, more justifable
investments, better performance from felds, and extended
reservoir life.
O T

I
n an era characterised by the peak oil phenomenon, much of
the remaining oil and gas reserves lie in deeper, less accessible
parts of the worlds seas and oceans. By 2006, over 3800
deepwater wells had been drilled worldwide and at that time
deepwater production contributed 13.8% of offshore oil production
and 9.3% of offshore gas production. With increasing feld
development particularly in the Gulf of Mexico, Brazil and the
West of Africa, deepwater production is expected to grow rapidly
over the next decade. All the construction and maintenance of
production infrastructure installed in waters deeper than 300 ft is
managed from the surface and relies heavily on remotely operated
vehicles (ROVs) and advanced tooling capabilities. The management
and control of installations at depths of up to 9000 ft is possible
but is technically very challenging and much more expensive. As a
result, operators pay greater attention to ROV pilot skills, offshore
operations awareness, and to reliable, well-engineered solutions.
Rigorous investigation and testing of designs in simulation before
deployment increases the likelihood of success and reduces risks to
an acceptable level in what can be a very hostile and unpredictable
environment.
The offshore oil and gas industry sets strict standards for
deepwater feld developments and defnes compliance criteria
for the verifcation of designs, operability and maintenance
of production systems. This is due not only to the increasing
complexity of the design of deepwater production systems
often multiple wells accessed via a template or clustered around
a manifold exporting to a foating production system - but also
to the high costs of new developments and changing existing
developments. Full scale system integration tests are not
economically practical, so the oil industry applies modern simulator
technologies for virtual testing of subsea systems to discover and
rectify design faws particularly at the concept and early engineering
phases of projects, when the greatest savings can be made and
there is time to improve designs and mitigate risk. Subsea services
SIMON MARR, FUGRO SUBSEA SERVICES LTD, UK,
INTRODUCES SIMULATION TOOLS FOR THE SUBSEA
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22
contractors use modern simulation tools with models of deepwater
systems to verify system functions and dynamic properties
against various requirements, specifcations and under a wide
range of environmental conditions. This includes model-based
development of plant equipment and deepwater solutions for the
design, installation and maintenance of safe deepwater production
systems.
One such simulator is DeepWorks, which can act as an ROV
trainer, an engineering simulator and a live operations visualisation
toolset. The softwares ROV pilot training simulator uses dynamic
simulation, with hydraulic and electrical component libraries to
reproduce the actual subsea conditions and ROV tooling that
characterise the physical environment and pressures under
which ROV pilots work.
The simulator brings full force-modelled physics simulation to
subsea scenarios so that remotely operated vehicles and other
moveable subsea assets respond to electrical and hydraulic
demands, environmental forces and friction, just like the real thing.
Touch and feel interactivity gives ROV pilots the same graduated
tactile response as if they were actually navigating the ROV, or
deploying a tool such as a hydraulically activated nondestructive
testing (NDT) measurement tool during a subsea inspection.
Rehearsing operations across a wide range of conditions helps to
validate procedures and to defne the safe operating envelope for
successful inspection, maintenance and repair operations. Being
able to rehearse specifc tasks easily and repeatedly, allows
ROV pilots to hone their skills quickly and allows ROV supervisors
to assess the job skill level required and to grade pilots for specifc
operations based on an objective assessment of their performance.
For planning purposes, running the engineering simulator on
a desktop PC provides a dynamic simulation engine that models
the true hydrodynamic responses of offshore equipment when
acted upon by environmental conditions. Engineers can quickly
drag and drop components from the extensive libraries to build
23
24
OILFIELD TECHNOLOGY
August 2012
subsea scenarios containing items such as vessels, pipes, cables
and ROVs. Engineers can also add their own custom components
by importing 3D engineering models and defning key properties. The
programme speeds up the evaluation of subsea engineering designs
by simulating complex subsea interactions and collisions in great
detail, whilst recording all the engineering data for offine analysis.
By adding a real time module to the software, live monitoring
of the topside and subsea operations with equal transparency
provides offshore navigators, surveyors and deck teams with
a shared visualisation of all feld operations as they happen for
improved work co-ordination. This module takes input from real time
systems including Fugro Starfx, and NMEA standard inputs such
as GPS, Gyro and USBL data. A live 3D world view enables both
management and offshore teams to react more quickly to operational
developments, giving a clear and accurate picture of what is really
happening subsea. Teams can combine live data, such as vessel
location, with simulated data including pipeline location during a
pipelay. As the operation unfolds, the full situation is recorded in the
3D world for subsequent review and for comparison with digital video
records.
Companies such as FSSL in Aberdeen use simulators for
real time monitoring of ROV operations on its vessels and
the engineering simulator for prototyping new tooling developments
and refning engineering designs before manufacture, as well as for
pilot training. FSSL, like most subsea companies, previously relied
on building prototypes, system integration tests (SlTsj, small scale
wet tests, and other expensive and time-consuming processes.
Due to its wide range of applications across the whole upstream oil
and gas process, simulation is now reaching many more parts of
the business, resulting in shorter project lifecycles and enabling the
delivery of a more cost-effective service.
A simulator requires the implementation of several key aspects
before it can be of use to the industry. These include ease of use
and a solid grounding in accurate physics. Providing a user-friendly
interface and removing the need for scripts and programming to be
managed by users are also important considerations to take into
account when designing a simulator.
Simulators of this nature can be used not only for pilot training,
but also to test the workability of quickly evolving concepts and
designs before new tooling is manufactured, and to test those
designs in a full spectrum of simulated environmental conditions to
ensure they can be safely deployed and are ft for purpose. The goal
here is the rapid refnement and assessment of new solutions.
DeepWorks Engineer, for example, allows an engineer to build
subsea worlds with vessels, pipes, cables and ROVs. Importantly
for FSSL, the software can also be used to model ROV electrical
and hydraulic circuit connections and component characteristics in
great detail, making it quick and easy to change the vehicle or tooling
design parameters before manufacture, thereby saving signifcant
time and money.
When companies encounter a subsea problem, a set of tools
usually has to be designed for that specifc job and sometimes the
ideas and mechanisms have never been used before, so being able
to test a system before manufacture is of great value.
For training in fault detection and repairing, the underlying circuits
are fully modelled. Training supervisors can 'break' individual circuits
or components to test how well pilots understand their equipment.
The supervisor can execute this in real time, or develop a problem
scenario to test whether the trainee responds correctly. The system
is set up so that trainees can easily repeat a scenario until they get
it right. The whole dataset and 3D world is recorded and can be
returned to any point for review and detailed behaviour response
analysis.
Simulators such as DeepWorks provide an integrated suite of
tools to help subsea operators complete each project task speedily
and effectively. Simulation and control technologies now provide
operators with an unprecedented insight and ability to intervene
directly in the design, development, deployment, operation and
maintenance of subsea and seabed equipment, minimising risk and
speeding up production.
O T

Figure 1. FCV3000 ROV operator console.
Figure 3. Simulation of an FCV3000 ROV carrying out NDT inspection
of jacket tubulars.
Figure 2. Simulation of an FCV3000 ROV performing a complex
intervention procedure.
1
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3
4
5
6
7
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9
unconventional
wisdom
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For 88 years, ATCE has been the leading technical
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Society of Petroleum Engineers
Achieving accurate reservoir description through the integration of
multi-disciplinary information is possible. Erick Alvarez, Laure Pelle
and Jaume Hernandez, Senergy, UK, explain how.
SCIPLIN
TION LLABORATI
DISCIPLINED
COLLABORATION
A
n adequate description of the rock and fuid distributions in a reservoir
depends upon the appropriate integration of petrophysics, rock physics,
geophysics, geology and reservoir engineering. This synergy provides a better
understanding of the reservoirs and also maximises the usability and integration of
the data throughout the reservoir seismic characterisation (RSCj process.
ln traditional reservoir characterisation, the communication in a multidisciplinary
team is mostly related to the exchange of results. ln modern RSC, communication
27
28
OILFIELD TECHNOLOGY
August 2012
between disciplines is increased through the incorporation
of an extra discipline called rock physics, which takes input
from all disciplines and helps with the joint interpretation of
results (Figure 1j. The ultimate goal of rock physics analysis
is to establish meaningful physical relations between the rock
properties and the geophysical measurements, in order to fnd
a way of converting the seismic traces into properties that can
help to increase the accuracy of the lateral distribution of the
reservoir model. To achieve this, the input petrophysics needs
to be performed with great interaction between the rock
physicist, petrophysicist, geologist and reservoir engineer,
in order to come up with a model that satisfes the needs of
all disciplines. ln the case of rock physics, the petrophysical
model must be carried out with the highest level of detail,
accuracy and calibration possible, as well as being performed
in a multi-well manner, to avoid having different parameters
applied to different wells.
Reservoir geophysics, through applying pre-stack seismic
data using AvO/AvA (amplitude versus offset/amplitude
versus anglej processes, allows the use of seismic
information in a quantitative way, which helps characterise
the reservoir in terms of thickness, reservoir quality, lithology
and fuid variations away from the well locations. However, in
order to obtain reliable seismic-based properties, reservoir
geophysicists must incorporate all petrophysical and
geological information available. To achieve this goal, the
most essential process in RSC - rock physics analysis - must
be performed.
Rock physics is the link between petrophysics, geology
and geophysics. Through a series of modelling exercises
and crossplot analysis, the impact that subtle petrophysical
changes (such as porosity and rock and fuid fractionsj have
on the seismic signal can be understood, and this therefore
helps to defne a strategy to map those changes across the
reservoir using the available 2D or 3D seismic information.
As reservoirs become more mature, it is essential for
the process to monitor and incorporate the changes in the
reservoir associated with human activities, such as production
and injection, which affect pressure and saturation. These
changes can be identifed and quantifed with the use of
4D seismic data, which needs to be interpreted in conjunction
with the reservoir engineer.
Finally, all the results from the previously mentioned
disciplines are incorporated in the construction of a
3D geological model.
This model captures the variability in rock and fuid
distributions defned by the seismic but at a fner scale that
represents all the necessary fow units that the reservoir
engineer requires to run the simulations and attempt to
predict the future behaviour of the reservoir and as a result
make the necessary decisions on how best to continue its
development.
Detailed and accurate petrophysical model
Well-based log and core data provides information on
geological parameters that control the reservoir quality. The
petrophysical evaluation is the frst essential step in the
RSC process. However, there are many ways of conducting
petrophysical evaluation, such as deterministic and
stochastic, which can be carried out in a detailed or simplifed
manner, and the selection of the appropriate method must be
discussed with all the disciplines involved.
Classical petrophysical studies, such as deterministic
evaluations based in crossplots may not be appropriate for
reservoir geophysics, as the interpretation parameters may
change from well to well. Likewise, statistical petrophysics
evaluations that are useful for the reservoir geophysicist may
not be appropriate for reservoir engineering purposes, as
the estimation of reserves requires the use of deterministic
models that can be easily reproduced. Therefore it is
important that the three disciplines work together and create
a model that satisfes all requirements. ldeally, one would be
able to generate a petrophysics model, which incorporates
as many logs and core data as available and performed
with similar parameters in all wells and is easily reproduced
regardless of the software used (Figure 2j. Three main
Figure1. Traditional reservoir characterisation has limited
communication between disciplines. Incorporating rockphysics into
the process improves integration and communication between all
disciplines.
Figure2. Petrophysics must be detailed, accurate, calibrated and
representative of geological observations.
Figure3. Rock physics analysis allows for the analysis of how
petrophysical properties and seismic properties are related.
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30
OILFIELD TECHNOLOGY
August 2012
characteristics are required to generate a useful petrophysics
model for RSC purposes.
x Enough detail to capture all the variations that may
have relevance for reservoir quality. Parameters such
as capillary-bound water, cement fractions and multiple
types of clay have a significant impact on seismic
modelling.
x Multi-well consistency, so the parameters used from well
to well do not introduce bias in the interpretation when
using the petrophysics information to correlate with the
seismic.
x Calibration against all geological observations and
additional measurements available. ln core data,
measurements such as X-Ray diffraction (XRDj provide a
detailed description of the mineralogy of the rock,
which allows for the calibration of the interpreted
mineral fractions.
Rock physics analysis
The main objective of rock physics analysis is to
determine how the petrophysical properties, which
drive the reservoir quality, are related to the elastic
properties that control the seismic propagation.
However, in classical AvO studies,
two assumptions create limitations in this
analysis. Firstly, the access of shear wave velocity
information for the elastic moduli analysis (an
essential parameter in seismic wave propagationj
is often diffcult because of sparse or nonexisting
measurements, which makes it necessary to rely
on theoretical or empirical relations. Secondly,
the theories often represent situations that are
too simplistic for real life situations such as
Gassmann's relations for fuid substitution, which
assume a single matrix and a single fuid.
However, if a detailed petrophysical evaluation
is available, it is possible to extend the theoretical
models to represent a more realistic scenario.
The petrophysical data represents an effective
medium rather than a composite medium, and
in rock physics there are equations that allow
for the use of this concept of effective medium
to extend the application to multi-mineral and
multi-fuid rocks. However, the accuracy of such
approximations is directly proportional to the
accuracy of the petrophysical evaluation, hence
the importance of spending suffcient time in
generating a proper petrophysical evaluation.
The use of crossplots between different elastic
properties such as Al (acoustic impedancej,
El (elastic impedancej, (lambda*rhoj,
(mu*rhoj, (Poisson's ratioj, etc. allow for
the fnding of the best seismic-based parameter
that will help to identify the lateral distribution of
the petrophysical properties driving the reservoir
quality (Figure 3j.
Quality check of seismic for AVO and
preconditioning
An important part of the characterisation
is a detailed analysis of the seismic quality
and its usability for AvO. lt is essential
that the reservoir geophysicist analyses in
detail the pre-stack information, not only
in the form of angle stacks but directly as
CRP gathers (common refection pointsj, in order
to determine if the AvO effect observed is related
to the rock and fuid contrasts or if it may be
affected by acquisition or processing issues,
Figure4. Seismic data must be quality checked and improved before its use in RSC.
Figure5. Blind testing enables the accuracy of the inversion results to be validated,
above: blind test example in an acoustic inversion (Borgi and Hernandez, 2009).
Figure6. Blind test example in an elastic inversion (Singh and Alvarez, 2009).
(in which case the appropriate method to reduce
such effects to the minimum must be selectedj.
Problems such as residual velocity corrections
and random noise attenuation must be part of
the normal RSC workfow. As a quality check,
one can use the results of the rock physics
modelling to determine if the AvO response
matches the well observations (Figure 4j.
Seismic inversion
While well data provides a good vertical
resolution of the reservoir, seismic data allows
for a good lateral resolution. Depending on the
data provided and the rock physics analysis,
different inversion algorithms can be performed
to incorporate the lateral variations defned from
seismic into the reservoir modelling.
For example, if only post-stack data are
available and in the rock physics analysis there
is a good relationship between porosity and
acoustic impedance, one can use acoustic
inversion to map porosity changes in the
reservoir. lf pre-stack information is available
and shear wave velocity information exists in the
feld, then AvO simultaneous inversion can be
performed, which allows us to carry out a more
detailed analysis from which, depending on the
characteristics of the area, we may be able to
estimate lithology, porosity and fuid variations
in the reservoir.
Seismic inversion is a combination of a
deterministic wave propagation theoretical
model and a statistical process. As with
any statistical process, uncertainty and
non-uniqueness are common problems. To
solve this problem, blind testing, which involves
keeping some wells out of the process and
then quality checking the inversion results
against them, must become a regular part of
any RSC workfow. This process validates the
results while also quantifying the uncertainties
and proving the reliability of the results
(Figures 5 and 6j.
Geological model update from seismic
lntegrating seismic-derived parameters into the
geological model provides information such
as the fnal sand quality indicators, reservoir
geomorphology or petrophysical parameters
away from the well locations, which would
be impossible to obtain using only geology
and well-based measurements. However,
one of the most fundamental issues in the
RSC process is how to incorporate those
properties into the geological model. Seismic
properties have a very low resolution compared
to well measurements and depending on the
characteristics of the reservoir such as fow
units and transmissibility, more or less detail
may be required. Another big issue is that
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Figure8. Example of water
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32
OILFIELD TECHNOLOGY
August 2012
the uncertainties associated
with the deterministic inversion
and those associated with the
co-simulation are difficult to
ascertain, as they are combined
in a single process. The other
disadvantage is that minimum
user input is required; therefore
it is not easy to imprint the
geological knowledge into the
result.
Time lapse reservoir
monitoring
When the reservoir
characterisation process
involves a producing feld, it
is essential to consider the
use of 4D seismic to capture the reservoir variations
associated with human activity. Time lapse seismic
involves the acquisition of several 3D seismic surveys
in different times, and by analysing the differences
between those, it is possible to observe the changes
in the reservoir related to changes in pressure and
saturation.
The ability to obtain reservoir pressure and
saturation changes using 4D seismic (which
in 3D seismic is extremely diffcultj presents the
opportunity to extend the RSC process to mature felds,
allowing us to incorporate variations in the reservoir
associated with injection water fronts, compartments
identifed through pressure build-ups, reservoir
depletion and gas coming out of solution as a result of
sudden decreases in pressure (Figure 8j.
With 4D seismic, the RSC process not only involves
updating the geological model, but also requires
direct interaction with the reservoir engineer to update
the simulation model, improving history matching,
and ultimately, providing more tools that allow us to
make better decisions and achieve superior reservoir
management.
Summary
To reduce uncertainty, modern seismic-based
reservoir characterisation projects must incorporate
the rock physics element to improve integration and
maximise the use of all data available in the feld.
Rock physics bridges the gap between seismic
and reservoir modelling by establishing meaningful
relationships between the seismic signal and the
petrophysical properties in the subsurface, using
the knowledge and understanding of geophysics,
petrophysics, geology and reservoir engineering.
Traditional reservoir characterisation techniques
rely mostly on qualitative estimations of the reservoir
distributions, in which the uncertainties are diffcult to
estimate, and the incorporation of results carries a high
grade of empiricism. The integrated rock physics-based
approach described in this work, is one of the best
quantitative tools to reduce uncertainty and obtain more
accurate reserve estimates, whether looking for the
best well placement or an update of the 3D reservoir
model.
O T

