Chapter 1: Introduction to Physics Physical quantities QUANTITIES that are measurable Base quantities PHYSICAL QUANTITIES that cannot

be defined in terms of other physical quantities but has its own definition Derived quantities PHYSICAL QUANTITIES that are derived from base quantities by multiplication or d ivision or both Scientific notation/ standard form POWERS of the base number 10 to show a very large or small number Prefixes GROUP OF LETTERS placed at the beginning of a word to modify its meaning, which act as multipliers Scalar quantity QUANTITY which has only magnitude or size (time, temperature, mass, volume, dist ance, density, power) Vector quantity QUANTITY which has both magnitude or size and direction (force, velocity, displa cement, acceleration, momentum) Error DIFFERENCE between actual value of a quantity and the value obtained in measurem ent Systematic errors CUMULATIVE ERRORS that can be corrected, if the errors are known. (zero error, i ncorrect calibration of measuring instrument) Random errors ERRORS that arise from unknown and unpredictable variations in condition, and wi ll produce a different error every time. Random errors are caused by factors that are beyond the control of o bservers.(human limitations, lack of sensitivity, natural errors, wrong technique) Zero error ERROR that arises when the measuring instrument does not start from exactly zero

Parallax error ERROR in reading an instrument because the observer s eyes and the pointer are not in a line perpendicular to the plane of scale Measurement PROCESS of determining value of a quantity using a scientific instrument with a standard scale Consistency ABILITY to register the same reading when a measurement is repeated (improve minates parallax error, greater care, not detective instrument) Accuracy DEGREE to which a measurement represents the actual value (improve repeat readings, avoid parallax/zero error, high accuracy instrument) eli

Sensitivity ABILITY to detect quickly a small change in the value of a measurement (thermome ter thin wall bulb, narrow capillary) Inferences EARLY CONCLUSION that you draw from an observation or event using information th at you already have on it Hypothesis GENERAL STATEMENT that is assumed to be true regarding the relationship between the manipulated variable and responding variable

Chapter 2: Forces and Motion Distance how far a body travels during motion Displacement CHANGE IN POSITION of an object from its initial position in a specified directi on Speed RATE OF CHANGE of distance Velocity RATE OF CHANGE of displacement Mass MEASURE of an object s inertia AMOUNT of matter in the object Acceleration RATE OF CHANGE of velocity Inertia PROPERTY of matter that causes it to resist any change in its motion or state of rest Momentum PRODUCT of mass and velocity Force pulling or a pushing ACTION on an object Impulsive force LARGE FORCE which acts over a very short time interval RATE OF CHANGE in momentum Gravity FORCE originated from centre of the Earth that pulls all objects towards the gro und Free fall FALLING of an object without encountering any resistance from a height towards t he earth with an acceleration due to gravity

Forces in equilibrium An object is said to be in a state of equilibrium when forces act upon an object and it remains stationary or moves at a constant velocity Resultant force SINGLE FORCE which combines two or more forces which act on an object Work Work is done when a force causes an object to move in the direction of the force . Energy CAPACITY of a system to do work Gravitational PE ENERGY STORED in the object because of its height above the earth surface Elastic PE ENERGY STORED in the object as a result of stretching or compressing it Kinetic energy ENERGY possessed by a moving object Power RATE at which work is done or energy is changed and transferred Efficiency ABILITY of an electrical appliance to transform energy from one form to another without producing useless energy or wastage Elasticity PROPERTY of an object that enables it to return to its original shape and dimens ions after an applied force is removed Spring constant FORCE needed to extend a spring per unit length Elastic limit MAXIMUM STRETCHING FORCE which can be applied to an elastic material before it c eases to be elastic

PRINCIPLE Hooke s Law Hooke s law states that the force, F applied to a spring is directly proportional to the spring s extension or compression, x, provided the elastic limit is not exceeded.

Principle of conservation of energy Principle of conservation of energy states that total energy in an isolated syst em is neither increased nor decreased by any transformation. Energy cannot be created nor destroyed, but it can be tra nsformed from one kind to another, and the total amount stays the same.

Principle of conservation of momentum The principle of conservation of momentum states that, in any collision or inter action between two or more objects in an isolated system, the total momentum of the system will remain constant; th at is, the total initial momentum will equal the total final momentum.

Newton s first law of motion Newton s first law of motion states that a body will either remain at rest or cont inue with constant velocity unless it is acted on by an external unbalanced force.

Newton s second law of motion Newton s second law of motion states that the acceleration a body experiences is d irectly proportional to the net force acting on it, and inversely proportional to its mass. F =ma

Newton s third law of motion Newton s third law of motion states that to every action there is an equal but opp osite reaction.

Chapter 3: Forces and Pressure Pressure FORCE acting normally on a unit surface area Gas pressure FORCE per unit area exerted by the gas particles as they collide with the walls of their container (due to the rate of change of momentum) Buoyant force NET FORCE acting upwards due to the difference between the forces acting on the upper surface and the lower surface

PRINCIPLE Law of Flotation Law of floatation states that the weight of an object floating on the surface of a liquid is equal to the weight of water displaced by the object. (weight of object = weight of water displaced)

Pascal s Principle Pascal s principle states that a pressure applied to a confined fluid is transmitt ed uniformly in all directions throughout the fluid.

