SYSTEM ATIC P RO BLEM SOLVING:

MIND M APS AND P RO BLEM

SOLVING TOOLS

Thomas Teepe

April 2010 Edition

 I N T RO D U C TO RY R E M A R K S

This paper is based on a German language seminar script I'm using for my courses on problem solving.
For this translation, I've made a number of additons, mostly in the paragraphs named "Remarks".
Mind Map, Mind Maps and Mind Mapping are registered trademarks in a number of countries. For reasons of
readibility there are no trademark signs in the text.
I take no responsibility for the internet pages mentioned in the text.
Document history:

Date Changes

14.06.2009 First version.

17.04.2010 Paragraph on Computer Aided Problem

Solving added; additions to the paragraph on
mind mapping software; remarks on Freeplane
software; several corrections;

Please let me know about your experiences, your criticism and suggestions for improvement.
I'm revising this paper from time to time, so your feedback will have a direct impact on its quality.

© 2010
Dr. Thomas Teepe
Alosenweg 37
70329 Stuttgart

thomasteepe@web.de
 B E C O M I N G A B E T T E R P RO B L E M S O LV E R

BECOMING A BETTER PROBLEM SOLVER - WHY IT'S WORTH IT

Problem solving skills are among the keyest of key qualifications:

• Routine jobs are largely done by machines and computers.
• The remaining work is largely non-routine and requires problem solving skills.
• As a result, problem solving has become a central part of our work. Problem solving skills are among the things
we need and use most often, and they are a key factor for contentedness and success.

BECOMING A BETTER PROBLEM SOLVER - HOW IT WORKS

Many useful problem solving tools can be learned:

• Techniques for structuring our thinking
We will present a special form of note taking, namely the well known mind mapping technique. We will deal
both with paper and computer mind mapping.
• Problem solving techniques
Here are some examples:

a) General strategies for dealing with problems, e.g. consisting of the steps
- describe the problem,
- define goals,
- collect ideas for a solution,
- make a plan and carry it out,
- look back;

b) single techniques, like the analogy method, where ideas and solutions are transferred from one area to
another.
A well known example of the analogy method is bionics, where construction ideas from nature are transferred
to technical constructions, leading to inventions like Velcro or the lotus effect of surfaces that repel water and
dirt.
• Factual knowledge
This article is not about factual knowledge in any given area. But we will present methods for organizing and
applying knowledge.
Many of the tools presented in this article may seem somewhat pedestrian. Our focus is to get results - and this is
often best done with simple, down-to-earth methods.
 BA S I C I D E A S

In this paper we present a method called "solution mapping", which is a combination of mind mapping and problem
solving tools.
Here comes an overview.

MIND MAPPING

Mind mapping is a special form of note taking. This type of note taking facilitates and improves thinking. Basic
concepts in mind mapping are
• a hierarchical structure of ideas and
• a combination of words and images.
A (somewhat simplistic) mind map on the topic "plan for birthday party" may look like this:

PROBLEM SOLVING TOOLS

We will call "problem solving tool" anything that may help us with solving a problem - from general step-by-step
strategies to commensensical advice like "sleep over it".
We will later present a number of useful tools in detail.

SOLUTION MAPPING

In solution mapping, we use two mind maps at a time:

• We examine the given problem in a so-called problem map.
• We use problem solving tools we have collected and arranged in a so-called tool map.
The tool maps given in this article shouldn't be viewed as a panacea for problem solving. One of the key ideas in
solution mapping is to adapt the tool maps to our problem solving experiences. This does not only improve a tool
map on a sheet of paper - more importantly, it improves our working knowledge on how to solve problems.
We will now describe how mind mapping, problem solving tools and solution mapping can be used in solving
problems.
 MIND MAPPING

SUPPORT THINKING

Thinking is one of the more powerful approaches to problem solving.

