Catedra de Limba si Literatura engleza Methodology IIB, 2009

3. CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
Any average person in this country can tell you what teaching is about: a teacher speaking in front of a large number of pupils who sit in rows at their desks. The pupils listen or not. If the teacher knew how to make her pupils listen to her, education would be better. In reality, you know that what happens in the classroom is not so simple. You, the teacher, are trying to achieve several objectives at the same time. First of all, you need to provide a range of learning experiences to the pupils. Then, you need to cater for individual differences by organising activities that make use of various learning resources and different tasks. You need to provide opportunities for the pupils to take responsibility of their own learning, while you are still managing the classroom activities. In one word, you manage classroom learning. Classroom management emphasises the complexity of classroom life and focuses on the managerial skills that you need to have and on the systematic way in which you coordinate the classroom variety and complexity. You are the coordinator of a varied and complex environment; you set objectives, plan activities, attend to communication and motivation and evaluate performance. The aim of this unit is to help you improve your lesson management skills. After you have completed the study of this unit on classroom management, you should be able to: explain what makes a lesson effective classify patterns of interaction explain the advantages and disadvantages of various patterns of classroom interaction use various patterns of classroom interaction to involve all the pupils in your lessons

1 Management: Classroom Strategies and Tactics

What is it that makes a teacher successful and respected? Why do such a teachers pupils work with positive and constructive attitudes? Both teachers and pupils have their own characteristics and habits. These influence the effectiveness of the lesson. Like a taxi driver who knows every city street, you need to develop a good understanding of your pupils and of yourself. Your physical presence, the way you move, sit or stand, the way you are dressed, all have an effect on your pupils perception. To some extent, these may also affect the effectiveness of your lesson. You need to be aware of all these details, adapt your language and your voice, your gestures, your expressions, your mime, your movements, the frequency of eye contact with individual pupils, for all these carry a message for your pupils. Prepare your lessons thoroughly: materials, activities, and assessments. When the pupils feel that you are filling time, or when you have to change activities because you cannot find the materials, or if you are unprepared for the problems that may emerge, you may lose your pupils respect and confidence. Each lesson has to be carefully prepared, and a good idea is to prepare more than you need. It is always good to have a reserve activity ready in case of extra time. As you are planning a lesson, note in advance which component(s) of the lesson you will sacrifice if you find yourself with too little time for everything.
Anca Cehan 1

During the lesson, keep a watch or clock easily visible, and make sure you are aware throughout how time is going relative to your plan. It is difficult to judge intuitively how time is going when you are busy, and the smooth running of the lesson depends to some extent on proper timing. Try to create a serious impression of purpose by your contributions and by the demands made on your pupils. This means attention to detail, and an assumption that your pupils will take their work seriously and with a sense of responsibility. Long-term strategies can help you build up good standards of personal relationships that result in good classroom atmosphere. Nevertheless, pupils are not always capable of coping with all the stresses of their lives and they may react by laziness, insubordination, defiance, aggression, or destructiveness. Such pupil behaviour will undermine the building up of good classroom practice, and the effectiveness of your classes. What can you do? Unfortunately, advice about classroom tactics is less reliable than advice about general strategies. The complexity of classroom life is responsible for many difficult situations. Classroom life is multidimensional, with many different kinds of activities, many different objectives, and many people having different needs and different styles. At any one time you need to consider what to do next, thinking ahead of the development of the lesson, watching the pupils progress, looking out for what might disrupt the flow of the lesson. There may be numberless unpredictables, interruptions, unforeseen difficulties, or minor incidents. In such a context your action and reaction are driven by intuition more than by deliberate thinking about alternative courses of action. Moreover, advice from other teachers may not be reliable, as different teachers use different tactics with equal (in)success.

1.1 Getting Organised

You need to develop clear routines for monitoring and controlling, for regular organisational tasks such as taking the roll, distributing materials, clearing away at the end of the lesson, forming pairs and groups, using equipment. Adopt a supervisory role at regular intervals throughout the lesson. All gestures and signals can be effective: a finger to the lips, a hand signal to sit down, a finger to beckon, a nod to approve something to happen, a head shake to signal disapproval, etc. If it is really necessary to speak, approach the pupil and say it quietly, not to disturb the rest of the class. Anticipate discipline problems and act quickly and decisively. If you are uncertain of the cause of a disruption (which is very common), approach the disruptive pupil in a noncritical way, asking her/him to report what progress has been made or what problems have been encountered. Where the misbehaviour is overt, remove the pupil from any possible audience. Set the pupil to work in a different part of the room, making it clear that s/he may return when s/he has finished the task. This helps the pupil to accept the arrangement. Avoid confrontation, which is public and emotionally charged, and can result in conflict escalation.