Archimedes

principle

Archimedes principle states that the buoyant force on a body immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by that object (buoyant force = weight of water displaced)

Bernoulli s principle Bernoulli s principle states that the pressure of a moving fluid decreases as the speed of the fluid increases, and the converse is also true.

Chapter 4: Heat Temperature DEGREE of hotness of an object Thermometric property PHYSICAL PROPERTY of a substance which is sensitive to and varies linearly with the temperature change Thermal equilibrium A STATE when heat transfer between the two objects are equal and the net rate of heat transfer between the two objects are zero Heat capacity HEAT ENERGY required to raise its temperature by 1C or 1 K Specific heat capacity HEAT ENERGY required to produce 1C or 1 K rise in temperature in a mass of 1 kg. Latent heat HEAT ABSORBED OR RELEASED when a substance changes its state without a change in temperature is called the latent heat of the substance Specific latent heat of fusion HEAT ENERGY required to change 1 kg of a substance from solid state to liquid st ate, without a change in temperature Specific latent heat of vapourisation HEAT ENERGY required to change 1 kg of a substance from liquid state to gaseous state, without a change in te

PRINCIPLE Boyle s Law Boyle s Law states that the pressure of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportio nal to its volume provided the temperature of the gas is kept constant (PV = k)

Pressure Law The pressure law states that the pressure of a fixed mass of gas is directly pro portional to its absolute temperature (in

Kelvin), provided the volume of the gas is kept constant (P/T = k)

Charles

Law

Charles law states that the volume of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportiona l to its absolute temperature (in Kelvin), provided the pressure of the gas is kept constant (V/T = k)

Chapter 5: Light Refraction PHENOMENON where the direction of light is changed when it crosses the boundary between two materials of different optical densities as a result of a change in the velocity of light. Apparent depth,d DISTANCE of the image from the surface of water (or the boundary between the two mediums involved) Real depth,D DISTANCE of the object from the surface of the water (or the boundary between th e two mediums involved) Total internal reflection TOTAL REFLECTION of a beam of light at the boundary of two mediums, when the ang le of incidence in the optically denser medium exceeds a specific critical angle Critical angle GREATEST ANGLE OF INCIDENCE in the optically denser medium for which the angle o f refraction, r = 90 Power of lens MEASURE OF ITS ABILITY to converge or diverge an incident beam of light

PRINCIPLE Laws of Reflection -the angle of incidence, i, is equal to the angle of reflection, r (i = r) -the incident ray, normal and reflected ray will all lie in the same plane

Law of Refraction -The incident ray and the refracted ray are on the opposite sides of the normal at the point of incidence, all three lie in the same plane -Obey snell s law

Snell s Law The value of sin i/sin r is a constant

IMAGE CHARACTERISTICS Virtual an image which cannot be projected (focused) onto a screen Real an image which can be projected (focused) onto a screen Laterally inverted an image which left and right are interchanged Upright an image which in vertical position Diminished image formed is smaller than the object Magnified image formed is larger than the object

Chapter 1 Waves

Waves

A TYPE OF DISTURBANCE produced by an oscillating or vibrating motion in which a point or body moves back and forth along a line about a fixed central point produces waves. Wavefront LINE OR PLANE on which the vibrations of every points are in phase and are at th e same distance from the source of the wave. In phase = same direction, same displacement Transverse Wave WAVE in which the vibration of particles in the medium is perpendicular to the d irection of propagation of the wave (water waves, light waves, electromagnetic waves) Longitudinal Wave WAVE in which the vibration of particles in the medium is parallel to the direct ion of propagation of the wave (sound waves, ultrasound) Amplitude MAXIMUM DISPLACEMENT form its equilibrium position MEASURE of height of the wave crest or depth of the wave trough. Period TIME TAKEN to complete an oscillation, from one extreme point to the other and b ack to the same position. Frequency NUMBER OF COMPLETE OSCILLATIONS made by a vibrating system in one second Wavelength, . DISTANCE between successive points of the same phase in a wave Damping DECREASE in the amplitude of an oscillating system is called damping (Internal damping: extension and compression of molecules External damping: frictional force/ air resistance) Resonance Resonance occurs when a system is made to oscillate at a frequency equivalent to its natural frequency by an external force. The resonating system oscillates at its maximum amplitude.

Natural frequency FUNDAMENTAL FREQUENCY of which an object vibrates. It is the frequency of a syst em which oscillates freely without external force Reflection of wave Reflection of wave occurs when a wave strike an obstacle direction . ; f = ; a = ; . = Refraction of wave Refraction of wave occurs when a wave travel from one medium to another f = ; v . ; . . ; direction . Diffraction of waves PHENOMENON in which waves spread out as they passed through an aperture or round a small circle f = ; . = ; speed = ; v . ; direction . Interference of waves SUPERPOSITION of two waves originating from two coherent sources coherent = same frequency, amplitude and in phase Constructive interference Constructive interference occurs when the both crests or both troughs of both wa ves coincide to produce a wave with crests and troughs of maximum amplitude Destructive interference Destructive interference occurs when the crest of one wave coincides with the tr ough of the other wave, thus cancelling each other with the result that the resultant amplitude is zero. Antinode POINT where constructive interference occurs. Node POINT where destructive interference occurs.