So we start with a more fundamental question: How can we develop our thoughts?
We can do a number of things:
• discuss with colleagues,
• think it through during a walk,
• close our eyes and murmur, or
• develop our ideas on a sheet of paper.
These forms of thinking are not mutually exclusive, and each one has its advantages.
In solving problems, taking notes is especially advantageous - notes help
• to dissect a problem into smaller, more manageable parts,
• to keep an overview,
• to collect several ideas in a first step and examine them more closely one by one later,
• to combine two modes of thinking, namely thinking in words and thinking in images,
• to resume a chain of thought after an interruption,
• to scrutinize a thought and
• to document the process of problem solving.
We are looking for a method of note taking that supports all this. Mind mapping is a powerful approach.
Here is how it works.

BASIC RULES OF MIND MAPPING

• We need:
We need a blank sheet of paper, size A4 or larger, and pens in different colours. Text markers are useful.
• Here's how we start:
We use the sheet in landscape format. We write the topic in the centre of the sheet and draw a little frame
around it. We can represent the topic in words or in a little drawing.
• Arranging ideas: Main branches and subbranches
We write the main ideas around the topic and link them with lines to the centre. These are called the main
branches. We develop further ideas in subbranches. Ideas are arranged almost automatically, and it's easy to add
ideas later.
• Using keywords:
We should use keywords or very short phrases rather than complete sentences. (Rule of thumb: One word per
branch.) By this, we avoid unnecessary words and save time and writing space. Another argument for keywords:
It's easier to form associations to a single word than to a complete sentence.

(In clear violation of the rules mentioned, the mind maps in this article are rather wordy. Otherwise, the reader
would find them difficult to understand. In our personal maps however, we can be brief.)
• Using symbols:
We should use symbols and little drawings wherever reasonable. They make our maps livelier and can help in
structuring the map.
(Are you sceptical? We all know the power of icons from Excel and Word.)
Moreover, drawings tap our potential for visual thinking, which is almost completely neglected by more
traditional methods of note taking.
• Using colours:
Colours can add structure and information to our maps. However, we have to judge the benefits of colours
against the extra effort of dealing with several pens.
• Further elements: Numbers, arrows, etc.
The ideas in a mind map are arranged hierarchically. We can add structure by numbers, by highlighting ideas
through colours and drawings and by using arrows to link ideas.

PRACTICAL HINTS: HOW TO PRODUCE GOOD MIND MAPS

• Word or line - what comes first?

We should find out what works best for us: To start with the word and draw the branch afterwards, or vice
versa.
• Direction of writing:
Maps are better readable if words run more or less horizontally.
• Using fonts:
We can use printed letters instead of ordinary and possibly messy handwriting. Beware: CAPITAL LETTERS
ARE DIFFICULT TO READ, q.e.d.
• Beware of too many arrows:
Arrows can clog a map very quickly. Use with care.

SOME EXERCISES FOR MIND MAPPING

If you like, start a mind map on one of the following topics.

• A topic that is of special relevance to you.
• A hobby:
Movies, music, travel, computer, stamps...
• Examine a problem with the help of a mind map.
• What is your experience with problem solving?
Which difficulties did you meet?
How would you tackle these difficulties today?
• Plan a meeting.
• Pros and cons of mind mapping.
• How could you use mind mapping?
Do not content yourself with fuzzy plans - make sure you actually start experimenting with mind maps.
Here are some suggestions:
- planning telephone calls
- making notes during telephone calls
- meeting minutes
 - collecting notes from your job
- checklists for your work
- learning languages: vocabulary training
...
• Compare mind maps and other forms of note taking. Focus on things like expenditure of time, structure, ease
of use...
• What does your perfect note taking method look like?
 P RO B L E M S O LV I N G T O O L S

PROBLEM SOLVING STAGES AND TOOLS

Remember - whatever may help us to solve a problem is called a problem solving tool or short a tool.
According to this suspiciously broad definition, there is a large number of tools:
• General solution strategies
like the IDEAL model of problem solving:
I = identify problems and opportunities
D = define alternative goals
E = explore possible strategies
A = assess and act
L = look and learn
• analysis techniques
like drawing a diagram
• creativity techniques
like brainstorming and
• commonsensical advice
like "sleep it over".
Simply aiming for the largest collection of tools is arguably not the best we can do. We need to know when to use
which tool.
To clarify this question, we use two steps:
• First: We dissect the problem solving process into stages
These stages comprise the general strategy mentioned above (describe the problem, define goals etc.)
Moreover, further stages like ""dealing with obstacles" or "look for information" might be useful.