seismic properties are generated in time domain
and the usual uncertainty in the depth conversion
process is nowadays about 10 m, which in terms
of the reservoir model may imply several fow units.
The standard approach is to use advanced statistical
techniques such as sequential co-simulation, using
the seismic properties as a soft constrain; this way
the variance among the statistical realisations can
be reduced, leading to better P10, P50, and P90
estimates of recoverable reserves, as well as reducing
the overall uncertainty, and ultimately resulting in a
beneft for the dynamic simulation (improved history
matchingj. There are three primary ways of performing
such co-simulation and their use depends on the
availability of data, reservoir characteristics, accuracy
of the seismic estimations, and time.
x Sequential co-simulation using the seismic
properties as 2D maps: This is mainly carried out
when the uncertainty of the depth conversion
process is too high in this workflow; average
property maps that broadly represent the
distribution of the petrophysical properties in the
reservoir are computed and without the need for
depth conversion these maps can be used as
soft constrain to co-simulate the distribution of
properties at the desired resolution.
x Sequential co-simulation using the seismic
properties as 3D volumes: This is done mainly
when the uncertainty of the depth conversion
process is acceptable in terms of the resolution
of the reservoir model, in this workflow; the
seismic properties are converted to depth in 3D
and directly used as soft constrain. This approach
has the advantage of incorporating more vertical
and lateral variability from the seismic properties,
unlike the use of 2D maps, where the seismic
only represents an average of the units to model
(Figure 7j.
x Stochastic inversion: In this process, the seismic
inversion and co-simulation of the petrophysical
properties occurs at the same time. Above
seismic resolution, the process is equivalent
to a deterministic inversion, and below seismic
resolution the process is equivalent to using
the inversion results to co-simulate using a
3D property as discussed in the previous point.
The main disadvantage of this method is that
Figure7. Incorporation of seismic-based properties in 3D through sequential simulation
(Singh and Alvarez, 2009).
MOVING
MOORING
FORWARD
T
he oil and gas industry can be very conservative when it
comes to mooring, with many companies preferring to stick
to tried and tested methods. However, for early adopters of
innovative mooring technologies, the rewards can be huge. Applying
these new techniques can result in quicker repositioning of rigs,
thereby having a signifcant impact on the current global shortage.
The use of pre-lay mooring solutions, which can be applied in
all but a small number of ultra-deep locations around the world, can
be safer, more environmentally friendly and signifcantly cheaper.
For example, the pre-lays being installed in Norway are enabling
E&P companies to drill one or two extra wells a year, using the same
number of rigs, compared to fve years ago.
Pre-lays can be effective in the North Sea, the Barents Sea,
Africa, Australia in fact with the exception of few locations in
South-East Asia and the really ultra-deepwater locations in Brazil,
they are applicable for the rest of the world. The benefts of using a
pre-lay system means the mooring equipment can be installed prior
to the arrival of the rig and then the rig simply hooks up to it when it
reaches the location.
This avoids the process of having one anchor handling vessel
holding the rig in position while three, or maybe even four other
vessels, take the anchors from the rig and sail off to the next location
to set the anchors before they are pulled in with the rigs winch.
It is a relatively new technique and while some companies have
been reluctant to switch from the systems they have been using
relatively successfully for 20 years, oil majors including BP, Det Norske
and Statoil are among the companies that have grasped the potential.
In ultra deepwater and for drilling operations of up to 30 days,
pre-lays are not the answer. However, with dynamic positioning
vessels burning between 60 000 and 150 000 l of diesel a day, it
can be a cost-effective solution for longer operations, particularly in
the Norwegian sector of the North Sea. Norway currently imposes a
carbon tax (CO
2
) and a nitrogen oxide tax (No
x
), which can amount to
millions of dollars per year for each rig. That means for operations that
require the rig to be on location for perhaps 45, 60 or 90 days, a
pre-lay mooring option offers a more environmentally friendly and
cheaper option as long as the rig can be safely moored.
Compare this to a conventional rig move, which requires a rig
to remain on location and drill for up to 45 days. Firstly, a couple of
anchor handling vessels are needed to pull the anchors out, which
can be quite diffcult. Sometimes these anchors have become
embedded 10, 12, or even 15 m down in the seabed and it can be
quite diffcult, especially in the winter, to release them. Sometimes a
vessel has to work for several shifts to get a single anchor out.
The anticipated time for any anchor handling operation has
to be calculated in advance. This is because, depending on the
regulations that apply (and these can vary from country to country),
the estimated number of hours has to be multiplied by a factor, which
is normally 1.5 or 2, to ensure that length of weather window. This
is one of the most important issues when it comes to cost savings,
which can be achieved by pre-lays. Therefore, if there is a weather
window of 40 hours and the operation takes 20 hours then it has
to run smoothly. There can be major problems if diffculties are
encountered and the timescale is exceeded. In the Norwegian sector
of the North Sea, for example, operations have to stop when the
signifcant wave height is 3.5 m.
For instance, there was an incident several years ago involving
a rig move where there was a problem getting the anchor out
and because the rig could not be moved to its next location as
scheduled, the vessel had to remain onsite to keep the rig in position.
The weather then got worse, which meant the rig move eventually
took 34 days instead of the predicted fve days - turning it into
an extremely costly operation. Consequently, this delay was also
transferred to the next E&P company.
Wolfgang Wandl, Viking SeaTech, Norway,
investigates the significant cost and efficiency
benefits provided by pre-laid subsea moorings.
33
34
OILFIELD TECHNOLOGY
August 2012
With a pre-lay, the vessel could have gone out a week in
advance when the weather was good, the waves were low, the
sun was shining and at a time when the anchor handling vessel
rates were low because these are spot market transactions. Such
a strategy immediately makes this type of operation safer and
cheaper, not least because it just takes one vessel instead of four
to lay all four lines.
The work is then completed one to three weeks ahead of the
required date when the weather conditions are good to ensure the
mooring lines work. Then it is just a matter of disconnecting the
rig at the old location, towing it to the new one and reconnecting it
to the 8 or 12 mooring points, which are already in the water. The
time requirement for this strategy is a fraction of the de-mooring
and re-mooring operation.
If operators can get more drilling days out of every rig by using
the pre-laying procedure, it would help the global supply situation
signifcantly. lmagine if companies saved two days for every rig
move, multiply this by the number of rig moves a rig makes in
a year and then multiply again by the total number of rigs and it
is not diffcult to see how big an impact this could have on the
industry.
However, a new generation has to be persuaded of its value.
There may be a reluctance to spend money on an operation some
companies might regard as not vital. But more can sometimes be
less. It is not unusual for a rig day rate to be anything up to
US$ 500 000, even if a rig is idle. So the investment in pre-lays
is likely to be signifcantly less than the cost of the downtime it
eliminates.
Changing behaviour
The conventional way of mooring is to have one set of equipment,
which belongs to the rig and therefore is part of the rig rate.
Pre-lays mean leapfrogging between the rigs own anchors and
chains and wires or fbres and the rental provider's equipment. This
may involve an additional cost but generates large savings.
For instance, pre-laid moorings were installed off the
Ivory Coast, which helped save one company more than
US$ 30 million. It certainly was not a typical operation and involved
a diffcult location with deep water, steep seabed slopes and
soil instability as well as seabed obstructions. Instead of the rig
moving between two drill centres 1000 m apart a number of times
during the project, it was able to skid between two drill centres
using only one taut leg system. This removed the need to run a
traditional catenary system at both locations and reduced the time
spent mooring. The rig was on location for a year and successfully
skidded between the drill centres many times resulting in
multi-million dollar savings on vessels and logistics.
Pre-lays do require massive anchor handling vessels, which
are designed solely to cater for pre-lays and are different from
conventional vessels. They are equipped with huge storage
drums underneath the deck so that they can take three times the
amount of mooring gear. Skandi Vega is one of the largest vessels
of its type in the world at 110 m long and 24 m wide. In a recent
operation, the Skandi Vega loaded 13 complete anchor systems
in Norway to be used for pre-laying deep sea mooring equipment
at a well east of Canada - the equivalent of loading around 2700
VW Golf cars onto the vessel. However, while specially designed
anchor handling vessels like the Skandi Vega can handle a full
pre-lay in one go, pre-lays can be so cost-effective that even a
smaller handling vessel, that would have to make several journeys
to deliver the equipment, would still save time and money.
Innovations
There are a number of other technical innovations being developed
and introduced to the mooring industry such as fbre ropes. These
are generally made from nylon, polypropylene, polyester or a
combination of all three. Threads of more modern materials such
as Kevlar, Arimid and Dyneema can be added to the ropes to
provide different characteristics and increase their strength. Fibre
ropes are increasingly being used instead of chain because they
are extremely easy to handle and very light, weighing only 4 kg/m
underwater compared to chain at between 90 and 120 kg/m.
However, one main disadvantage of these fbre ropes is that they
could easily be severed by a fshing vessel, thus causing problems
with the rigs mooring.
The use of fbre rope has increased over the past two decades
but it has only really been widely available commercially for the last
six to 10 years. At the moment, fbre ropes cannot be pre-laid on
the seabed because there is a risk that they could both damage
corals and also be damaged themselves by the corals or any other
obstacle on the seabed. However, a new fbre rope storage solution
has been developed: fbre in a bag (FiBj. This type of storage
system enables the fbre rope and the buoy in a pre-set mooring
application to be safely stored on the seabed until mobilisation. It
can then be picked up by an ROV in combination with a SPIN-buoy,
which is acoustically released. A SPIN-buoy is shaped so it rotates
vertically upwards through the water to the surface by itself, pulling
the fbre rope with it.
The SPIN-buoy pinpoints the position of equipment and
allows an acoustic signal to be sent to the seabed to bring up the
equipment eliminating the need for a vessel to use a grapnel to lift it
and perhaps destroy corals in the process. New types of fbre rope
protection are also going through the fnal stages of R&D.
Another technological development is the Vryhof Stevtrack,
which monitors an anchors behaviour during installation and
transmits all the relevant data to the surface vessel. lt is a signifcant
step forward in the monitoring and verifcation of the installation
of drag anchors in deepwater or complicated projects from the
installation vessel or foating unit. Currently, the anchor is dropped
down, pulled and held. If the anchor can withstand the load in
15 minutes then it is automatically recorded as fne. Stevtrack
accurately records the pitch and roll and load of the anchor so that
there is no longer any need to rely on readings from old winches on
a rig, some of which may be over 30 years old and inaccurate.
Last winter the winch readings on one rig were so inaccurate
that the crew were unaware that three anchors were dragging. The
use of state-of-the-art equipment might involve more capital outlay
but it is much less expensive than the shutdown that ensued in this
particular situation.
Looking to the future
One vision of the future is that in a few years time all rigs will be
moved between pre-lays; there will be large amounts of mooring
equipment, which will not be recovered, instead it will be left laid
out on the seabed. lt would only be taken up every fve years for
inspection but otherwise left on the seabed when not in use.
One could also foresee a communication network on the
seabed similar to the mobile phone network on land. There are
already many stations on the seabed, which are able to send and
receive signals. These stations will soon be able to speak to various
parts of the equipment and identify load, position and any potential
movement. All these technological developments point towards a
new and exciting era in the mooring industry.
O T

