CONTOUR

YAJJUVARAPU SATYANRAYANA LECTURER IN CIVIL ENGG.DEPT IIIT NUZVID

Contours
A contour is a line connecting points of equal elevations. Contours cannot be seen in nature. On maps, contours represent the planimetric locations of the traces of level surfaces for different elevations.

Contour Line : A line joining points of equal elevations is called a contour line. It facilitates depiction of the relief of terrain in a two dimensional plan or map. Contour Interval (CI) The difference in elevation between successive contour lines on a given map is fixed. This vertical distance between any two contour lines in a map is called the contour interval (C.I.) of the map The contour interval depends on a maps purpose and scale

The choice of suitable contour interval in a map depends upon four principal considerations. Nature of the Terrain Scale of the Map Accuracy Time of Cost Nature of the Terrain : The contour interval depends upon the nature of the terrain (Table 17.1). For flat ground, a small contour interval is chosen whereas for undulating and broken ground, greater contour interval is adopted

Table 17.1 Contour Interval ( CI) for different types of Survey

Sl. No

Purpose of survey

Scale

CI (m)

Building site

1/1000 or less

0 .2 to 0.5

Town planning, reservoir etc.

1/5,000 to 1/10,000

0.5 to 2

Location Survey, earthwork, etc.

1/10,000 to

1/20,000

1 to 3

Scale of the Map The contour interval normally varies inversely to the scale of the map i.e., if the scale of map is large, the contour interval is considered to be small and vice versa
SI.NO Map Scale Type of Terrain CI(m)

Flat Large 1 (1:1000 or less) Hilly Flat Intermediate 2 (1:1000 to 1: 10,000) Hilly Rolling Rolling

0.2 to 0.5 0.5 to 1 1 to 2 0.5 to 1.5 1.5 to 2 2 to 3

Flat Small 3 (1: 10,000 or more) Hilly Rolling

1 to 3 3 to 5 5 to 10

Accuracy Accuracy need of surveying work also decide the contour interval. Surveying for detailed design work or for earthwork calculations demands high accuracy and thus a small contour interval is used. But in case of location surveys where the desired accuracy is less, higher contour interval should be used. Time and cost If the contour interval is small, greater time and funds will be required in the field survey, in reduction and in plotting the map. If the time and funds available are limited, the contour interval may be kept large.

Horizontal Equivalent
The horizontal distance between two points on two consecutive contour lines for a given slope is known as horizontal equivalent. For example, inFigure 17.1 (b) having contour interval 10m, the horizontal equivalent in a slope of 1 in 5 would be 50 m. Thus, horizontal equivalent depends upon the slope of the ground and required grade for construction of a road, canal and contour interval.

Characteristics of Contours
Contour lines must close on themselves, either on or off a map. They cannot dead-end. Contours are perpendicular to the direction of maximum slope. The slope between adjacent contour lines is assumed to be uniform. The distance between contours indicates the steepness on a slope. Wide separation Gentle slopes Close spacing Steep slope Even and parallel spacing Uniform slope Irregular contours: -rough, rugged country Smooth lines:- more uniformly rolling terrain. Concentric closed contours that increase in elevation represent hills.

The variation of vertical distance between any two contour lines is assumed to be uniform. The horizontal distance between any two contour lines indicates the amount of slope and varies inversely on the amount of slope. The steepest slope of terrain at any point on a contour is represented along the normal of the contour at that point They are perpendicular to ridge and valley lines where they cross such lines. Contours do not pass through permanent structures such as buildings

Contours of different elevations cannot cross each other -----(caves and overhanging cliffs are the exceptions). Contours of different elevations cannot unite to form one contour -----(vertical cliff is an exception). Contour lines cannot begin or end on the plan.