Important: We will see that the stages do not follow neatly one after another. Often, they come in nested
structures, with smaller problems forming parts of a larger one.
• Second: We support each stage by appropriate tools
For each problem solving stage we provide a number of versatile, powerful tools. At the beginning, we limit
ourselves to a small number of tools.
After our introduction of mind mapping, it seems a good idea to arrange stages and tools in a mind map. Such a map
will be called a "tool map".

These ideas will be discussed in the next chapter.

REMARKS

Organizing problem solving tools by stages is a powerful, straightforward approach.

There are other promising options for organizing tools. The following ideas are just rough sketches.
• By subject matter:
We can collect tools for preparing a presentation, for writing an article, for programming in Java...
• By problem situations:
We can collect tools for situations like "there are too many leads to follow", "I'm stuck", "I'm frustrated" (that's
interesting in itself - dealing with emotions), "I'm confused" etc.
• By a metaphor from medicine:
We can arrange tool maps by combining "diagnosis tools" and "therapy tools".
Here is a basic example: According to David Perkins' book "Outsmarting IQ", human problem solving tends to
be
- hasty,
- fuzzy,
- narrow and
- sprawling.
For each of these maladies, we can collect a number of remedies.
S O L U T I O N M A P P I N G : H OW TO C O M B I N E M I N D M A P S A N D P R O B L E M S O LV I N G T O O L S

In solution mapping, we use two kinds of maps.

• First: Tool maps
In these maps we have arranged a number of tools so that we can find useful tools easily.
• Second: Problem map
This is where we examine the actual problem.
We will now describe these types of maps in more detail.

TOOL MAPS

Tool maps have a double benefit: On the one hand, the tool maps are a great repertoire - they may act as
• a receipe, if we want to follow a certain problem solving strategy, and as
• reminder for tools we are not yet fluent with.
On the other hand, tools maps help us to sort out our mental repertoire of tools - as we become more skilled in
using tools, the tool maps on paper become less important.

How do we proceed?
We aim for a tool map that helps us with a large variety of problems. Whatever the result - the tool map we present
is but one option among many. The reader is invited to adapt the map to their own needs.
As mentioned, we will start with dissecting the problem solving processs into stages. There are several ways of doing
this. Most of them are based on a common framework of four stages:
• Orientation:
What's it all about? Where lies the problem? What are the obstacles?
• Planning:
Collecting ideas and forming a plan.
• Doing:
Carrying out the plan.
• Controlling:
Does the solution work? What should be next? What did I learn from the problem solving process?
Such a framework does not mean that the stages can - or should - be worked through one after the other: In the
excution stage we may encounter difficulties that send us back to the orientation stage. Moreover, it's a good idea to
do some controlling during the entire problem solving process, not just at the end of it.
For our further work, we do not use the four stages mentioned, but a slightly more elaborate model:
• describe the problem
• examine the causes for the problem
• define goals
• collect ideas
• making a plan and carry it out.
In addition, we use
• looking from a distance and
• looking for information.
During the stage "looking from a distance" we consider what we are doing right now and whether it is a reasonable
activity. This is very useful in practical problem solving.
The following mind map gives an overview over the stages.
These stages are a useful guide through problem solving, but they are certainly not the best we can do. We now add
tools to each stage. These tools are not ingenious tricks - our focus is to find out what's reasonable and make sure it's
actually done.
At the beginning, we limit ourselves to a small number of tools.
So here is our first tool map. We will explain some of the tools in the next paragraph.

TOOLS EXPLAINED

Some of the tools are self-explaining. Here is information on the rest.