COMBATING
CORROSION
Glenn Weagle and Ron Maltman, Champion Technologies, Canada,
analyse a new technology that is bringing precision to SAGD
water quality management.
M
aintaining boiler feed water (BFW) quality for
once-through steam generators (OTSGs) is a key
contributor to effcient steam-assisted gravity-drainage
(SAGD) operations. But many SAGD operators in Canada are
running blind when it comes to protecting steam-generating
equipment from corrosion due to excessive levels of dissolved
oxygen, because until recently, available measurement
technology was unreliable in BFW.
SAGD is an enhanced oil recovery technology for producing
heavy crude and bitumen. Two parallel horizontal wells are drilled
into the oil reservoir; one well is drilled approximately 4 - 6 m
above the other. The upper well injects steam into the upper
wellbore to heat the oil and reduce its viscosity. The heated
crude oil or bitumen along with any water from the condensation
of injected steam drains into the lower wellbore. The production
fuid is a combination of bitumen and water (25:75j, which is
separated at the surface to its component streams. The water
phase is recycled back and treated for use as boiler feed water.
The principal challenge behind maintaining BFW quality
stems from the large volumes of water required for SAGD
production, which forces operators to acquire BFW for
steam generation from literally any available source including
rivers, lakes and wells and/or to recycle produced water
to feed OTSG boilers. Acquiring BFW from such diverse
water resources effectively guarantees that water quality
will be extremely variable, likely saturated with oxygen and
containing high levels of mineral solids, organic particles,
and other contaminants. As a result, BFW used in most
SAGD facilities is opaque slurry that confounds many SAGD
operators' efforts to detect, quantify, and treat for trace levels
of oxygen.
Detecting and treating for trace levels of dissolved
oxygen in BFW is an important corrosion-prevention
measure. Chemical methods of protecting OTSGs from
corrosion are well known and reliable. Many SAGD operators
manage corrosion by adding a caustic to boost BFW
alkalinity, and sulfte to promote rapid oxygen scavenging
reactions, though strategies for accomplishing these
objectives vary, depending upon the availability of water
resources.
35
36
OILFIELD TECHNOLOGY
August 2012
Of course, selecting the best treatment method for
scavenging dissolved oxygen from an OTSG at any SAGD project
must begin with determining whether oxygen is present in the
system and in what quantities. Since only a few parts per billion
(ppb) of dissolved oxygen in BFW can lead to severe corrosion
problems, detecting and removing dissolved oxygen is a
high-stakes objective that many SAGD operators struggle to
achieve, even though they are running textbook OTSG operations.
Dissolved oxygen detection
The most common methods used by SAGD operators to detect
dissolved oxygen in OTSGs are polarographic and colorimetric
techniques, which exhibit varying degrees of accuracy and ease
of use.
In polarographic measurements, oxygen migrates through a
permeable membrane into an electrochemical cell. In relatively
clean water streams, instruments of this type can provide
consistent and reliable dissolved oxygen measurements at the
ppb level with little problem. Unfortunately, the membranes in
polarographic instruments are quite sensitive to organic fouling,
which limits their effectiveness in many SAGD operations.
Off-line colourmetric ampoules is another method frequently
used to detect trace amounts of dissolved oxygen and is rapid
and relatively easy to use. But it is prone to sampling errors. In
addition, because colour development indicates the amount
of dissolved oxygen present, the water
samples cannot exhibit colour from organic
contaminants. This requirement makes the
method unsuitable for many SAGD facilities,
because water sourced for BFW often has high
total organic carbon content and can be dark
brown in colour.
As a result, until recently, many SAGD
facilities had no reliable way to directly
measure dissolved oxygen in steam-generating
systems, forcing operators to rely on indirect
measurements such as the amount of sulfte
residual present in BFW.
LDO detection trial
While conducting research into oxygen-
detection technology that could solve SAGD
operators problems, heavy oil chemical
treatment specialists learned that the sensitivity
of a technology known as luminescent
dissolved oxygen (LDO) detection had been
enhanced by a manufacturer. To help SAGD
operators eliminate a blind spot in their
operations-monitoring capabilities, they resolved to conduct a trial
to evaluate the capability of upgraded LDO technology to detect
dissolved oxygen at the ppb level in BFW.
An LDO meter and a polarographic instrument (the gold
standard of membrane-based detection systems) were purchased
from a manufacturer and the devices were used to detect and
measure oxygen in a sample BFW stream. The polarographic
device proved to be ineffective after a day and a half of use; the
membrane became so fouled with organic solids as to require
replacement and servicing. From an operational point of view,
such frequent maintenance would have been impractical. By
contrast, the LDO instrument effectively measured dissolved
oxygen levels of 2 ppb in the BFW sample throughout the trial.
After six weeks, the test was halted to check the calibration of the
LDO instrument, and found it still to be completely in calibration.
The tests showed that advanced LDO instruments detect
trace levels of dissolved oxygen by relying upon a fuorescent
phase shift that occurs as a result of oxygen quenching the
fuorescent decay. The intensity of the fuorescent signal may
be attenuated by opaque water and the signal may become
scattered by entrained solids. But the phase-shifted fuorescence
decay is unaffected, generating a measurable signal detectable by
LDO technology.
Of particular signifcance for SAGD facilities, when dissolved
oxygen quenches the fuorescence, the signal strength is highest
at low oxygen concentrations. So in opaque water, a signal
is most likely to become somewhat attenuated only in high
concentrations of dissolved oxygen. That means LDO technology
is at its best when amounts of dissolved oxygen are low (less than
10 ppb) making it uniquely suited to protect OTSGs from
oxygen-induced corrosion.
Early LDO application
Since that revealing trial, LDO technology has been recommended
for detecting and logging trace oxygen excursions in BFW at
many SAGD facilities. In some instances, the technology has
prevented the need for costly maintenance and even the loss of
equipment.
In one early application, the operator of
a SAGD pilot facility came discovered scale
deposits composed of 50% haematite and 50%
magnetite during inspection of a steam boiler,
even though the facility was treating BFW with
sulfte. When the steam-generation system was
re-started, an LDO meter was installed on the
BFW line between the water-softener injection
valves and the boiler, to sample and data-log
oxygen levels.
The LDO device initially indicated that
dissolved oxygen levels were near zero. But when
a water truck arrived and started unloading water
into the boiler systems water tank, dissolved
oxygen levels began to climb; within an hour of
the delivery, the oxygen concentration shot up to
500 ppb, as indicated by the frst line on Figure 1.
Data logged by the LDO instrument revealed
the underlying cause of the corrosion problem
revealed by the deposit analysis: oxygen
excursions were occurring every time a load
of water was delivered. Having the LDO meter
online, logging dissolved oxygen data allowed
Figure 1. Dissolved oxygen in BFW.
Figure 2. BFW sample.
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OILFIELD TECHNOLOGY
August 2012
the operator to see precisely what was happening. Clearly, the
amount of sulfte being added by the operator was insuffcient to
react all dissolved oxygen entering the boiler.
To solve the problem, it was recommended that increasing
the amount of sulfte being added to the BFW be increased.
When liquid sulfte proved inadequate to the task, supplemental
sulfte in solid form was added directly into the raw water tank as
trucks unloaded. The second line in Figure 1 shows the results
achieved by radically increasing sulfte treatments. The scale of
the right-hand vertical axis had to be revised in order to show the
sensitivity of the advanced LDO meter.
The source of this SAGD operators boiler corrosion most
likely would not have been detected with conventional oxygen-
sensing technology, which would have made solving the problem
a less than empirical process.
LDO capabilities documented
Selected applications of LDO detection at other SAGD facilities
are described in a technical paper, Monitoring PPB Levels of
Figure 3. LDO meter.
Dissolved Oxygen in SAGD Facilities, which was presented in
June 2012 at the SPE Heavy Oil Conference Canada in Calgary. In
summary, those applications were:
Case 1:
The operator of a SAGD facility was recycling nearly 100%
of produced water and wastewater, leading to highly opaque
BFW containing high levels of organic contaminants (Figure 2).
Dissolved oxygen was measured in the boiler feed water line after
the hot lime softener, which was expected to de-aerate the BFW.
However, the de-aeration performance had not been confrmed,
so the operator wanted to fnd out if a supplemental oxygen
scavenger was required. A membrane electrochemical detector
was installed, but operated for only two days before requiring
signifcant maintenance and being abandoned. An LDO meter was
installed to sample and data-log dissolved oxygen in the BFW for
an extended period of time, to determine long term
oxygen-concentration patterns (Figure 3).
During a two month long test period, the LDO meter indicated
that the dissolved oxygen concentration in the BFW was quite
stable and within the target of less than 10 ppb (see Figure 2,
BFW Dissolved Oxygen Study). But the LDO device did detect
two oxygen excursions: the frst due to loss of cooling water
in the sample loop, which caused the BFW sample to exceed
the temperature specifcation for the meter (40 `Cj; the second
resulted from a loss of sample fow, itself. When the sample fow
was re-established, the dissolved oxygen concentration measured
by the LDO meter returned to the previous value. Otherwise, the
dissolved oxygen concentration in the BFW remained constant
and no BFW dissolved oxygen excursions were detected.
Case 2:
At a SAGD facility using BFW in a closed recycle loop for a
bitumen cooling heat exchanger, it was observed that the iron
concentration in the BFW increased across the heat exchanger.
Sulfte was being used to remove dissolved oxygen, so
oxygen-based corrosion at frst was not suspected as a root cause
for the increase in iron. LDO meters were installed at the inlet
and outlet of the heat exchanger to confrm the level of dissolved
oxygen present in each stream. The LDO meters determined that
the BFW stream contained 117 ppb of dissolved oxygen when it
entered the heat exchanger but only 4 ppb at the exit, indicating
that oxygen was being consumed in the heat exchanger (see Table 1,
pretreatment, post-treatment data). In addition, the test revealed
that: iron content of BFW exiting the heat exchanger increased
by 0.48 ppm to 2.79 ppm; sulfte residual in BFW entering the
heat exchanger was less than 1 ppm, well short of the 25 ppm
target. After the sulfte dosage was adjusted, dissolved oxygen
concentrations at both the heat exchanger inlet and outlet were
zero; iron levels dropped to 2.27 ppm at the inlet and 2.26 ppm at
the outlet; and sulfte residuals were measured at 48 ppm. These
results indicated that heat exchanger corrosion had stopped.
Case 3:
Workers at a SAGD facility had detected corrosion in the source
brackish water system and suspected dissolved oxygen excursions,
even though sulfte was being added to scavenge oxygen from
the system. A membrane electrochemical meter installed to
detect dissolved oxygen became inoperative after a few days, and
colourimetric assays were ineffective due to the high ionic strength
of the water and the spot-check nature of that type of assay.
Table 1. Pretreatment, post-treatment data
Pretreatment
Exchanger in Exchanger out Difference
Total Fe 2.31 ppm 2.79 ppm 0.48 ppm
Dissolved O
2
117 ppb 4 ppb 113 ppb
Sulfite residual <1 ppm
Post-treatment
Exchanger in Exchanger out Difference
Total Fe 2.27 ppm 2.26 ppm 0.01 ppm
Dissolved O
2
<1 ppb <1 ppb
Sulfite residual 48 ppm
Dissolved O
2
, total Fe and sulfite residual were measured before and after
the bitumen heat exchange cooler in Case 2. The dissolved O
2
entering into
the heat exchanger was 117 ppb and 4 ppb at the exit. This indicated that
oxygen was being consumed in the heat exchanger. In addition, there was
in increase in Fe found after the heat exchanger of 0.48 ppm. As well, the
initial sulfite residual was less than 1 ppm. The sulfite target was 25 ppm.
After correcting the sulfite injection, the dissolved O
2
and Fe concentration
across the heat exchanger was improved from the original observations.
Dissolved oxygen was essentially zero at the inlet and outlet of the heat
exchanger. Iron pick up across the heat exchanger dropped to essentially
zero as well. This suggested that the corrosion was stopped.
Figure 4. The temperature and dissolved O
2
concentration measured
by the LDO meter at the Case 1 facility for over six weeks. There
were two excursions detected. The rst excursion was an artifact
due to loss of cooling water to the sample loop. This resulted in high
temperature BFW sample going to the LDO meter measurement cell.
The second excursion was also an artifact due to the loss of water
ow to the sample loop which was corrected by operations and
the unit returned to normal operations. Otherwise the dissolved O
2

concentration in the BFW remained constant and no boiler feed water
dissolved oxygen excursions were detected.
Figure 5. Brackish water D.O. monitoring.
An LDO meter installed in the system to data-log temperature and
dissolved oxygen concentrations detected two oxygen excursions
within a 10 day period, (Figure 5j. The frst excursion (indicated
on Figure 5 by the red oval) was determined to be an artifact of
sampling, because a concurrent spike in temperature occurred
when the fow in the sample line was compromised. The second
excursion (indicated on Figure 5 by the green oval) was deemed
to be a real spike in dissolved oxygen concentration, because
a concurrent temperature increase was not observed, which
indicated no fow interruptions. Such excursions are detectable if
dissolved oxygen is monitored for extended periods of time, which
previously was not possible at this site using typical ampoule based
techniques.
Conclusion
All the cases cited above verify that advanced LDO meters are
sensitive enough to accurately monitor and data-log trace amounts
of dissolved oxygen in OTSG systems, where such measurements
previously were not possible. Highly opaque BFW containing high
levels of organic and inorganic contaminants does not appear to
interfere with the LDO sensor.
Another unifying characteristic is that all of the problems
detected by LDO meters were solved using well known, proven
oxygen-scavengers. This suggests that the crucial factor in
solving all the problems was not the chemistry prescribed, but the
detection and monitoring capability of LDO technology.
These results indicate that LDO technology can play an
important role in protecting SAGD facilities from oxygen-induced
corrosion, by detecting excessive concentrations of dissolved
oxygen in BFW before corrosion-related operating problems begin
to crop up.
O T