1.2

Getting Started

A first impression is always important. Pupils tune in to the image which you present to them from the first appearance. Make sure you arrive in time and with everything you need for the class. Your leaving the classroom, or sending pupils to fetch forgotten items breaks the continuity and gives an opportunity for the pupils minds to wander. Glance around to make sure the classroom and resources are in a state of readiness, with windows open or shut (as they suit you and your pupils) and the board clean. If not, ask the pupils to help. Then look around to see where the pupils are sitting and if their seating arrangement suits you. You may also need to ask pupils to put away things from their desks.
Anca Cehan 2

Make sure you are ready before beginning the actual lesson. Arrange your books, papers, etc. so that you can pick them up easily as you need them. Keep calm and do not rush to start. The time you take to get organised may seem shorter to the pupils than you may think. Allow your pupils to continue to talk quietly, while remaining in their seats, until you announce that you are ready to begin the lesson. This prevents you from being under pressure and also makes it clear that when you require silence the lesson will begin. Make a clear and definite start. You can declare yourself ready by saying clearly and quite loudly Good morning / afternoon, everybody and waiting for silence before going on. Then, say briefly what the plan for the lesson is, so that your pupils can be aware of the way they are progressing through the work, e.g. Today were going to learn. Well be using Unit in our books. Ive brought for you to Well do some pair work, too But first of all, I want to ask you When your way of beginning will become familiar to your pupils, they may even get prepared for the lesson without you having to ask. The routine nature of this part of the lesson establishes a secure environment. It sets up an atmosphere that is friendly but purposeful and conducive to serious and organised work.

1.3

Moving From One Activity to Another

During a lesson, the class moves from one activity to another. You may also want to change the pattern of interaction from time to time, so that for some part of the lesson pupils are working with each other, in pairs or in groups. The activities you choose must suit the objectives you have for the lesson, and many of them will be based on material in the textbook. There is a wide range of activities which you can use: all pupils listening to recorded material pupils repeating individually or chorally individual pupils responding to you pupils reading silently (e.g. sections of the coursebook) pupils completing written exercises individually pupils working in pairs to complete written exercises pupils doing oral practice in pairs pupils solving problems in groups pupils preparing material (stories, questions, etc.) in groups group discussion of a topic pupils completing tests individually, etc.

For all pupils, but especially for the weaker ones, a change of activity is motivating as it gives a new chance to those who have not enjoyed or not done well in the last activity.

1.4

Transitions

It is a good idea to mark transition moments, using transition signals, e.g.: Right. Weve finished, so well leave our books for today and go on to I want you to listen to and decide There is little point in beginning a new activity while some pupils are still trying to work out what they must do. For this reason, it is well worth checking and confirming that everyone has understood. Always try to move from one part of the lesson to another without allowing a gap to occur. It is quite difficult to regain the attention of a class, particularly a large one. Sometimes you can prepare for the next activity while the pupils are busy finishing the previous one(e.g. you can write something on the board). It is important not to reveal all the idea for a lesson at the beginning of the period. For instance, if you intend to use a picture, do not put it on show from the beginning of the class: pin it up and cover it with a large sheet of paper that can be removed easily. When you show it to the class, the pupils
Anca Cehan 3

will have something fresh to focus on and their motivation will be helped. In the same way, if you are going to use handouts, keep them until the time they are to be used arrives. Overhead projectors are especially useful in this respect because you can prepare the material in advance and reveal it to the class bit by bit. Pictures and handouts should be made visible or available to all the pupils as quickly as possible. When you have handouts or other papers to distribute to a large class, do not try to give every paper yourself to each pupil. A number of handouts can be given to pupils at different points in the class, asking them to take one and pass the rest on. Then wait quietly for a few moments so that the pupils have time to look at what they have received. If you begin speaking at once, many pupils will simply not listen as they will be preoccupied with what they are looking at. Do not forget that for most people the eyes almost always take precedence over the ears.