We go through the tool map clockwise, starting at 1 o'clock. This is a useful convention for writing and reading a
map.
Describe the problem
• Different perspectives:
Who are the stakeholders in the problem? What areas are affected by the problem? What happens if we radically
change our point of view? (This can be an altogether unfamiliar perspective - what does tooth brushing look like
from your gums point of view?)
• Diagrams
How can the problem be represented in a diagram? Diagrams may help to find gaps in understanding that
remain undetected in a verbal description. Moreover, a diagram may help to dissect a problem into smaller parts.
Analyzing causes
• W-questions
What? Why? How? Why? When? Who? etc.
• Why-why-technique
First ask for the causes of a problem - why does this happen? Then ask for the causes of causes. According to a
Japanese saying, you should ask "why" five times.
This technique helps in quality management to understand and to amend production failures.
Defining goals
• Describe desired results
Describe your goals in such a way that it's easy to decide whether a goal has been reached. It's useful to describe
a result and not a process.
• Highlighting goals
It's useful to highlight goals and subgoals in our problem map - by colours, by a symbol or with a little
checkbox. Later we can check wheter a goal has been reached - or examine why not.
Collecting ideas
• 1. Collect / 2. Choose
Separating these two activities is the central idea of brainstorming. During the collecting, criticism should be
strictly banned.
• Reversal technique
Instead of directly looking for a solution, an indirect approach is sometimes more fertile and often more fun:
a. How can the problem be aggravated?
b. How can we reverse methods from a. to improve the initial situation?
• Analogy technique
1. Take a sufficiently complex subject matter, e.g. "ship", "music", "bee keeping" etc. There's no need for an
apparent relation to the problem matter.
2. Note a number of central concepts from the subject matter - for ships take for example "sails", "Captain's
Dinner", "anchor"...
3. Try to transfer these concepts to your problem.
• Table of modifications
1. Make a list of properties and elements for things related to your problem. If we are dealing with a product,
such a list may comprise categories like size, weight, material, colour, price...
2. Make a list of words that describe modifications and change. Useful is the SCAMPER mnemonic:
S = substitute
C = combine
A = adapt
M = modify, maximize, minimize
P = put to other uses
E = eliminte
R = reverse, rearrange.
3. Apply these words to the list in 1. to form new ideas.
Making a plan and executing it
• Develop a step-by-step plan.
Creating distance
• A painter will from time to time step away from the canvas to see whether a detail fits into the entire work.
A similar process is useful in problem solving. Getting stuck, going round in circles - all this happens during
problem solving, and the stage "creating distance" can help to detect such dysfunctional behaviour. For this
reason, the stage is one of the most important.
• The stage "creating distance" should be applied to goals. This is easy if we have highlighted our goals as
mentined above.
What would X do?
• For X use a real or imaginary person who would deal competently with a situation: For example, what would
Sherlock Holmes do?
Looking for information
• Works of reference
• the internet, especially
• Newsgroups:
Google offers an easy access to newsgroups.
Further tools are described in Appendix B.

PROBLEM MAPS

How to examine the problem in the problem map? Here comes a possible approach.

Noting the topic

• According to classical mind map rules, we note the topic in the centre.
• We state our topic rather broad - if we describe it too narrow, it may fix our thinking prematurely on one strand
of thinking.
• Hint:
We can place the topic in the centre of the left margin: With this layout, our chains of branches can become
double as long without ingeniously bending the branches. This is an advantage if we want to examine a small
number of approaches in more detail.
Going through the stages of problem solving
• We can use abbreviations for the stages, for example
"dp" for describe problem,
"dg" for define goals etc.
The IDEAL acronym mentioned above is another veryy useful tool.
• We can deal with each stage in a main branch, as usually starting at 1 o'clock and proceeding clockwise.
Highlighting important points
• It's a good idea to highlight important and critical points by colours and symbols. That's especially true for goals
and subgoals.
Creating distance
• Creating distance is in many cases a good idea, especially in the following two situations:
1. We want to finish one stage and start the next.
2. We want to investigate our highlighted critical points.
Dealing with spontaneous ideas
• If a spontaneous idea occurs, we can note it at a separate branch marked "ideas" and follow it there or
investigate it later.
 ADAPTING TOOL MAPS

One of the basic ideas of solution mapping is to continually improve the tool maps. This has a double advantage:
• First: We keep the tool maps as a physical help sheet up to date.
• Second: We examine and improve our problem solving behaviour: Where are our shortcomings? What can we
improve?
To support this work on tool map, here comes a collection of meta-tools.