www. ener gygl obal . com/ s ect or s
READ about the latest
developments in drilling and
production on Energy Global.
LIGHTWEIGHT
IS THE NEW
HEAVYWEIGHT
Kelly Soucy, Brett Huckerby and Karen Luke, Trican Well Service, Canada,
explore the strengths of specially designed lightweight cementing solutions.
40
T
odays exploration and
production (E&P) companies
are drilling to ever-increasing
depths. At these greater depths,
the hydrostatic pressure of the mud
system used while drilling or the
cement slurry circulating during
the cement job is increased. These
higher hydrostatic pressures cause
increased fracture propagation in
weak formations, or the re-opening
of natural fractures already present,
resulting in lost circulation. Due in
part to increasing environmental
and regulatory pressure, along
with the need to effectively isolate
all zones from one another, E&P
companies are moving towards
designing production cement jobs
with the intention of achieving
cement returns at surface.
Also, from an economics and
environmental standpoint, attaining
good cement returns to surface
allows for retrieval of expensive
invert mud from the hole for re-use
on the next well.
Where losses encountered
while drilling are not satisfactorily
healed prior to the cement job,
a likelihood of losing circulation
during the cement job exists. The
consequences of losing circulation
during the production cement job
vary, but the most immediate and
perilous of these is the loss of
well control and the potential for
blowout. For the most part, previous
lightweight cement systems relied
on the use of a stage collar to
increase the probability of cement
returns. The stage collar is typically
placed above the problematic zone
and the cement is pumped in two
stages, reducing overall hydrostatic
pressure. Multistage jobs are
generally an effective solution when
dealing with losses; however, in
order to optimise both fracture
41
42
OILFIELD TECHNOLOGY
August 2012
geometry and resultant production of a well, many
of todays fracturing operations require especially
high rates and pressures during well completion.
These high rates and pressures rely upon pump-
down-casing techniques to effectively stimulate the
zones. Stage collars, albeit seldom, can be unreliable
and a potential weak link during these fracturing
operations.
Meeting the need
A need has evolved requiring cement pumping
companies to deliver not only lower density
cement systems to reduce hydrostatic pressure
on formations, but cement systems that meet
regulatory requirements for compressive strength
development at shallow depths. These slurries must
also have excellent properties in thickening time
control, quick gel strength development, and ease of
mixing for feld operations. They must also measure
up to the effectiveness expected of conventional
non-lightweight cements, such as short transition
time from liquid to solid, minimal to no free water,
slurry stability, excellent ductility, low porosity, and
excellent rheological properties.
Various lightweight cements, such as
AccuLite 1200 (1200 kg/m
3
, 10.0 lbs/gal.) and
AccuLite 1100 (1100 kg/m
3
, 9.2 lbs/gal.) have
been developed with the properties listed above.
Conventional low-density cement systems are
successful for use down to 1320 kg/m
3
(11.0 lbs/gal.).
Below that, special low-density systems are required.
There are many excellent slurry designs that
obtain the desired properties, but it is imperative
that those properties achieved in the laboratory be
obtained in the feld. The goal in creating lightweight
cements is to have great overall performance,
but more importantly to have the physical
characteristics, performance properties, and the
ease of mixing in the feld as any other conventional
cement design.
Density control
The advantages of a lightweight system begin
with density control. Given that a primary concern
is lost circulation and/or very weak formations,
density and density control are critical. This
means that the surface mix density of the design
will remain the same as the cement reaches the
maximum equivalent circulating densities (ECDs)
in the wellbore. Rheologies are also just as critical.
What is the point of pumping a low density slurry
if it changes density as it is pumped? Density
increase, due to fractionation of particles in the
slurry, increases hydrostatics and effects rheological
properties. Increased hydrostatics and rheologies
are detrimental, as there is a risk of inadequately
covering the annulus with cement.
Other properties are equally important, such as
thickening time control. Slurry design must have the
capabilities of controlling set times in cooler and
hotter circulating temperatures. Figures 1 and 2 are
Figure 1. Thickening graph demonstrating set properties in a pressurised
consistometer at 40 C (104 F).
Figure 2. Thickening graph demonstrating set properties in a pressurised
consistometer at 80 C (176 F).
Figure 3. Gel strength graph at 40 C (104 F). Transition time from
100 lbf/100 ft
2
to 500 lbf/100 ft
2
is 26 min.
Figure 4. Gel strength graph at 80 C (176 F).Transition time from
100 lbf/100 ft
2
to 500 lbf/100 ft
2
is 25 min.
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44
OILFIELD TECHNOLOGY
August 2012
two thickening time graphs, demonstrating the set properties
performed in a pressurised consistometer.
Rheology
As noted earlier, rheology is another important factor in the
design. It is typical for cement service providers to aim for
the highest strength possible for low density slurries. In doing
that, the main design goal is to lower the water to cement
(w/c) ratio as much as possible. Conventional cements at such
low densities would yield w/c ratios of approximately 300%.
This amount of water results in poor compressive strength
development. Not only does a high water content contribute to
weaker strength, it also contributes to:
x Long thickening times and transitions.
x Poor fluid loss control.
x High free water.
x Poor slurry stability (settling).
x High permeability.
Table 1 demonstrates the rheolgical properties of lightweight
cements. Plastic viscosity (PV) and yield point (YP) remain low.
These low rheological properties allow for low friction pressures,
increasing the opportunity to obtain returns to surface.
Transitions
Lightweight cements must also transition from a liquid to a gel to
a solid quickly, in order to ensure that any risk of gas migration
through the slurry is mitigated. As any slurry transitions from a
liquid to a solid, it begins to lose its hydrostatic force. The cement
starts to support itself on the formation and the casing, and
at that point, any gas in hydrocarbon-laden formations has an
opportunity to migrate into/through the slurry towards surface.
When designing and optimising lightweight systems, a target
of < 30 minutes for gel strength development from 100 lbf/100 ft
2

to 500 lbf/100 ft
2
was used. Studies have shown that gel
strengths of between 250 lbf/100 ft
2
to 500 lbf/100 ft
2
are
suffcient to hold back gas from migrating through the slurry.
Figures 3 and 4 are gel strength development graphs.
Compressive strength
The compressive strengths of low density blends are still very
important. In many parts of the world, regulations and minimum
requirements for compressive strength development are factors.
Some areas require 48 hour compressive strengths of minimal
3.5 MPa (500 psi). Ultra-low density systems may require higher
compressive strengths than shown on Figure 5. The technology
is being further developed to provide more options for the more
demanding wells. Cement designs with higher strengths and
lower densities (< 1100 kg/m
3
j are in the process of being feld
tested (see Figure 5).
The compressive strength of a cement slurry is dependent
on the microstructure developed from the reaction products
formed upon hydration of cement, and also their interaction
with additional additives used in the formulated cement design.
Figures 6 and 7 illustrate the microstructure of lightweight
cement cured at either 25 `C or 80 `C (77 `F or 176 `Fj over
a period of 48 hours. The hydration product that provides
compressive strength is calcium silicate hydrate gel (C-S-H), and
is typically the predominant product formed. C-S-H can have
a number of distinct forms, and at 25 `C (77 `Fj, is essentially
nondescript, whereas at 80 `C (176 `Fj, it is a
mixture of both nondescript and fbrous forms.
The fbrous form enhances ductility of the set
slurry. Calcium hydroxide (CH) formed as a
reaction product provides no strength on its
own, but can react with silica rich additives
to form additional C-S-H, increasing strength
in the long term. Porosity (P) observed in the
micrographs is due to the fact that reaction at
Figure 5. Compressive strength graph.
Figure 6. Microstructure of
hydration products obtained
on curing at 25 C (77F) for
48hours.
Figure 7. Microstructure of
hydration products obtained
on curing at 80 C (176F for
48hours.
Figure 8. Micrograph showing
variation in particle size of
spheres.
Figure 9. Micrograph showing
expansive additive in cement
matrix.
Table 1. Rheological properties
300 rpm 200 rpm 100 rpm 6 rpm 3 rpm PV
(cP)
YP (lbf/100 ft
2
)
AccuLite 1200 at 40 `C
(104 `Fj
45 38 31 13 10 21 24
AccuLite 1200 at 80 `C
(176 `Fj
52 44 38 14 13 21 31
Out here isnt the place to find out if
you chose the right welding products.
AR12-16 The Lincoln Electric Co. All Rights Reserved. www.lincolnelectric.com/offshore
48 hours is still incomplete. Special lightweight additives used to
decrease the slurry density without signifcant addition of water
are defned by the spherical particles denoted (Aj and (Bj in the
micrographs. Some of these spherical particles (Aj are coated
with a hydration product and bind into the structure, providing
increased strength, whereas others (Bj fll in spaces and porosity
within the cement. The variation in particle size of the spheres,
ranging from 60 m to < 1.0 m (Figure 8j allows for improved
particle packing, and provides not only additional compressive
strength but also improved rheological properties. The Addition
of an expansive additive (Ej, as shown in Figure 9, not only
improves the bonding between the cement/
casing and cement/formation interfaces, but
also improves the cement matrix and aids in
the prevention of gas migration.
Case study
One particular E&P company completed
628 conventional production cements jobs
from 2009 to 2011. Of these, 125 were
unsuccessful in achieving cement returns
to surface. This resulted in a 20% failure
rate and hundreds of thousands of dollars
in remedial cementing costs and associated
NPT (non productive timej. Since the
introduction of these new lightweight
cements, production jobs have been pumped
and have achieved cement returns to surface
in 90% of cases. Overall, the use of these
types of cement has resulted in a 96.7%
success rate in wells where losses have been a concern.
The system exhibits consistent density from start to fnish.
Some cement systems require the addition of nitrogen to reduce
slurry density. When using nitrogen, the density of the cement
is designed for specifc wellbore depths. As you reach the shoe,
higher ECDs are encountered due to the effects of compression.
Nitrogen also imparts higher slurry viscosities, further increasing
ECDs by way of friction. ln contrast, AccuLite cements
are blended, hauled and pumped by the same means as
conventional cement blends, and do not require the equipment
and personnel necessary when using foamed slurries.
O T