A contour line must close itself but need not be necessarily within the limits of the map. A closed contour line on a map represents either depression or hill. A set of ring contours with higher values inside, depicts a hill whereas the lower value inside, depicts a depression (without an outlet.) Contours deflect uphill at valley lines and downhill at ridge lines. Contour lines in U-shape cross a ridge and in V-shape cross a valley at right angles. The concavity in contour lines is towards higher ground in the case of ridge and towards lower ground in the case of valley. Contours do not have sharp turnings.

Contours of different elevations never meet except on a vertical surface such as a wall, cliff, or natural bridge. A contour cannot branch into two contours of the same elevation. Contour lines crossing a stream point upstream and form Vs

Contouring
The method of establishing /plotting contours in a plan or map is known as contouring. It requires planimetric position of the points and drawing of contours from elevations of the plotted points. Contouring involves providing of vertical control for location of points on the contours and horizontal control for planimetric plotting of points. Thus, contouring depends upon the instruments used (to determine the horizontal as well as vertical position of points). In general, the field methods of contouring may be divided into two classes. Direct Method Indirect Method

Direct Method:
In this method, the contour lines are physically followed on the ground using a total station. After the instrument set up, the HI is established, and the telescope oriented horizontally. Then for the existing HI, the rod reading (FS) that must be subtracted to give a specific contour elevation is determined. The rod person selects trial points expected to give this minus sight, and is directed uphill or downhill by the instrument operator until the required reading is actually secured.

In the direct method, the contour to be plotted is actually traced on the ground. Points which happen to fall on a desired contour are only surveyed, plotted and finally joined to obtain the particular contour. This method is slow and tedious and thus used for large scale maps, small contour interval and at high degree of precision. Direct method of contouring can be employed using Level and Staff as follows:

For example: The instrument set up at point A, elevation 674.3 ft, hi 4.9 ft, and HI 679.2 ft. If the 5-ft contours are being located, a reading of 4.2 or 9.2 with the telescope level will place the rod on a contour point. The 9.2-ft rod reading means that point X lies on the 670-ft contour. After the point which gives the required rod reading has been located by trial, the horizontal position of the point is determined by measuring the horizontal distance and direction from the instrument. This method is not practical in rough terrain. Neither is it convenient for observing data to be used in computer-driven automated contouring systems.

Indirect Method:
No attempt is made to follow the contour lines. Instead a series of spot levels is taken at readily identifiable locations (controlling points) that are critical to the proper definition of the topography such as B, C, D, E, F, and G. Trees, manholes, and intersections of walls and fences are also included. Elevations are determined on these points using total station by employing trigonometric leveling.

Horizontal distance and azimuth are also measured to locate the points. The position of controlling points are then plotted, and contours interpolated between elevations of adjacent points.

Indirect Method:

Coordinate Squares or Grid Methods

The area to be surveyed is staked in squares 5, 10, 20, or 40 m (10, 20, 50, or 100 ft ) on a side. Elevations of the corners can be obtained by differential or trigonometric leveling . Contours are interpolated between the corner elevations by estimation or by calculated proportional distances. A drawback of the method is that no matter how dense the grid, critical points (high and low spots and slope changes) will not generally identify.

ContourGradient An imaginary line on the surface of the earth having a constant inclination with the horizontal (slope) is called contour gradient. The inclination of a contour gradient is generally given either as rising gradient or falling gradient, and is expressed as ratio of the vertical height to a specified horizontal distance. If the inclination of a contour gradient is 1 in 50, it means that for every 50 m horizontal distance, there is a rise (or fall) of 1 m. When the inclination of a contour gradient is given its direction from a point may be easily located either on the map or on the ground by the methods discussed below.

With the aid of contour plan it is easy to trace a contour gradient of desired inclination on a paper and even transfer it later on the ground. To locate a rising gradient of 1 in 100 from a point say p situated on 200m contour on the map having contour interval 5m at a scale of 1:5000 draw an arc of radius with radius at p the arc cuts the 205m contour at Q. Locate R and S on 210m and 215mcontours =

Type of maps planimetric; include natural and cultural features in the plan view only, and topographic; include planimetric features and show the configuration of the earths surface.