ADVANTAGES OF SOLUTION MAPPING

• Using the advantages of mind mapping

In solution mapping, we use all the advantages of mind mapping.
First: Using a map for problem solving is in itself a good idea.
Second: Tool maps are superior to ordinary lists: It's easier to add new tools and to find tools.
• Tool maps are very flexible
Tool maps can be easily adapted to
- different subject matters,
- different types of problems,
- changing interests, skills and knowledge of the user.
• Using knowledge instead of merely having knowledge
Tool maps work as cookbooks and reminders and help to actually use problem solving techniques instead of
just having heard of them.
• Transferring knowledge
Tool maps facilitate the transfer of problem solving techniques from one head to another:
- It's fairly easy to create a tool map from a book.
- Experts can distill parts of their knowledge into tool maps and make them available to novices.
- Groups can arrange common tool maps and provide group knowledge to the single members.
• Understanding personal problem solving behaviour
Solution mapping may prompt closer observation of our problem solving behaviour. Special meta tools may
help to find out shortcomings and to construct remedies.

SOME EXERCISES FOR SOLUTION MAPPING

Topics for problem solving

• What would you like to change about your job?
• How could you improve your job organisation?
• How could you improve your time management?
• What skills would you like to improve? How could you do that?

Problem solving behaviour

• What are your experiences with problem solving?
• Where were the obstacles? What are their causes?
• How could you deal with these difficulties?

Assembling tool maps

• Assemble tool maps for the following topics
- telephone calls
- e-mails
- meetings
- ...

Using tool maps

• How could you use tools maps?
Some ideas:
- create a folder of tool maps
- use mind mapping software
 M I N D M A P P I N G S O F T WA R E

This article has focused so far on paper-based mind mapping.

However, computer mind mapping is versatile and powerful. Depending on the specific software in use, it offers a
number of advantages:
• The computer does the map layout automatically. Limitations from sheet size etc. no longer matter.
• It's easy to move, copy and erase branches.
• It's possible to fold and unfold map branches, thereby hiding or showing the details in the subbranches.
• The mind maps can be exported into other file formats, e.g. graphics, text documents or html pages.
(This essay has been written completely as a mind map.)
• Computer mind maps can be reworked, copied and e- mailed.
• Computer mind maps are often more orderly and readable than paper mind maps.
• In most mind mapping programs, it's possible to attach text notes to branches. After clicking the branch, a text
window opens. This combines all the advantages of mind mapping (intuitive, overview, structure) and ordinary
text (understandable, exact, detailed).
• Computer mind maps are arguably more accepted than paper mind maps in many professsional communities.
Here are some remarks on a number of programs.

MIND MANAGER

This is one of the most widely used commercial mind mapping programs. The full version costs about 350 Euro, the
"Lite" version about 95 Euro.
More information:
http://www.mindjet.com

FREEMIND AND FREEPLANE

FreeMind and Freeplane are free and open source.

Download and further information:
http://freemind.sourgeforge.net
http://sourceforge.net/projects/freeplane/

Freeplane has branched off from the FreeMind project. Currently (April 2010) is seems to be the more active project
and is offering more features.

ONLINE MIND MAPPING

In 2007, a number of online mind mapping sites were created. They allow mind mapping directly in an internet
browser. All you need is a browser, possibly with a Flash Player installed.
Most of the sites require a free signup.