Table 2. Case study snapshot
Date:
2009 - 2012
Customer:
Canadian-based
energy companies
Location:
Alberta and British
Columbia
Service line:
Cementing
Product:
AccuLite
cements
Challenges:
Failure to achieve cement returns to surface on production casing jobs.
Requirement for single stage cement jobs due to frac-down-casing techniques.
lnnovation:
AccuLite 1100 and 1200 cement systems.
Ability to pump ultra lightweight slurries without the operational cost and footprint of foamed cementing.
Results:
The customers were able to achieve cement returns to surface to a much higher degree than with
conventional blends pumped in the past.
The customers experienced an overall decrease in the need for costly remedial cementing.
The ability to pump production casing jobs without the need for stage tools saved time and money and
eliminated a potential weak link during fracturing operations.
AUGUST 2012 ISSUE
http://www.energyglobal.com/magazines/register/oilfield-technology.aspx
Available free of charge to registered readers:
ATTENTION
REGISTERED READERS
ONLINE N W
H
ot tapping subsea pipelines plays a critical role in facilitating repair work
(scheduled and unexpectedj, tie-ins, fow assurance, chemical injection
and insertion of intelligent tools. But as new pipeline systems are
constructed in increasingly deep waters, carrying out pipeline interventions,
such as hot tapping, has become increasingly complex. Deepwater pipelines
that lie 3000 m subsea demand interventions that can be carried out without
divers, who can only work in depths to 300 m. To provide operators of
deepwater developments with a solution that does not rely upon divers or
expose them to risk, the Subsea 1200RC Tapping Machine was developed.
(See Figure 1j. The system is operated by remote control from a laptop
onboard a Diving Support vessel (DSvj. By doing so, the hot tapping process
is more accurate and diver safety and execution speed are enhanced.
George Lim, T.D. Williamson, the Netherlands,
discusses a new remote-controlled
hot tapping machine that can be used to
facilitate pipeline tie-ins by tapping into
pre and post-installed tees, without diver
assistance.
REMOTE-CONTROLLED
HOT TAPPING SUBSEA
47
48
OILFIELD TECHNOLOGY
August 2012
When pre-installed tees are present on the pipeline, the
system is operated without divers. lf pre-installed tees are
not present, divers are required, but only to install the hot tap
ftting and the tapping assembly; not to operate the system.
The system makes it possible to access subsea
pipelines in any water depth for operational, construction or
maintenance purposes, changing the face of offshore pipeline
intervention and maintenance.
Subsea hot tapping: how it works
Hot tapping involves drilling a hole into a live pipeline without
shutting it down or releasing its contents. Today's subsea hot
tap operations are carried out from a DSv that carries the
equipment and divers to the hot tap location. Divers enter the
water and the hot tap assembly is lowered to the pipeline.
The typical hot tap is as follows: frst, the hot tap
assembly, which consists of a hot tap machine, permanent
isolation valve and hot tap ftting bolted together, is
pre-tested on the deck of the DSv. The fttings are two
mechanically-bolted clamp-halves. The assembly is lowered
with the two clamp-halves in open position over the pipeline,
and divers bolt the clamp-halves shut. To ensure integrity,
the annulus between pipe and ftting is leak-tested against
the tapping machine while the valve is open. To begin the
tapping procedure, a pilot drill is positioned in front of the
hot tap cutter to make a small hole in the pipeline. This hole
helps stabilise the larger hot tap cutter and retain the portion
of cut pipe (couponj after the larger cutter completes the
hole. The primary tap is then made into the pipeline with the
appropriate size cutter. The valve is closed, and the coupon
and tapping machine are recovered. lf preparing for a tie-in,
the permanent hot tap valve may be connected to a spur line.
When the valve is opened, the new connection is ready to be
put into service.
Hot tapping challenges subsea
The greatest concern associated with subsea hot tapping is
that divers - not experienced tapping professionals - perform
the hot tap, which is the most delicate aspect of a subsea
tie-in operation: when the pilot drill penetrates the pipeline
and the live pipeline is cut. The divers are supervised by a
hot tapping professional on the vessel, and this professional
communicates via the vessel intercom during the tapping
process. Although they are trained in hot tapping during the
mock-up testing prior to the operation, the divers are not hot
tapping experts. Another concern is the limited number of
telltale sensors on today's subsea machines, with minimal
topside visibility. These sensors are used to monitor activity
inside the ftting while the line is cut. Without maximum
viewing capability, the ability of the diver and hot tapping
technician to monitor and control the tapping process may be
compromised. Fortunately, new systems can overcome these
challenges.
Adapting field-proven technology
The Subsea 1200RC Tapping Machine is a self-contained
tapping machine with a built-in hydraulic and control system
powered by a stationary remotely operated vehicle (ROvj,
and operated by a technician from a laptop that offers a
continuous view of all subsea operations. (See Figure 2j. The
tapping operation is completely controlled by the technician.
Figure 1. Hot tapping is carried out via remote control with the
Subsea 1200RC Tapping Machine.
Figure 2. The tapping machine is designed so that technicians
control the system, and have a continuous view of subsea
operations through a laptop computer onboard the DSV.
Some conditions leave no
room for choice
TMK PF and ULTRA QX Premium
Connections have been successfully tested
for conformance with the international SO
13679 standard, level CAL V*
*CAL Connection Application Level
CAL IV is the highest level
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40, bld. 2a, Pokrovka Street
Moscow, 105062, Russia
TMK Premium Service
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Moscow, 105062, Russia
50
OILFIELD TECHNOLOGY
August 2012
The stationary ROv concept is an improvement over the
standard deepwater method that uses ROv arms to operate
separate valve functions.
During the hot tapping process, the ROv draws upon its own
hydraulic power unit (HPUj to stab into the tapping machine
control panel and latch onto the grabber bar. (See Figure 3j.
The ROv provides hydraulic power (closed loopj to engage
a motor/pump unit placed on the tapping machine frame. The
motor/pump unit then sends hydraulics through a valve pack to
the appropriate motor/hydraulic function.
The software control program may be operated manually
- or automatically - to manipulate all tapping machine functions
from a laptop. lts primary functions are to run the feed and drive
motors, and engage/disengage the clutch. Sensors transmit data
to the laptop on all parameters, including temperature, pressure,
cutter position and proximity, rotation speed, and movement of
the boring bar and cutter. (See Figure 4j.
The camera on the ROv panel is used to monitor some of
the key pressures that have a manometer (pressure gaugej.
The supply and return hydraulic pressures, and motor and drill
pressures are monitored by a network of sensors. Two cameras
on the tapping machine offer around-the-clock observation of aj
the rotation and position of the boring bar, and b) the position of
the clutch cylinder.
Should hydraulics, electronics or machine parts fail, several
contingencies - including overrides by ROv mechanical
interfaces and duplicate monitoring system - are installed on the
tapping machine.
Depending on the internal pipeline operating pressures, the
tapping machine can operate in depths down to 3000 m.
lf tees have not been pre-installed on the pipeline, divers are
required to install the tapping assembly and the hot tap ftting.
However, no divers are required when a) pre-installed tees are
present or b) post-installed tees are incorporated into the hot
tap assembly and the integrated assembly can be lowered and
connected to the pipeline by remote control.
Figure 3. The remotely operated vehicle stabs into the tapping machine control panel. A technician controls all tapping functions from a laptop computer.
Figure 4. The view of an actual hot tapping operation taking place.
Technicians have a clear, continuous view of the entire subsea hot
tapping process through the main window of the control program.
Figure 5. Tapping through a pre-installed tee.
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Tapping into pre-installed tees
Operators often pre-install tees on the pipeline in anticipation
of tying in future oil and gas feld developments in neighbouring
felds. By doing so, output can be routed through the pipeline
without going to the expense of laying a new export line that
extends to the shore or nearest hydrocarbon collection point.
Pre-installed tees are put in place during the pipe laying
process. Working from a laybarge, the tee is placed at the
leading end of the new pipe string and welded to the string,
while the other end is welded to the next pipe joint placed in the
line. The tee is then lowered as part of the pipe string.
A tee is typically an in-line pipe ftting that features a short
branch connection, which sports a standard fange used to bolt
on a tapping machine in the event that it is located in water
depths accessible by divers. ln deep water, however, the branch
sports a hub designed for subsea mechanical quick connectors
(MQCj, such as collet connectors, to latch on. lnside the short
branch is a tappable steel 'membrane.'
When the tie-in is required, the hot tap assembly is lowered
and connected to the hub in 'diverless' mode in order to tap
away the membrane, creating access to the pipeline. (See
Figure 5j. ln this case, the hot tap assembly consists of four
fxtures: hot tap machine, upper MQC, isolation valve, and
lower MQC. The latter is connected to the tee hub, secured
and leak-tested to ensure tightness, and the tapping operation
commences. After the tap is complete, the coupon is retracted
into the tapping machine, the isolation valve closed. The tapping
machine is disconnected at the isolation valve interface, by
disengaging the upper MQC, and then returned to the surface.
All activities are conducted with built-in remote control systems
supported by an ROv.
The hot tap assembly is prepared topside. All connections
can be leak-tested and all functions pre-tested before the
assembly is deployed subsea. The entire underwater process
is conducted in diverless mode and controlled topside from the
laptop through the control program.
Tapping into post-installed tees
A post-installed hot tap tee is one that is installed after the pipe
is laid. (See Figure 6j. lt typically consists of two clamp-halves.
The tee is welded or bolted to the isolation valve, and forms part
of the integrated assembly. This assembly is lowered over the
pipeline, and the two clamp-halves are hydraulically shut and the
bolts are tightened. The sealing elements and mechanical grips
are energised by tightening longitudinal bolts. All bolting actions
are conducted by hydraulic cylinders actuated by remote control
using the ROv, with the tapping machine set in diverless mode.
Remote-controlled subsea fitting installation
To install the post-installed tee in 'diverless mode,' remote
controlled subsea ftting installation methodologies exist in the
industry. Such methodologies utilise ROvs during the operation.
The ROv activates hydraulic cylinders pre-installed on the ftting
halves to close the ftting onto the pipeline. Then a series of bolt
spinning and tensioning functions further secure the ftting in
place, utilising mechanisms pre-installed on the ftting halves.
After pressure testing the installed ftting, the assembly is now
ready to tap. After tapping is completed, the tapping machine is
disconnected at the valve interface and recovered to the surface.
Separating man from machine
Building pipeline developments in deepwater environments only
makes sense if they can be maintained and operated safely
and cost-effectively. With the development of remote-controlled
systems and remote ftting installation methodologies, subsea
pipeline operators stand to beneft in many ways.
By offering solutions that make it possible to carry out hot
tapping operations for repair and intervention, and on lines with
pre and post-installed tees, safety and effciency are enhanced,
and costs are reduced. As operators delve into deeper and
deeper waters, these innovative remote-controlled systems that
'separate man from machine' are poised to revolutionise subsea
pipeline maintenance and intervention.
O T

Figure 6. Tapping through a post-installed tee.
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Paul J. Kleinen, Bredero Shaw, USA and Vlad Popovici, ShawCor, Canada,
explore the practical and financial rewards that are offered by mobile coating
technologies for offshore projects in this months cover story.
T
he development of the offshore oil and gas reserves of
the North Sea and - in the future - of the Arctic, raises
specifc challenges for operators and contractors. Among
the challenges that operators and contractors are facing in
these regions are those related to developing the pipeline
transportation infrastructure required to move hydrocarbons
from offshore to onshore terminals or refning centres.
Most of the worlds pipelines, including offshore risers,
fow lines, and export lines are still built using steel pipe. As
noted in one of the industrys most comprehensive pipeline
construction best practice handbooks published by the
International Pipe Line & Offshore Contractors Association
(IPLOCA), pipeline integrity for more than the nominal
25 - 35 years of service is an important aspect in any pipelines
design, construction and operation. Pipelines should not fail
during their service life because such failures could lead to
human, environmental, and economic costs. As the public's
perception of pipeline failures is (generally) much worse than the
actual human and economic failure costs, a lot of resources have
been dedicated to protecting the pipes against any potential
causes that could lead to pipeline failure.
1
The pipeline industry
has, therefore, developed various types of external coatings
with one or multiple functional roles, such as: anti-corrosion
protection, mechanical protection, thermal insulation and
buoyancy control.
Portable vs. fixed coating technologies
The traditional model for coating steel pipe uses a fxed,
specialised coating facility often located at a steel pipe mill. As
new production regions are discovered and developed around
the world, the traditional model is challenged, as the pipes
have to be transported over longer distances to the project
location. Thick and heavy coatings - mostly thermal insulation
and concrete weight coatings - reduce the quantity of pipes that
can be transported from the pipe mill to the project location in
one trip and thus signifcantly increase the logistic costs of the
project. As an example, in a project requiring 406 mm (16 in.j
external diameter pipes to be coated with a 50 mm (2 in.j thermal
insulation coating, 25% more pipes could be transported in
one trip (if weight limits allow itj if the pipe joints are not coated.
PORTABLE PIPE COATING
COVER STORY
53
54
OILFIELD TECHNOLOGY
August 2012
Moreover, there is always a risk that the anti-corrosion or
thermal insulation coating might get damaged during long haul
transportation. These factors create an incentive for the project
owner to coat the pipes as close to the offshore loading location
- spoolbase or pipe storage yard - as possible. The industry
has therefore been developing new coating technologies that,
while maintaining the highest quality and HSE standards, would
bring the coatings closer to the offshore loading location.
These innovative mobile pipeline coating technologies are
today challenging the traditional fxed coating facility model by
reducing pipe transportation costs, simplifying pipeline project
logistics, providing end-to-end pipeline systems, and increasing
the local content of the project.
Mobilising concrete weight coatings
Concrete weight coatings have been developed and used during
the last four decades to control the buoyancy of the offshore
pipelines installed in shallow waters. These coatings were a
prime candidate for mobile coating technology development
designed to reduce pipe transportation costs.
Although the obvious solution to control buoyancy would
be to increase the wall thickness of the steel pipe, concrete
coatings provide the industry with a heavy but better priced
substitute that also protects the pipe against impact and
penetration damage. However, concrete is lighter than steel,
so it takes more volume than steel at equivalent weight, which
reduces the number of pipes that can be transported in one trip
and increases the overall logistic costs of the project.
In order to avoid these additional logistic costs, the industry
started to look for solutions to bring the concrete coating plant
closer to the project location. One of the main application
processes for the concrete coatings is the compression coat
process. ln this side-wrap automated process, the pipe is
rotated and conveyed by support wheels at controlled rates
through the concrete applicator. The concrete mix, a reinforcing
steel mesh and a PE outer wrap are simultaneously wrapped
around the pipe at the required concrete thickness in one pass.
The tensioned polyethylene outer wrap helps the complete
curing of the concrete. The coated pipe is then moved to the
storage area.
2
Continuous improvement of this side wrap concrete coating
process has led to the development of the frst portable plant
for concrete coatings. Today, the mobile concrete coating
plant can be loaded in 8 - 12 standard 20 ft containers. Mobile
coating plants can be up and running within two weeks of
arrival on site. They can be confgured to apply concrete weight
coatings for offshore pipelines on a wide range of pipes from
168 to 1200 mm (6 to 48 in.j outside diameter. After being
demobilised, every component of the plant is repaired and
refurbished in a centre of excellence located in Texas. All
equipment is cleaned and quality tested before being crated and
moved to the next coating project by truck, train or vessel.
Using mobile concrete coating plants for new pipeline projects
offers benefts for all parties. The pipeline operators get the same
guaranteed coating quality anywhere in the world while avoiding
signifcant additional logistic costs for pipe transportation and
increasing the local content of the project. On the other hand, the
communities where the concrete coating plants are mobilised
beneft as local people are hired to operate the plants. Raw
materials - cement, heavy aggregates and sand - are sourced
locally, as well as the auxiliary rolling stock required for the
concrete coating operations, such as: cranes, trucks, and
front end loaders.
Mobile anti-corrosion protection and thermal
insulation
Brigden is a modular portable plant concept that is capable of
applying a wide range of anti-corrosion and fow assurance pipe
coatings using proven process technology while delivering the
same quality and output as a fxed plant. The plant's innovative
design also includes automated end fnishing using advanced
robotics.
This mobile plant is a turnkey coating facility assembled
from process modules delivered in specially designed shipping
containers that are lSO certifed. The plant can be assembled
on site in approximately eight weeks. The basic layout can be
customised via the addition of more modules to the baseline
layout to expand the plant to accommodate double joints or
large diameter pipe. While the standard plant confguration
includes FBE and 3-layer anti-corrosion coatings, as well as
extruded side wrap insulation coatings, additional modules can
also be added to facilitate the application of any fow assurance
and anti-corrosion pipe coating system. Plants can also be
adapted to specifc project needs such as small diameter pipe,
internal coatings, and high production outputs.
Electrical power can be provided from utility grid sources
or can even be self-generated on site as per each projects
requirements. Even the absence of an appropriate building
structure is not a limitation as the modular design includes a
complete steel frame fabric building capable of withstanding
hurricane-force winds.
Figure 1. Concrete coating applied by a portable plant.
Figure 2. Brigden facility installed for a ow assurance coating
project.
9
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This type of portable coating facility is operated by a
dedicated team of coating and engineering experts, trained in
continuous improvement practices. The plant set-up and
coating project execution are based on standard operating
practices that are an integral part of the company-wide
ShawCor Manufacturing System (SMS).
Electrical safety, operator safety, process safety, fre safety,
and safety of the environment were paramount in the design.
The plant includes a process wastewater pretreatment system
and has been demonstrated to operate without generating
hazardous waste. The most recent Brigden mobilisation for
a fow assurance coating project in the Gulf of Mexico was
incident and injury free.
The mobile plant has the same production capability as a
fxed plant. lt is capable of coating pipe with an outside diameter
of 220 to 1066 mm (8 42 in.), lengths of 10.4 - 24.4 m (34 80 ft)
and pipe weight up to 484 kg/m (325 lbs/ft). The plant comes
fully equipped with integrated facilities for raw materials storage,
facility maintenance, and quality control and testing.
All phases of the coating operation, including surface
preparation, pre-heat, coating application and fnal inspection
can be conducted in an enclosed area of 1700 m
2
(18 000 ft
2
).
A total area of 1.2 ha. (2.8 acres) is needed to set-up the entire
facility, excluding pipe storage requirements.
3
Finally, a mobile plant can also help increase the local
content of the project, as most of the personnel involved in
a coating project can be hired locally, as well as some of the
coating materials and related services and handling equipment
front loaders, trucks, etc.
End-to-end coating solutions
Field joint coating consistence and quality are critical for the
long term integrity of an offshore pipelines coating system.
The most important selection criteria for a feld joint coating
system are: excellent long term technical performance, perfect
compatibility with the plant-applied line pipe coating, easy and
consistent (same level of quality) application in any conditions
and locations, and short application cycle time. Although the
traditional approach was the manual application of these
coatings, the selection criteria mentioned above have created
incentives for specialised coating companies to automate the
feld coating processes as much as possible.
O T