Electromagnetic waves PROPAGATING WAVES in space with electric and magnetic components. These componen ts oscillate at right angles to each other and to the direction of propagation of wave. Monochromatic light LIGHT with only one wavelength and colour

PRINCIPLE Principle of superposition Principle of superposition states that at any instant, the wave displacement of the combined motion of any number of interacting waves at a point is the sum of the displacements of all the componen ts waves at that point.

Chapter 2 Charge, Q

Electricity

WORK DONE to move a unit of voltage in a circuit Current, I RATE of flow of charge Potential difference, V WORK DONE in moving one coulomb of charge from one point to another in an electr ic field Electric field A FIELD in which electric charge experiences an electric force A FIELD in which electric force acts in a particle with electric charge Circuit CLOSED LOOP through which charge can continuously flow Resistance, R RATIO of the potential difference across the conductor to the current flowing th rough it MEASURE of the ability of the conductor to resist the flow of an electric curren t through it Superconductor CONDUCTOR in which its resistance will suddenly become zero when it is cooled be low a certain temperature called the critical temperature Electromotive force (e.m.f.) TOTAL ENERGY supplied by a cell to move a unit of electrical charge from one ter minal to the other through the cell and the external circuit Power rating RATE at which it consumes electrical energy.

PRINCIPLE Ohm s Law Ohm s law states that the electric current,I flowing through a conductor is direct ly proportional to the potential difference across the ends of conductor, if temperature and other physical condi

tions remain constant. That is, v is directly proportional to r

Chapter 3

Electromagnetism

Electromagnet DEVICE in which magnetism is produced by an electric current TEMPORARY MAGNET which acts as a magnet when the current is switched on and ceas es to be a magnet when the current is switched off Magnetic field REGION in which a magnetic material experiences a force as the result of a magne t or a current-carrying conductor Radial field MAGNETIC FIELD with the field lines pointing towards or away from the centre of a circle. Electromagnetic induction PRODUCTION of an electric current by a changing magnetic field (conductor cuts a cross a magnetic flux OR a change of magnetic flux linkage with a coil) Root mean square current/ voltage VALUE of a steady current/ voltage, which would produce the same heating effect in a given resistor. Transformer EQUIPMENT to raise or lower the potential difference of an alternating current s upply

PRINCIPLE Faraday s Law The magnitude of the induced electromotive force (e.m.f.) is directly proportion al to the rate of change of magnetic flux linkage with the solenoid or the rate at which a conductor cuts through the magnetic flux.

Lenz s Law Lenz s law states that an induced electric current always flows in such a directio n so as to oppose the change (or motion) producing it.

Chapter 4

Electronics

Thermoionic emission EMISSION of electrons from hot metal surface Work function MINIMUM ENERGY required to eject electrons from surface Cathode ray fast moving ELECTRONS travel in a straight line in vacuum Cathode ray oscilloscope measuring and testing INSTRUMENT used in study of electricity and electronics Conductor MATERIAL which allows current to flow through them Semiconductor MATERIAL whose resistance is between good conductor and insulator Insulator MATERIAL which does not conduct electric current Junction voltage POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE acting from n-type to p-type material of a diode across the depletion layer Rectification CONVERSION of a.c. to d.c. by diode Smoothing PROCESS where output is smoothed by connecting a capacitor across load that acts as a reservoir and maintains potential difference across load Logic gates ELECTRONIC SWITCHES with one or more inputs and one output.

Chapter 5 Atom

Radioactivity

An atom consists of a nucleus which is made up of protons and neutrons, with ele ctrons orbiting the nucleus. Nuclide TYPE of nucleus with particular proton number and nucleon number Proton number NUMBER of protons in the nucleus of an atom Nucleon number NUMBER of protons and neutrons in an atom Isotopes ATOMS of an element which have the same proton number but different nucleon numb er(similar chemical properties but differs in physical properties) Radioactivity SPONTANEOUS DISINTEGRATION of unstable nucleus into a more stable nucleus with t he emission of energetic particles or protons Radioactive decay PROCESS where an unstable nucleus becomes a more stable nucleus by emitting radi ations Radioisotope ISOTOPE that has unstable nucleus that tends to undergo radioactive decay Half life TIME TAKEN for the activity of atoms to fall to half its original value TIME TAKEN for half the atoms in a given sample to decay Nuclear fission PROCESS involving the splitting of a heavy nucleus into two nuclei of roughly eq ual mass and shooting out several neutrons at the same time. Nuclear fusion PROCESS involving the fusion of two or more small and light nuclei come together to form a heavier nucleus.

PRINCIPLE Einstein s Principle of Mass-Energy Conservation The change of energy is linked to the change of mass by the equation, E=mc2