Here are some examples:

http://www.mindomo.com
http://www.mindmeister.com
http://www.bubbl.us
There is a growing number of mind map galleries, e.g.
http://www.freemindshare.com
http://www.mappio.com

FURTHER INFORMATION

Wikipedia has a survey of mind mapping software:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Mind_Mapping_software.
 S T E P S TO WA R D S C A P S : C O M P U T E R A I D E D P R O B L E M S O LV I N G

Given the towering importance of problem solving for our lives, it's rather odd how rarely computers are used to
directly support human thinking processes.
Solution mapping using computers and mind mapping software is a step in this direction. The use of tool maps
makes it much more flexible than most of the standard software packages that support only limited aspects of
human thinking (like creativity).

A NOVEL APPROACH TO PROBLEM SOLVING

With FreeMind or Freeplane software, you can do solution mapping in a very neat way: Just open the tool map and
the problem map in two different windows and arrange these windows one behind the other, so that you can easily
change between the two. Then,
• you can navigate even very large tool maps in search for inspiration and help,
• you can drag and drop elements from the tool map to the problem map, which is especially useful for more
complex tools (e.g. a branch containing subbranches for the SCAMPER creativity tool).
The central issue here is that the items are copied to the problem map without being removed from the tool
map - this works with FreeMind/Freeplane, but I haven't found a way to do it with MindManager or Mindomo.

PUBLIC TOOL MAPS

From a more general point of view, a public library of tool maps with well-documented tools may be of great value.
As a starting point, have a look at
http://mappio.com/mindmap/thomasteepe/tool-map-library
 LITERATURE AND LINKS

BOOKS

There is an extensive literature on problem solving techniques.

Here are a number of titles I found especially useful.

Buzan, Tony; Buzan, Barry (1999)

Das Mind-Map-Buch
4. Auflage, Mvg, Landsberg

Buzan, Tony (1999)

Business Mind Mapping
Ueberreuter, Frankfurt

De Bono, Edward (2002)

DeBonos neue Denkschule
Mvg, Landsberg
(De Bono describes a number of useful thinking tools. He describes the idea of using abbreviations for tools.)

Dietrich Dörner, author of the following books, is a German professor of theoretical psychology and has made many
important contributions to the psychology of problem solving. His ideas had a major impact on solution mapping.

Dörner, Dietrich (1987)

Problemlösen als Informationsverarbeitung
Kohlhammer, Stuttgart

Dörner, Dietrich (1989)

Die Logik des Misslingens
Rowohlt, Reinbek

Dörner, Dietrich (1998)

Bauplan für eine Seele
Rowohlt, Reinbek

Higgins, James M. (1994)

101 Creative Problem Solving Techniques
The New Management Publishing Company, Winter Park

Müller, Horst (2005)

Mind Mapping
Haufe, Planegg bei München

Nückles, Matthias; Gurlitt Johannes; Pabst, Tobias; Renkl, Alexander (2004)

Mind Maps & Concept Maps. Visualisieren - Organisieren - Kommunizieren
dtv, München
Perkins, David (2001)
Geistesblitze. Innovatives Denken lernen mit Archimedes, Einstein & Co.
Campus, Frankfurt

Perkins, David (1995)

Outsmarting IQ
Free Press, New York
(Perkins presents hasty, fuzzy, narrow and sprawling thinking as types of deficient thinking.)

Sell, Robert; Schimweg, Ralf (2002)

Probleme lösen
Springer, Berlin

LINKS

The internet provides a wealth of information on problem solving techniques.

Wikipedia has articles on a lot of problem solving techniques, in many cases this is a good starting point.
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_problem_solving
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind_mapping
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_solving
Further links:
• http://www.mycoted.com
A site about innovation and creativity. Many articles on problem solving tools.
• http://www.brainr.de/
A site for online brainstorming.
• http://www.4managers.de/themen/kreativitaetstechniken/
A short overview.
• http://beat.doebe.li/bibliothek/w00843.html
Conceptionally interesting site.
 A P P E N D I X A : S T R A T E G I E S F O R P RO B L E M S O LV I N G : A C R O N Y M S

STRATEGIES FOR PROBLEM SOLVING: ACRONYMS

Here are some acronyms that may help with problem solving.