References
1. lnternational Pipe Line and Offshore Contractors Association (2011j,
Onshore Pipelines - The Road to Success available at http://www.
iploca.com/page/content/index.asp?MenulD=319&lD=820&Menu=1&l
tem=28.10.
2. Popovici, v. (2009j, Protecting Pipelines with Concrete, in Concrete
Engineering International, volume 13, Number 4, Winter 2009.
3. Moscarello, R., Kleinen, P., Haberer, S. (2011j, The Mobile Option, in
Oilfield Technology, August 2011.
Figure 3. Mobile eld joint coating equipment on a spoolbase in Norway.
Clean green
anti-scaling
David Wilson and Kelly Harris, BWA Water Additives, UK,
discuss the development of a green hydrothermally stable
scale inhibitor for topside and squeeze treatment.
C
oncern for the environment has led to legislation that is driving
the use of chemicals in the offshore North Sea oil industry. The
increased awareness and scrutiny of the impact of chemical
discharge on the environment is likely to ensure adoption of these,
or similar policies, on a global basis. The need for low toxicity,
biodegradable and hydrothermally stable scale inhibitors is
increasing and greener chemistries are being sought to meet
these challenges. This paper describes a barium sulfate and
calcium carbonate scale inhibitor that meets low toxicity
requirements and the present Norwegian Y1 criteria for
biodegradation. Dynamic scale loop tests are used to
evaluate the inhibitor compared to a commercial green
inhibitor for carbonate and sulfate scales. Hydrothermal
studies performed under differing pH regimens
demonstrate stability up to 180 `C and a marginal
drop in performance at 200 `C thereby showing
good potential for squeeze treatment under HPHT
conditions in addition to topside application.
Introduction
Scale control inhibitors play a major role
in fow assurance. They have been used
for many years in both squeeze treatment
applications and also in the treatment
of topside facilities. Once their job was
57
58
OILFIELD TECHNOLOGY
August 2012
complete, they were discharged into the sea. In recent years
concern has arisen over potential damage to the environment
from these discharged chemicals and the impact they may
have on marine ecosystems. Re-injection of produced water
has gone some way in mitigating the risk to the environment,
however, there is still a need for greener chemistries to further
reduce the impact.
International guidelines and regulations have been and
continue to be put in place in various parts of the world,
1
but
there are differences of opinion, even between countries using
the same regulations.
2
The challenge for any green inhibitor
is to not only meet or exceed these regulations but to also be
able to inhibit mixed scale, both downhole and at the surface
separation facilities.
3,4
A global harmonised system needs to
be put in place. If global agreement cannot be reached then
it should be incumbent on operators, service providers and
chemical manufacturers to voluntarily ensure that the best
chemicals and practices be used to protect the environment.
In countries where no regulations are in place, self-regulation
by the deployment of chemistries that meet the most stringent
regulations and have been introduced in other parts of the world
should be adhered to. The selection of chemistries should be
based on the most effcient inhibitors to ensure fow, whilst being
benign to the environment, and still providing an effcient and
cost-effective means of keeping fow assured.
There appears to be a fundamental mismatch in requiring
effcient biodegradation and an ability to withstand the higher
temperatures being encountered downhole. Existing green
inhibitors have not found wide acceptance for deployment as
squeeze chemicals due to their inherent hydrolytic and thermal
stability issues. While the polycarboxylic acid (PCAj inhibitor
presented here has performed well in the OECD 306 test it
has also shown a resistance to hydrothermal degradation
over a range of pH and temperatures up to 200 `C. Successful
squeeze application in addition to surface treatments should
be possible utilising this chemistry. It remains to be seen if
further development of inhibitors can reach the harsher HPHT
environments being found in the feld and still meet the toxicity
constraints and biodegradation hurdle, although the fndings
presented in this article give hope for the future.
Experimental
Environmental tests
Environmental testing was performed under GLP conditions at
third party laboratories using OSPARCOM guidelines. The tests
performed are listed in Table 1.
Calcium carbonate threshold test
This test is designed to assess the performance of potential
inhibitors under simulated Brent formation water conditions to
inhibit calcium carbonate precipitation. Two synthetic solutions
are prepared, one containing the scaling cations and the
other containing the anions. The two waters are mixed in a
50:50 ratio. The anion solution is added to the bottle, followed
by the inhibitor solution and then mixed. The cation solution is
added with mixing and the bottles are shaken in a water bath
at 90 `C (194 `Fj for four hours. The solution is fltered and the
calcium remaining in solution is analysed by titration with EDTA
solution. The water chemistry used in the test is presented in
Table 2.
Figure 4. Barium sulfate dynamic scale loop test.
Figure 3. Calcium carbonate scale loop test.
Figure 2. Calcium carbonate threshold test.
Figure 1. Dynamic test schematic.
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60
OILFIELD TECHNOLOGY
August 2012
It is then sparged with nitrogen to minimise head space oxygen
before heating at 120 `C (248 `Fj, 140 `C (284 `Fj, 160 `C (302 `Fj,
180 `C (356 `Fj, or 200 `C (392 `Fj for three days. The resultant
solution is then checked for effcacy in the barium sulfate and
calcium carbonate dynamic tests.
Results
Environmental tests
The frst stage of the harmonised mandatory control system
(HMCSj scheme is a prescreening process that evaluates the
toxicity, bioaccumulation and biodegradation of chemicals that
could potentially be discharged to the sea. Any chemical must
be greater than 20% biodegradable in addition to meeting two
out of three of the following criteria:
x Marine toxicity: EC
50
and LC
50
>10 mg/l.
x Bioaccumulation: this is a partition coefficient giving a
measure of the distribution of the chemical between water
and octanol and is expressed as log P
ow
, this value should
be < 3.
x Biodegradation: freshwater testing is allowable in the UK
sector, however, in the Norwegian sector only the OECD
306 Marine test is acceptable. The criteria are:
l > 70% biodegradable in 28 days (OECD 301A, OECD 301E).
l > 60% in 28 days (OECD 301B, OECD 301C, OECD 301F
or OECD 306).
ln this study the OECD 306 test was used.
The PCA has been extensively examined in toxicity and
biodegradability studies, the fndings of which are given in
Table 1 and were performed by independent laboratories
to GLP standards. These results demonstrate that the
marine algal growth inhibition of the PCA determined on
Skeletonema Costatum was found to be an EC
50
> 1000 mg/l.
Acute marine copepod toxicity on Acartia Tonsa gave
LC50 > 100 mg/l. A 48 hour acute toxicity evaluation performed
on Scophthalmus maximus juveniles gave an LC
50
> 1000 mg/l.
The results from these environmental toxicity studies
demonstrate that the PCA can be considered to be non-toxic.
The PCA is considered not to bioaccumulate having a
low Log P
ow
< 1. ln the OECD 306 marine biodegradation test
the PCA is 68.6% biodegraded after 28 days and as such is
considered readily biodegradable.
Taking all the foregoing results into consideration and
inputting the results through the chemical hazard assessment
and risk management (CHARMj model the hazard quotient
calculated allows the PCA to be classifed as gold under the
HMCS.
ln the Norwegian sector of the North Sea substances that
'Pose Little or No Risk' to the Environment (PLONORj are
classifed as 'green'. This chemical is not PLONOR, but may be
classifed as yellow under the Norwegian scheme. The yellow
designation is further sub-sectioned into Y1, Y2 and Y3 under
the SKlM guidelines
7
which state that:
x Y1: the chemical is expected to biodegrade completely.
x Y2: the chemical is expected to biodegrade to products
that are not environmentally hazardous.
x Y3: the chemical is expected to biodegrade to products
that may be environmentally hazardous.
Under these classifcations and with the acceptable aquatic
toxicity and bioaccumulation fgures this chemical is classifed
as Y1.
Figure 6. Barium sulfate dynamic scale loop test: effect of pH on the
stability of PCA at 150 C.
Figure 5. Barium sulfate dynamic scale loop test: effect of
temperature on the stability of PCA at natural pH.
Calcium carbonate dynamic scale loop test
The same water from the calcium carbonate threshold test is
utilised in this test. The two waters are pumped through preheat
coils at 90 `C (194 `Fj and mixed in a T-piece prior to the
0.1 mm lD 1 m long 316 stainless steel test coil.
Calcium carbonate deposition reduces the bore of the test
coil causing an increase in pumping pressure. The rate of
change in pressure across the coil is monitored with a pressure
transducer and data captured for graphical representation later.
The test is considered successful if the change in pressure
remains below 1 psi (6.895 kPaj over a two hour period.
A schematic diagram of the equipment is shown in Figure 1.
Barium sulfate dynamic scale loop test
The water chemistry used in this test is given in Table 3 and is
equivalent to a 80:20 Troll:Seawater mixture. The equipment
for this test is identical to that used in the calcium carbonate
dynamic scale loop test with some minor modifcations to the
technique used to evaluate inhibitors. The anion and cation
solutions are fed to the coil at 90 `C (194 `Fj with no inhibitor
present in order to prescale the tube.
5
When a 1 psi (6.895 kPaj
change in pressure is achieved a third solution containing anions
plus inhibitor is introduced instead of anion solution alone. The
test is run until the additive fails to prevent further barium sulfate
growth or a period of two hours.
Hydrothermal stability test
A 10% additive solution in synthetic seawater (Table 4j, is nitrogen
sparged for two hours and placed in a Tefon lined autoclave.
61
OILFIELD TECHNOLOGY
August 2012
Figure 8. Calcium carbonate dynamic scale loop test: effect of
temperature and pH on the stability of PCA.
Figure 7. Barium sulfate dynamic scale loop test: effect of
temperature on the stability of PCA at pH 8.0.
Calcium carbonate threshold test
Inhibitor levels of 2, 4, 5 and 7.5 mg/l as solids were
evaluated in this test and compared with that of polyaspartate
(PASPj. A good result is considered to be greater than 90%
inhibition of the calcium carbonate deposition. As can be
seen in Figure 2 this is achieved at a 5 mg/l dose level for
the PCA. lncreasing the dose level to 7.5 mg/l increases
the effciency to 99%. The PASP appears to have reached
a plateau in effciency at 5 mg/l and indeed at the higher
dose level of 7.5 mg/l has dropped off in effcacy. This is
an unusual observation that was reproduced in subsequent
testing. Although not investigated, the drop off in effciency
from the 5 mg/l result could be due to a calcium compatibility
issue of the PASP giving rise to particulate calcium PASP
deposition. This deposition would exacerbate calcium
carbonate crystallisation by providing growth sites and
the subsequent lower dose level after PASP calcium salt
formation would be insuffcient to control further deposition in
this water type.
Calcium carbonate dynamic scale loop test
In some ways, dynamic testing is less severe than the
threshold static jar test, since replenishment of inhibitor with
time favours improved results. In the jar test, the inhibitor
concentration decreases with time once a crystal is formed,
but in the dynamic test the constant inhibitor level throughout
the test ensures that it is the growth inhibition mechanism
that is being studied. The roughness of the metal surface acts
as growth sites for initial crystal formation.
Figure 3 illustrates the data for PCA and PASP in the
calcium carbonate dynamic scale loop test. Excellent
results are obtained for PCA at the 2.5 mg/l solids dose
level confrming the fndings in the threshold test and
demonstrating the growth inhibition properties of the inhibitor.
At the 2 mg/l dose level the PCA is still giving some inhibition
whereas the PASP does not perform to an equivalent level
even at a 2.5 mg/l dose level. Increasing the dose level to
4 mg/l for the PASP gives an inferior result to that obtained
at 2.5 mg/l mirroring the increased dose level phenomena
obtained in the threshold test. Consequently, PASP was not
able to match the performance of the PCA irrespective of the
dosage used.
Barium sulfate dynamic scale loop test
The primary mechanism in this dynamic pre-scaled test is
that of growth inhibition where the inhibitor blocks off the
active growing sites on the barium sulfate crystal surface.
Poor growth inhibitors would therefore give poor performance
in this test.
PCA and PASP give excellent results in controlling barium
sulfate scale at 4 mg/l solids dose level, giving no pressure
increase over the time of the test. Figure 4 presents the data
graphically. As the pH of this system is being buffered at
pH 5.5 one would not expect any calcium salt formation from
the PASP, even with the higher calcium levels in this water.
Hydrothermal stability test
Any chemical being contemplated as a potential squeeze
inhibitor must be able to withstand the thermal and aquatic
environment encountered in the reservoir for long periods of
time, typically 12 to 18 months or longer, without breakdown.
Hydrothermal stability tests were performed on the PCA at
pH 1.0, the natural pH of a 10% solution, and 120 `C (248 `Fj
for a period of three days. Performance testing using the
barium sulfate dynamic loop test demonstrated no change
in effciency and therefore no damaging degradation at
120 `C (Figure 5j. At a higher temperature of 140 `C (284 `Fj
there was suffcient breakdown to cause a loss in inhibitor
effciency (Figure 5j. However the effect of pH has been
published elsewhere
8
and higher pH conditions confer greater
hydrolytic stability.
Hydrothermal stability tests were performed on the PCA
at a temperature of 160 `C (302 `Fj over a range of pH values
starting at natural pH and then pH 3.0 rising to pH 8.0 in one
pH unit increments. Subsequent testing of these solutions
in the barium sulfate dynamic scale loop test is presented in
Figure 6. At pH levels below pH 6, hydrothermal degradation
is such that all activity against barium sulfate scale is lost
even at elevated dose levels. At a pH greater than pH 6,
hydrolytic stability is improved and increasing dose levels
can inhibit barium sulfate scaling. At pH 8 no degradation is
observed, as exemplifed by no change in the 4 mg/l dose
level requirements before and after hydrolytic stability testing,
in the barium sulfate dynamic scale testing.
Having established a pH at which no change in activity
was seen at 160 `C (302 `Fj, the temperature was increased at
frst to 180 `C (356 `Fj and fnally 200 `C (392 `Fj. The results
of these studies are shown in Figure 7. At 180 `C (356 `Fj
again there is no change in activity between the original PCA
and the hydrothermally treated product, both still requiring
4 mg/l dose level to give complete barium sulfate inhibition.
62
OILFIELD TECHNOLOGY
August 2012
At 200 `C (392 `Fj there is a fall off in performance at the
4 mg/l dose level however at a 6 mg/l dose level complete
inhibition is maintained.
Confrmation of the activity of PCA against calcium
carbonate scale after the hydrothermal stability test was
also evaluated. These data are presented in Figure 8 using
Table 4. Synthetic seawater chemistry
Ion Concentration mg/l
Calcium 428
Magnesium 1368
Potassium 460
Sodium 10 890
Sulfate 2960
Choride 19 773
Table 2. Calcium carbonate test
water
Ion Concentration mg/l
Calcium 350
Magnesium 56
Sodium 10 077
Potassium 283
Barium 50
Strontium 50
Bicarbonate 1000
Chloride 16 058
Sulfate 0
TDS 27 924
pH 7.8
Table 3. Barium sulfate test
water
Ion Concentration mg/l
Calcium 636
Magnesium 634
Sodium 14 760
Potassium 446
Barium 120
Strontium 190
Bicarbonate 0
Chloride 26 930
Sulfate 530
TDS 44 246
pH 5.5
Table 1. Environmental tests
Study PCA
Toxicity testing
Marine algal growth inhibition
Skeletonema costatum EC
50
72h (mg/l)
> 1000
Acute marine copepod toxicity
Acartia tonsa EC
50
48h (mg/l)
> 100
Toxicity to fish
Scopthalmus maximus juvenile LC
50
96h (mg/l)
> 1000
Bioaccumulation log P
ow
(OECD 117)
< 1
Biodegredation % in 28 days
(OECD 306)
68.6
the calcium carbonate dynamic scale test. After the 120 `C
evaluation at natural pH, the PCA shows a slight loss in
activity with the 2.5 mg/l dose level giving equivalent results
to the 2 mg/l non-heat treated sample and the 3 mg/l
hydrothermal sample being equivalent to the 2.5 mg/l
additive without heat treatment. It is also clear from these
results that increasing the temperature to 140 `C at the
natural pH of the product, pH 1.0, results in loss of activity
against calcium carbonate. Increasing the pH to 7.0 and
then pH 8.0 results in increased hydrolytic stability as
demonstrated by the improving results at 2.5 mg/l dose
level at these pH levels. Indeed at pH 8.0 the hydrolytic
stability is improved so signifcantly that no loss in
performance is observed even at 200 `C for a 2.5 mg/l dose
level.
Wat et al.
9
have demonstrated that there is a possibility
of discarding perfectly acceptable squeeze inhibitor
candidates by utilising the conventional type of test. The
hydrothermal stability data presented here represent a worst
case scenario regarding hydrolytic attack, as the molecules
are in the solution phase rather than in fxed conformation
on the sandstone/limestone surface. Obtaining positive
confrmation of effcacy post hydrolytic stability testing
using the conventional test method should give confdence
for the use of this chemistry in squeeze treatments.
Conclusions
x PCA is a readily biodegradable scale inhibitor, meeting
and in some cases exceeding current regulations for
green chemistries.
x PCA is an efficient multi-functional scale inhibitor being
efficient in the inhibition of both barium and strontium
sulfates and calcium carbonate formation.
x Squeeze potential of PCA under HPHT conditions
has been exemplified by its hydrothermal stability up
to 180 `C (356 `Fj at pH 8.0 and only marginal loss in
activity at 200 `C (392 `Fj and pH 8.0.
O T