1.5

Ending a Lesson

Keep an eye on the time so that you are not in the middle of an activity when the lesson should be ending. Give the homework towards the end but not in the last few seconds of the lesson. If homework is given too early, some pupils may try to do it during the lesson. If it is given too late, there may be no time to sort out any difficulties. It is often a good idea to tell the class what the homework is and then finish the lesson with an activity which helps with the tasks you have set. This gives an opportunity for any problems to be raised and helps to make the pupils feel confident that they will be able to do the homework. It is better to finish a little early rather than late, even if you have to say Well have to leave this exercise until another day. Its almost time for the end of the le sson. The pupils will appreciate your courtesy in finishing on time. Conclude the lesson, rather than just stop by saying something which indicates that you have finished. For instance, refer to what has been done and to what you plan to do next. When you are not in a hurry to your next lesson, take time gathering up your materials and books. Then, individual pupils have an opportunity to speak to you informally, and you may have time to say a few friendly words (in English) to some of the pupils. Of course, you must not delay pupils and make them late for their next lesson. Leave the classroom in good order as you would expect to find it. You can ask the pupils to help you. Even if it is normal in your school for a pupil to be asked to clean the board, you should ensure that it is clean before you leave the classroom and, if necessary, clean it yourself.

2 Patterns of Interaction
Classroom interaction is central to effective instruction. However, your pupils work better in some circumstances than in others: some pupils may prefer a collaborative and conversational style, with interruptions and more than one pupil talking at a time. Others tend to be less active and yet others more independent. The most common type of classroom interaction is that known as IRF: Initiation Response Feedback. The teacher initiates an exchange, usually in the form of a question, one of the pupils answers, the teacher gives feedback (in the form of assessment, correction, or comment), then initiates the next question, and so on. There are however, alternative patterns: the initiative does not always have to be in your hands. Interaction may be between pupils, or between a pupil and the material. Here are some interaction patterns ordered from most teacher-dominated to most pupil-active:
Anca Cehan

Teacher talk: the teacher is talking or reading aloud with all pupils listening. There may be some kind of silent pupil response, such as writing from
4

dictation or making notes in notebooks. There is no initiative on the part of the pupils. Choral response: the teacher gives a model which is repeated by all the class in chorus; or gives a cue which is responded to in chorus. Closed-ended teacher questioning: the teacher asks a question which can get only one right response. Open-ended teacher questioning: the teacher asks a question to which there are a number of possible right answers, so that more pupils answer each cue. Pupil initiates, teacher answers: the pupils think of questions and the teacher responds. Such an interaction pattern can be found in guessing games. The teacher decides who asks the question. Whole-class interaction: the pupils debate a topic or do a language task as a class. The teacher may intervene occasionally, to stimulate participation or to monitor. Individual work: the teacher gives a task or set of tasks, and the pupils work on them independently. The teacher walks around monitoring and assisting where necessary. Collaboration: the pupils do the same sort of tasks as in individual work, but work together, usually in pairs. The teacher may or may not intervene. This is different from group work where the task itself necessitates interaction. Group work: the pupils work in small groups on tasks that entail interaction, conveying information or making decisions. The teacher walks around listening and intervenes little if at all. Self-access: the pupils choose their own learning tasks, and work autonomously The range of activity patterns is infinite, but we can group them into two main categories: 1. whole class teacher-led activities 2. pupils independent activities whole class Teacher-led activities tutorial individual work briefing reviewing discussion library work course work project work homework private study discussions collaborative projects private reading use of audio/video/IT technology teacher presentation class dialogue pupil activities

Independent activities

pair work

small group work Fig. 2.1 The components of classroom management

(after Philip Watehouse, Classroom Management, Network Educational Press, Stafford, 1990, p.13) Anca Cehan 5

2.1 Whole Class Teacher-Led Activities

These are the best known of teaching arrangements, and they are often referred to as traditional teaching. Although traditional, if they are well done, whole class teacher-led activities (also called lockstep teaching) can be very powerful. These activities include: teacher presentation, class dialogue and student activities. What are, in your opinion, the advantages of whole class teacherled activities? Write your answer in the space provided below and compare it with that given at the end of the unit.