IDEAL
stands for
I Identify problems and opportunities
D Define alternative goals
E Explore possible strategies
A Assess and act
L Look and learn
(Source: John D. Bransford, Barry S. Stein: The IDEAL Problem Solver. Freeman 1993)

ABCDE
stands for
A Assessment
B Brainstorming
C Consequences
D Do List
E Evaluation
(Source: Matthew McKay, Patrick Fanning: Successful Problem Solving)

These acronyms can be used to create simple yet effective problem map templates.
 APPENDIX B

FURTHER PROBLEM SOLVING TOOLS

Here are more tools. I put emphasis on tools that can be used in everyday problems.
• Devil's advocate
Actively look for the shortcomings of an idea, even if you are a supporter of the idea.
• Change working conditions
Here are some ideas: Change place, lighting, fresh air...
• Double question: How to solve the problem? How to create a situation where the problem doesn't
have to be solved?
• Cancelling options
This is a simple decision technique: Just strike out those alternatives that are clearly inferior to others. For the
remaining options, you can use additional decision tools.
• ETHOS:
The acronym ETHOS stands for
E Economic
T Technical
H Human
O Organizational
S Social
These five categories help you to get overview over all consequences of an action.
• Exclude common traits
If you are stuck after trying some approaches, look for common properties of these approaches, then look for
something different that does NOT share these properties.
• Looking for the core problem
This tool is similar to the why-why-technique. Here we ask "What is the core problem?" in a number of
iterations until we get to a deeper understanding of the problem.
• Copying solutions
Often a good starting point: Many problems have occurred in the past, and people have found solutions. Can
you use them?
• Making a pause, sleeping over it
• PMI:
PMI stands for Plus-Minus-Interesting. It's an easy way to structure our reaction to an idea.
• Write a report
If you are stuck, write a report about what you've tried so far. This helps to get distance and to see the gaps in
your reasoning.
• Backward search
If the desired result is fairly well known, it's often a good idea to start with this result and work backwards.
• 6-3-5 method
This is a creativity technique for a group of six persons. After formulating the problem, each of the six persons
writes three solution ideas on a piece of paper. After five minutes, each person hands their paper to their
neighbours. Each person is now inspired by their neighbour's ideas on the sheet and can add their own ideas.
The round iss finished if each of the six participants has worked on each of the six sheets of paper.
The number of six has worked well in practice, but may be changed.
• Using figures and diagrams
Figures and diagrams are very useful. They can show gaps in understanding that become not apparent in a
verbal description.
Depending on the topic, a number of diagram types can be useful:
Box diagrams: Describe the central element of your problem in a box, then start refining it by adding
 substructures.
Chain diagrams: If something changes over time, describe the successive states by boxes and link them by
arrows. What types of changes are described by the arrows? How do the boxes change?
• Weighed testing
To compare several options, we can proceed like this:
- Select a number of criteria to judge an option, like price, performance, appearance, security...
- Link a weight to each of the criteria, for example price 20%, performance 40%, security 30%, appearance 10%.
- Give marks for each option in each category, multiply it with the weight and add them up. This results in a
measure of quaality for each of the options.
Be careful - all this sounds wonderfully objective, but there are some difficulties: It's tricky to consider knockout
criteria, and the initial weighing (which is mostly based on intuition) has a masssive impact on the result.
• SWOT analysis
SWOT helps to assess goals or options. SWOT stands for
S Strengths
W Weaknesses
O Opportunities
T Threats
Now, strengths and opportunities on the one hand and weaknesses and threats on the other are somewhat
related. Here are two ways to differentiate:
1. S and W refer to internal factors, O and T to external factors,
2. S and W refer o the present, O and T to the future.
• W-questions:
What? Why? Who? When? How? These simple questions are among the most powerful problem solving tools.
• How-how technique
This is similar to the why-why technique mentioned earlier. We ask "how can this be done" repeatedly. This
helps us to get from a hazy idea to a detailed plan. It may show us the gaps in a seemingly promising approach.
• Dissecting a problem into parts