References
1. D.G. Hill et al, Reducing Risk of Oilfield Chemicals to Marine
Environments Development Practices, Achievements and
Benefits", SPE74085, presented at the SPE lnternational Conference
on Health, Safety and Environment in Oil and Gas Exploration and
Production, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, March 2002.
2. D.G. Hill and M.A. Malwitz, Green Corrosion lnhibitor Achievements
- Assessment of Performance vs. Reality of Regulation", Corrosion
2006, Paper 06488, Annual Conference and Exhibition, San Diego,
CA.
3. D. Wilson and B.J. Hepburn, An Alternative Polymer for Squeeze
Treatments" Corrosion '97, Paper 172, Annual Conference and
Exhibition, New Orleans, LA.
4. W.H. Hann, et al, High Performance Scale lnhibitors" Corrosion '97,
Paper 169, Annual Conference and Exhibition, New Orleans, LA.
5. D. Wilson, Barium Sulfate Scale Inhibitor Evaluation Using a Tube-
Blocking Test", Norwegian Society of Chartered Engineers, Oilfield
Chemical Symposium, Geilo, 1991.
6. OECD (1992j: OECD Guideline for Testing of Chemicals,
Biodegradability in Seawater, 17 July 1992.
7. Norwegian State Pollution Control Authority (STFj Supplementary
Guidance for the Completing of Harmonised Offshore Chemical
Notification Format (HOCNFj 2000 for Norwegian Sector. version
May 2007. http://www.sft.no/arbeidsomr/petroleum/dokumenter/
hocnf_supplementaryguidance_norway.pdf (accessed 07/09/2009j.
8. S.J. Dyer, G.M. Graham, K.S. Sorbie, Factors Affecting The
Thermal Stability Of Conventional Scale lnhibitors ln HP/HT
Reservoirs", SPE lnternational Symposium on Oilfield Chemistry,
SPE 50717, (Houston, TX. SPE 1999j.
9. R.M. Wat, L.E. Hauge, K. Solbakken, K.E. Wennberg, L.M. Sivertsen,
B. Gjersvold, Statoil, Squeeze Chemical for HT Applications - Have
We Discarded Promising Products by Performing Unrepresentative
Thermal Ageing Tests?, SPE International Symposium on Oilfield
Chemistry, SPE 105505, (Houston, TX. SPE 2007j.
THE POWER
S
ediment transport takes place naturally
within the marine environment. This is due
to the driving forces of currents and waves.
Variation in the transport of sediments gives rise
to erosion and deposition. Couple this with the
inclusion of a structure on the seabed and scour of
the sediment, local to that structure, may occur.
Scour around a marine structure is the removal
of sediment such as silt and sand, which can
result in the formation of scour holes, which may
compromise the integrity of the marine structure. A
great amount of research has been undertaken in
laboratory facilities to measure scour development
at vertical piles, in unidirectional fow conditions.
This has given scientists and engineers a broad
understanding of the mechanisms for the
development of scour at a marine structure,
although conditions in the laboratory can never
fully mimic the conditions present in the real world,
which can lead to uncertainties about the scouring
process. Considerable research has also been
carried out outside of the laboratory and this has
helped to fll in some of the gaps. However, the
feld data analysed tends to be snapshots of what
is going on and not a continuous analysis, which
again leads to uncertainties.
The oil industry has been dealing with the
problem of scour for decades and the problem has
R. A. LIND, NORTEK, UK, AND R. J. S. WHITEHOUSE, H.R. WALLINGFORD, UK,
EXPLAIN WHY IT IS VITAL TO UNDERSTAND AND MONITOR THE EFFECTS
OF SCOUR ON OFFSHORE STRUCTURES.
63
64
OILFIELD TECHNOLOGY
August 2012
been apparent in the more developed gas felds of the UK sector
where the seabed is predominantly sandy. Various methods
have been developed in the industry for protecting against the
development of scour holes, or for their mitigation but deciding
on the correct solution requires detailed analysis of the site and
at the moment there are still gaps in this analysis.
Design predictions of scour are made for structures and
parameter values set, against which intervention options can
be planned. One powerful tool in scour analysis, monitoring
and prevention is an online system, which provides continuous
measurements over an area around a marine structure. This type
of system, coupled with a good software package can provide
a continuous picture of what is going on at the seabed and
consequently act as an early warning system for the integrity of
the marine structure.
Scour in the laboratory
There has been a considerable amount of computational and
physical (laboratory) modelling carried out to determine exactly
how predominantly granular soils react to the driving forces of
currents and waves around a structure. For scour assessment
the threshold velocity, bed shear or stream power are the key
parameters, which control when sediment is mobilised or eroded
from the bed. Scour takes place around the structure when the
threshold value is exceeded local to the structure.
1
Hydrodynamic field
Local scour at a piled structure takes place when the fow feld
is of signifcant magnitude to remove bed material. The size of
the obstruction caused by the structure is a key part of the scour
process and can be observed in the relationship between the
depth of scour at the structure and its width.
The fow pattern near a pile is quite complex and has been
investigated by numerous researchers. The change in a fow
pattern with the addition of a marine structure will result in one
or more of the following:
1
x Flow contraction.
x Horseshoe vortex formation in front of the structure.
x Lee-wake vortices behind the structure.
x Reflection and diffraction of waves.
x Wave breaking.
x Turbulence generation.
x Pressure differentials in the soil leading to liquefaction.
For a circular pile, the principal features of scour (shown in
Figure 1j have been heavily researched and are well defned.
Here one can see the down-fow at the upstream face of the pile,
the horseshoe vortex at the base of the pile, a surface bow wave
at the upstream face of the pile and wake vortices downstream
of the pile. The horseshoe vortex can be seen to be effective at
transporting sediment away from the scour hole with the
down-fow and horseshoe vortex being the primary mechanisms
in the scour hole development.
Marine bed composition
Critical to any foundation design are geotechnical
considerations. Scour in the marine environment is a physical
process related to the movement of seabed sediment by the
fow of water away from a structure. The soil conditions are
described by geotechnical parameters, therefore, scour is of a
geotechnical nature as it relates to the reduction in ground level
around a structure.
In the laboratory, many experiments have been carried out
researching the effects of different sediment classes. If sand
is taken as the benchmark case then in general terms the
erodibility is expected to decrease for coarser and fner soils,
although muds and clays may be quite variable in their response
depending on their cohesion and stiffness. Also it is expected, in
some sediments that scour will increase with increased hydraulic
forcing through storm waves, whereas in other sediments it
may actually lead to a decrease in the scour depth. The role of
wave-induced liquefaction (a phenomenon whereby a saturated
soil substantially loses strength and stiffness in response to an
applied stress) also needs to be considered; the soils subject to
risk of liquefaction are indicated in Figure 2.
2
Scour in the marine environment
Outside of the laboratory, marine soils are rarely found to be
uniform in structure and can be multi-modal in their grading as
well as exhibiting a varying amount of cohesion. Couple this
with the high rate of variability found in currents and waves and
assessing the extent of scouring in these real soils becomes far
more complex and the methods available for assessment more
limited.
Figure 1. Key hydraulic processes acting at a pile to cause scour.
1
Figure 2. Conceptual model of the relative scour depth for different
sediments.
2
Under the patronage of His Royal Highness Prince Khalifa bin Salman Al Khalifa
Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Bahrain
Conference: 10-13 March 2013
Exhibition: 11-13 March 2013
Bahrain International Exhibition
and Convention Centre
www.meos2013.com
Soc| et o |et o| eo |o| oee s
18th Middle East Oil & Gas Show and Conference
Organisers
fawzi@aeminfo.com.bh
Conference Organisers
spedub@spe.org
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66
OILFIELD TECHNOLOGY
August 2012
Determining the potential depth of scour in complex marine
soils, based on laboratory research using current prediction
methodologies requires the use of several relationships and
assumptions. This may limit the application of the approach to
more complex situations, unless supported
by information from additional studies of
physical modelling (laboratory) and without
information on the soil properties including
their variation with depth, this method
cannot be applied.
3
Scour analysis techniques
Scour around marine structures is well
recognised as an engineering issue. Where
scour is anticipated to cause problems
with structural stability, scour protection is
required.
4, 5
Determining if and when this
protection is needed is the problem.
Historically, there have been a wide
variety of techniques used to routinely
monitor scour at a marine structure. Visually
(using divers or ROVs) and through acoustic
methods such as Multibeam Echo Sounders
or SONAR devices.
As shown in Figure 4, SONAR can
provide a good 3D image of the structure.
It gives detailed depths in graphical format,
which allows for good analysis. With
threshold velocity, bed shear and stream
power being key parameters in scour
assessment and the given variable nature of
the marine environment, these three factors
are constantly in fux. A time series element
needs to be introduced to obtain a full
assessment of scour analysis.
Time scale of scour development
Scour development under waves and currents around offshore
structures is a time varying process. Whether a scour hole will
continue to develop, remain at some equilibrium or fll in is
a function of the hydrodynamic processes
existing at any given time.
With current data sets from various SONAR
instruments, we can see in many cases a
general growth in scour, over a period of
time, for a given installation. However, these
datasets are snapshots of a point in time
and not a continuous, online data stream,
so caution should be taken when inferring a
general reduction in scour depth with time, as
this may just be a function of the prevailing
conditions at the time of the survey rather than
a general trend. Recent studies suggest that
the scour depth can vary signifcantly under
combined current and wave conditions through
time (Figure 3).
6
In this example, the current
generated scour depth is predicted to be much
larger than the scour due to combined waves
and currents.
Guidance on scour
DNV and Germanischer Lloyd are two of
the independent organisations responsible
for certifcation of offshore structures. ln
conjunction with the existing regulatory
regime they help to ensure an appropriate
level of safety and reliability through offshore
classifcation, thus providing assurance that
requirements laid down in applicable rules and
regulations are met during all phases of the
assets design, construction and operation.
Figure 4. Snap-shot of scour at a
marine structure (image courtesy of
CodaOctopus using the Echoscope

real time 3D sonar).
Figure 3. Results from a model at prototype scale. Validation of this kind of detailed modelling requires continuous time-series data of environmental
conditions and scour depths at the foundation.
5
67
OILFIELD TECHNOLOGY
August 2012
As of 2011, DNV guidance for scour at
an offshore structure was based mostly upon
published results from scale laboratory studies.
This means that the need for scour protection
at an offshore structure relies heavily on
research carried out in waves or unidirectional
steady fow conditions, simplifed sediments
and simplifed geometry, giving rise to a
simplifed algorithm. This in turn gives rise to
uncertainty about potential scour depth at
marine structures, which means uncertainty
about the need for scour protection. With the
cost of scour protection being in the millions
for some marine developments coupled to
structural uncertainties, it seems that there is a
potentially high price to pay for something that
can be monitored at a relatively low cost.
Online scour monitor
Systems such as the online Scour Monitor
are capable of providing a relatively cheap
acoustic, power-light, online, real time system
with good graphical output, which can be
accessed through the internet.
The instrument is comprised of four
downward looking narrow acoustic beams,
which continuously monitor the seabed profle
at the base of the structure. User selected time
series datasets are collected and recorded
internally and/or can be output in real time,
using RS 232 or RS 422 formats.
The four beams fan out in a single axial
plane, normally orientated perpendicular to
the face of the structure (Figure 5). Changes
in seabed levels adjacent to the structure are
measured and real time data can be displayed
at base. Scour and subsequent depositional
events, which might happen during storm
periods, can thus be identifed and fully
quantifed. The monitor can be pre-installed on foundations
avoiding up-front the need for diver intervention.
Conclusion
The physical processes driving scour development in the
marine environment have to be well understood to ensure
that appropriate methods of predicting scour depth and
extent are used. It is also important that the processes are
well understood so that it is possible to implement effective
scour mitigation or counter measures.
3
Desk analysis,
computational and laboratory modelling all have their role to
play in determining scour response and mitigation measures.
The application of monitoring systems such as
Scour Monitor could potentially reduce many of the problems
associated with scour. In conjunction with metocean
measurements it can help improve scour calculations, by
giving continuous feedback of scour development and
can therefore help in removing a lot of the uncertainties
associated with modelling and snapshot data. This in
turn allows for improved realism within engineering/FEED
calculations, which should help improve installation time and
reduce expenditure. On top of all this, these systems can
Figure 5. Nortek scour monitor attached to a pile. Providing an online real time picture of
temporal scour development.
function as an early warning system and provide information for
modellers and project operators alike, trying to assess scour
formation and whether scour protection is required.
O T

Note
The authors would like to thank Gordon Jones of Nortek UK
and John Harris of HR Wallingford for their contribution to the
article.
References
1. Whitehouse, R.J.S., Harris, J.M., Sutherland, J., 2011: Synopsis on
scour at marine structures". One-day course Handbook on Marine
Scour, December 2011, HR Wallingford.
2. Whitehouse, R.J.S., 2006: Scour at coastal structures". lnvited lecture.
Proceedings Third International Conference on Scour and Erosion,
November 1 - 3, 2006, pp. 52 - 59.