2.2 Pupils Independent Activities

Independent activities can be done individually, in pairs or in groups. Independent activities can range from pupils doing exercises on their own, to activities where pupils take charge of their own learning in self-access centres or out-ofclass activities. Such independent activities are a vital preparation for the development of the pupils learning autonomy. When you wish your pupils to work on their own in class, you can, for instance, ask them to read a text privately and then answer questions individually, or you can ask them to complete worksheets with different tasks or to write tasks by themselves. You can give them worksheets with several different tasks and allow them to choose which tasks to do. Or you can hand out different worksheets to different pupils depending on their skills, needs or tastes. You can allow your pupils to do some research on their own or choose what they want to read or listen to. Pupils enjoy to be given some degree of independence. While they need your guidance and help, they also need their own time and space, and some freedom in making decisions of their own. However, simply getting the pupils to work on their own is no guarantee of a high level of motivation. Individual work is a good opportunity for the pupils to work entirely alone. Such an opportunity should be given frequently to all pupils. Good prior instructions are essential, as is the need to give additional support if it is required. Paired work is very popular and usually the classroom seating decides the pairing. It is easy to use the pair as the normal unit for independent work and to break for individual work occasionally, or combine with other pairs for small group work. Small group work can be very productive, but it is not easy to manage. Many young pupils may run into difficulties when they are left on their own. Working well as a member of a small group is an advanced activity which even adults may find hard to handle. That is why you need to offer constant care and monitoring of the group progress.

3 Teacher-Led Activities 3.1 Whole Class Activities

Whole class activities play an important part in classroom management. They can be very attractive and powerful, and they can be an opportunity for you to show your charisma.

Anca Cehan

A teachers presentation can be very effective if it is done for short periods and with sparkle. The pupils can be inspired and stimulated by the charisma of a teacher with good presentation skills. Class dialogue (also known as the Socratic method) is a very useful method. By skilful questioning, you can lead the thinking of the class. Class dialogue is best when it is lively and motivating for the pupils. However, it needs firm and careful handling, as it can lose its vitality and become mechanical and repetitive. Pupil activities, that is giving the pupils something to do, help to bring variety into whole class teaching. The pupils may all repeat something in the chorus; or respond to a cue, they may take notes, or write after dictation. The teacher remains in control of what is happening, but the pupils are given opportunities to be active.

3.2 Tutorials
Not as common as whole class teaching, mostly used in private schools, tutorials (extra-class small group work) are also teacher led. Tutorials can make a real difference to the quality of the pupils learning. During tutorials, you can help the pupils to prepare for their next assignment, give them guidance, indicate resources, possible problems or standards. Reviews can also be organised during tutorials to look back at the work which has been completed, and to assess it. Tutorials can be organised to encourage the pupils to talk about their work, and to explore issues and ideas together, or to allow you to help them overcome their difficulties. Working in a small group, during tutorials it is easier to identify problems and to offer pupils more personal and individualised support.

3.3 Teacher Presentation

Whole class teaching is especially favoured when making a presentation meant to inform, to describe or to explain. Such a presentation should not resemble a higher education lecture. It should be informal and spontaneous, and as short as possible (no longer than 10 minutes with younger pupils). Such an exposition can be interrupted by other short activities, such as a dialogue or individual tasks. If you want the presentation to achieve its objectives, it needs to have a clear structure that the pupils can grasp. It is always helpful to present at the very beginning the structure of the exposition. Tell your pupils first what you are going to say, then say it, and then tell them what you have said! A way of involving the pupils is to ask them to take down notes. Alternatively, you can give them a handout with a gapped structure of your presentation, and ask them to complete it as you are presenting. A thorough, high quality presentation can motivate and inspire your pupils. However, during the presentation the pupils may want help, especially if a new topic is introduced . They need to have a vision of the new knowledge, to understand why it is important and relevant, how it fits in with their previous work and knowledge, how it will contribute to their mastery of English. A good presentation will stimulate your pupils intellectual curiosity; it may review, organise and consolidate their previous knowledge of the topic, or it can make the new learning more personal. Also, it can give guidance to the pupils about the styles and techniques to be used in doing work on the new topic. At personal level your pupils may need help in order to see how they may personally identify with the new topic, how they can build clear images of what the topic is about. They may feel the need to share the excitement of the discovery with their classmates. Whole class presentations are particularly valuable at the beginning, at the end and at critical points in the lesson, such as topic changes, or where the concepts that need to be taught are difficult. Also, after a period of time of independent activities (individual, in pairs or in small groups), your pupils will be prepared to work again together as a class for the
Anca Cehan 7