CURNET, Gouda, The Netherlands.

3. Whitehouse, R.J.S., Harris, J.M., Mundon, T.R. and Sutherland, J., 2010:
Scour around offshore structures". ln: Proc. of the fifth lnternational
Conference on Scour and Erosion, (eds.j Burns, S.E., Bhatia, S.K., Avila,
C.M.C. and Hunt, B.E. Geotechncial Special Publication no. 210, ASCE,
pp. 11 - 20.
4. Hoffmans, G.J.C.M. and verheij, H.J., 1997: Scour manual." Balkema.
5. Whitehouse, R.J.S., 1998: Scour at marine structures". Thomas Telford,
London.
6. Harris, J.M., Whitehouse, R.J.S. and Benson, T., 2010: The time
evolution of scour around offshore structures. Proceedings of the
Institution of Civil Engineers, Maritime Engineering, 163, March Issue,
MA1 3 - 17.
ENSURING
INTEGRITY
GORDON MCCULLOCH, INTECSEA LTD, UK,
GIVES US A LOOK INTO THE DEVELOPMENT
OF A MODEL FOR ASSET INTEGRITY
MANAGEMENT IN THE OIL AND GAS
INDUSTRY.
68
T
his paper outlines a model for
asset integrity management
(AIM). As the technology has
progressed it has also evolved
in ways that are perhaps outside
the 'favour' of the original work
done by the HSE key programmes.
Drawing on operating companies,
governmental bodies good practice,
lNTECSEA has taken the AlM
principle and shaped it to suit the
practicalities of the huge and diverse
oil and gas market, incorporating
the burgeoning diversity in terms
of geographical, political and
technological areas of asset
development.
Introduction
Asset Integrity in its formal sense
began in the UKCS and was chiefy
the result of a co-ordination between
the UK HSE (oil and gas regulator)
and partners from industry such as
the larger operators in the North Sea.
The aim of this collaboration was
to decide how best to maintain the
containment integrity of ageing oil
rigs in the North Sea; as a result, the
'OGP Guide to Asset lntegrity' was
produced. This document represented
the culmination of the asset integrity
initiatives that had taken place after
the year 2000. These included the
a series of integrity activities called
Key Programmes. To date there
have been four of these programmes
covering different areas of integrity
concern:
x Key Programme 1: hydrocarbon
release campaign.
x Key Programme 2: deck and
drilling operations.
x Key Programme 3: asset integrity.
x Key Programme 4: ageing and life
extension.
As can be seen, these
programmes had very specifc areas
69
70
OILFIELD TECHNOLOGY
August 2012
of investigation but each has in common a goal of the adoption
of processes and behaviours that support safety and safe
methods of working. KP 3 (as the initiatives are termedj is asset
integrity and lays out the activities that were chiefy agreed as
being most relevant in maintaining asset integrity. Formulated
during collaboration with the major operators these were laid
out at the Belfry Workshop (a precursor to the KP 3 Reportj. The
essence of the workshop and subsequent KP 3 Report were
the following elements, each considered to be integral to asset
integrity:
x Integrity of piping repairs.
x Risk assessments and Hazops.
x Awareness of personnel.
x Valve failures.
x Hydrocarbon containment.
x ESDV issues.
x Maintenance quality and backlog.
x Lack of resources.
x Competence.
x Mitigation systems.
x Corrosion.
x Ship collision.
The complete list of 42 areas seen as critical to asset
integrity can be viewed in the KP3 handbook.
At this time, the focus of this work was on ageing assets and
was an attempt to extend the life of operating assets safely into
a production future beyond their design life. The earlier stages of
projects and developments had not as yet been considered fully.
Working in parallel with the HSE, the OGP (Association of
Oil and Gas Producers) is a body that develops guides and
standard setting documentation for use by its members and
others. With asset integrity it has produced two major treatise
aimed at helping senior managers manage their upstream assets
effectively.
Figure 1. The AIM model.
Figure 2. AIM life cycle model.
Literature review
Owing to the relative infancy of asset integrity there is not a
widespread body of works available, however this makes it
easier to identify those particular groups and authors that have
participated in the development of asset integrity. The key
documents come from the following sources and have been
reviewed as part of this ongoing work:
x KP1, 2, 3, 4 - HSE (UK) publications - the UK Health and
Safety Executive collaborative publications created in
unison with operators, academics, governmental bodies,
contractors and suppliers. These documents are detailed
and hold a lot of case specific advice. This is due in some
part to the need of the HSE to be clear about its intent and
requirements when 'reviewing' operating assets.
x OGP publications:
l Asset integrity: the key to managing major incident risks.
l Process safety: recommended practice on key performance
indicators.
Both of these publications can be considered high level,
aimed at senior management, but they can also be said to have
developed the approach taken by the HSE in that technically
they describe a methodology for the achievement of asset
integrity - a subtle difference in objective and approach in
comparison to the HSE.
The OGP expands on the UKCS and includes within its remit
North America, but it is effectively a global approach and has at
its root ANSl and APl thinking.
Gaps in current approaches
The oil and gas industry has expanded within the last decade to
fuel the emerging markets and the number of developments has
increased rapidly. New markets have opened up and, in order to
serve them, companies have been going to more remote, and
less hospitable places to extract hydrocarbons. This activity
has had several effects relevant to the current position of asset
integrity as a 'new technology', namely:
x The pursuit and extraction of hydrocarbons has been the
primary focus of companies as they try to keep up with
demand.
x Areas of exploration have extended the operational frontiers
and have taken the companies into new geographical areas
in unfamiliar countries or locations.
x Arguably, staffing and resourcing the projects with the right
level of expertise and knowledge has been a major difficulty.
The combination of these three elements has not stopped
or retarded the forward movement of asset integrity but have
presented its model with a formidable obstacle, namely:
developing AI at the same time as endeavouring to meet the
technological and people challenges.
Trying to create an asset integrity system in the environment
described above that is both usable and effective is
understandably a massively diffcult task. The key need in this
changing energy landscape is to have a system that across
the board of activities is adaptable but still retains the core
requirements.
The UK HSE and UKCS operators were some of the frst to
understand that integrity required an holistic approach and by
necessity used a variety of different methods to achieve asset
integrity.
Initially the approach developed was solely for the upstream
activities of ageing assets, however, with the advent of the OGP
71
OILFIELD TECHNOLOGY
August 2012
and HSE work became a 'lifecycle approach' but still very much
focussed on the operating phase of that lifecycle.
Due to this hectic development and the need to focus on
what was required to sustain the ageing assets and prevent
hydrocarbon releases, several areas of importance have been
identifed as requiring development. These are:
x Common objectives: safety, and the containment of
hydrocarbons as achieved by the managed stewardship
of assets is the common objective and well catered for,
but there are areas of asset integrity not addressed and
discussed that require further development and include
aspects of:
l Technical and engineering.
l Commercial and business needs.
l Codes and standards application.
l Legal compliance (global).
l Environmental considerations (global).
x Project support: supporting projects with defined application
methods that are designed to ensure that the projects
are supplied with the maximum (not the minimumj risk
tolerance.
x Standardised definitions: asset integrity itself does not
have an accepted definition. This leaves the way for
misinterpretation and misuse.
x Life cycle approach: this approach is mentioned within
the current literature but only in part as the focus is on
operations. The development of the wider life cycle areas
would be supportive of the asset integrity objectives in
operations.
x International standards: at present there are no AIM
standards.
x Existing technologies: taking advantage of the technologies
with already mature industries such as nuclear, military and
aerospace is considered essential for the ongoing development
of asset integrity. Initially for the development of the technology
but also to encourage common understanding.
x Processes and procedure; there are, within the industry,
processes to help achieve asset integrity but these fall into the
category of management tools such as the Demming Cycle
or commercial tools such as safety tools. That said, the gap
here is the clear and pointed nomination of those activities that
occur consistently throughout the life cycle.
Asset integrity management model
The model for AIM that goes some way toward satisfying the
gaps identifed in the previous section is shown below.
The AIM Model is comprised of six related elements
as depicted in Figure 1. The elements, and their expected
outcomes, are summarised below:
Element 1: establishing and sustaining AIM capabilities
x Management commitment to AIM and assurance is
communicated, understood and applied.
x Progressive development of AlM expertise/knowledge within
the company is actively encouraged.
x Co-ordinating resource and implementation support tools
are provided to all active projects.
Element 2: developing/updating asset integrity strategies
x Asset integrity execution strategies are adapted to suit
project specifics.
x Asset integrity is fully integrated within the project delivery
process.
Figure 3. The asset integrity documentation structure.
Element 3: establishing, targeting and implementing AIM
programmes
x Asset integrity management effort is aligned to business
objectives.
x Integrity management programs address all dimensions
of asset integrity.
Element 4: conducting integrity assurance reviews
x Assurance is preferentially directed at areas of greatest
risk as identified by the projects.
x Overall assurance programme scope and focus reflect
project exposure.
Element 5: establishing/controlling a repository for integrity
assurance evidence
x Integrity assurance information is stored for audit trail
and reference purposes.
Element 6: ensuring continuous improvement
x Results of integrity management are evaluated
to support innovation, learning and continuous
improvement.
x Experience and best practices are shared internally, with
venture partners and across the industry.
The life cycle approach
Figure 2 shows the areas of asset integrity that apply to
various stages of a development. Overall, asset integrity is
from assess to abandon, however there are subdivisions in
this process to allow for the packaging and co-ordination of
these activities in a systematic way. The three main groups
are design integrity, technical integrity and operational
integrity (which includes decommissioning).
Within each of these areas there are specifc tools and
techniques that can be routinely applied that support the
objectives of AIM these can be, but are not limited to:
Corporate/management level
x Corporate AIM system.
x Project AIM programmes.
x Operational AIM programmes.
Specialist areas
x Design integrity management.
x Technical integrity management.
x Operational integrity management.
x Safety.
x Legal compliance.
x Environmental compliance.
x Production optimisation.
x Risk management.
Tools and techniques
x AIM model application.
x Asset integrity assurance (AIA) reviews.
x Safety case compilation.
x Safety critical element analysis.
x Asset integrity benchmarking reviews.
x Asset integrity capability assessments.
x Integrity management software for subsea or full field.
x Compliance matrix provision.
x Code and standards matrix provision.
x Independent verification guidance.
x Bow tie analysis.
x SIL screening and assessment.
x Reliability strategies.
x Availability modelling.
x RAM modelling.
x Specialist support to projects and operations.
x Specialist IM decommissioning services.
Project application
To ensure that any development is given the means to
demonstrate its adherence to and its achievement of asset
integrity there should be in place a robust and detailed corporate
mechanism, that lays out the who, what, when, where and
why. This, up front ensures that there is a mandate to resource
and carry out the necessary steps that place the asset on a
route to optimised asset integrity. Figure 3 maps not only the
relationship between corporate and project documentation but
the required documents and procedures that are required as a
minimum for auditable corporate governance and correct project
implementation.
It should be noted that the mandate and charter are clearly
shown as inputs to this structure. The mandate is a document
signed by senior and upper management to show commitment
and to provide the distinct direction in terms of resource
commitment and corporate objective. The supporting document
to this is a clear statement of intent, a statement of position
and a demonstration of how seriously the company takes asset
integrity. This is called the asset integrity charter and it lays
down the concepts and the objectives the company has with
respect asset integrity. The charter is a 10 point guide detailing
how it intends to integrate asset integrity into the business it
conducts.
O T
References
1. OGP 2008 Asset Integrity, the key to managing major incident risks,
international association of oil and gas producers Report 415.
2. OGP 2011 Process Safety, Recommended Practice on Key Performance
Indicators, International association of oil and gas producers Report 456.
3. HSE Key Programme Handbook 2007.
ABC 56
BREDERO SHAW OFC, 37
BWA IFC
CAMERON DRILLING AND PRODUCTION 25
CAMERON PROCESS AND COMPRESSION 07
CORSITECH 09
CUDD ENERGY SERVICES 43
DELMAR SYSTEMS 31
DMG: EVENTS 51
ENERGY GLOBAL 39, 52, 55
FAIRFIELD NODAL 29
GEODYNAMICS IBC
LINCOLN ELECTRIC 45
MEOS 65
M-I SWACO OBC
NEPTUNE RESEARCH 21
OILFIELD TECHNOLOGY 46
PETEX 59
SIEMENS 17
SPE 18, 26
TD WILLIAMSON 13
TMK GROUP 49
WEIR OIL & GAS 04
WELLTEC 02
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