consolidation of their work. At this stage, you should encourage pupil contributions, as they can report back, discuss the issues raised during independent work, revise and consolidate, assess the quality of the work done and evaluate the topic. Teacher roles. During presentations, you are the focus of attention, playing a number of related roles: organiser, information source, or discussion leader. The pupils are relatively passive, listening, following instructions, responding to questions, and making contributions when you invite them to do so. Here are a few suggestions: Get the attention of your class before you start. Either insist on their paying attention to you or give them something to do (e.g. writing a title, an introductory example or statement). This will bring the class into the work frame of mind. Your first sentences must be attention holding. Appeal to their curiosity, surprise them, intrigue them or move them emotionally. Keep your voice level to the minimum necessary. A low voice creates a feeling of expectancy, gives a sense of importance to the occasion, and builds a sense of mutual confidence, a serious and trusting atmosphere. Vary the volume and pace to give variety. Occasionally, make appeal to feelings and use a more theatrical language. Temper your projections of personality with sensitivity. Do not forget that there is virtue in silence. A pregnant pause in a presentation can be effective. Offer silence to your pupils so that they can reflect and consider their responses. Build in pauses in which you invite the pupils to summarise what you have said so far. Be simple, be brief and be human. Start with plenty of examples and then gradually introduce new vocabulary or more complex statements. Remember that much communication is non-verbal; how you look, where and how you stand, how you move are all observed and registered by the pupils.

Remember that no matter how good your presentation is, you cannot use it for lengthy periods, as their span of attention is limited. It is better to introduce variety and more pupil participation. The most common way of doing this is by using class dialogue.

3.4 Class Dialogue

In class dialogue, you lead the thinking of the class by asking questions and building on the responses received from the pupils. Class dialogue should be carefully prepared. You might start with familiar examples, with the presentation of a stimulus (a picture, a drawing, a map, a piece of text, a recording, etc.) which has the aim of rousing the pupils curiosity. Then your questioning can help the pupils to build upon their existing knowledge and understanding. Gradually you help them to recognise general principles or rules and finally give them opportunities to demonstrate their understanding by applying it. Questioning is a universally used activation technique in teaching, mainly within the IRF pattern. A question is a teachers utterance which has the objective of eliciting an oral response from the pupils. However, teacher questions are not always realised by interrogatives, e.g. Well describe what is going on in this picture, Tell me what you can see in this picture, etc. It is often hard to prepare the exact wording of the questions in advance, as the questions need to be adapted to the responses which are received. Getting the best responses from the pupils calls for patience and skill. In the role of discussion leader you need to exercise a democratic, rather than an authoritarian style. Pupil contributions must be encouraged with reinforcement, prompting and occasional summaries as to where the discussion has reached.
Anca Cehan 8

Your motive in questioning is usually to get your pupils to engage with the language material actively through speech. But there are other various reasons why you might ask a question in the classroom: to provide a model for language or thinking to find out something from the pupils (facts, ideas, opinions) to check or test understanding, knowledge or skill to get the class to be active in their learning to direct attention to the topic being learned to inform the class via the answers of the stronger pupils rather than through your input to provide weaker pupils with an opportunity to participate to stimulate their thinking (logical, reflective or imaginative) and to make them probe more deeply into issues to get pupils to review and practise previously learnt material to encourage their self-expression to communicate to them that you are genuinely interested in what they think. Questions can be classified according to various criteria: the kind of thinking they try to elicit (plain recall, analysis, or evaluation) whether they are genuine or display questions (does the teacher really want to know the answer, or is she simply checking if the pupil does?) whether they are closed- or open-ended (do they have a single right answer or many?). Say to which of the category suggested above do the following questions belong? Some questions may belong to more than one category. 1. How do most people travel to work in your city or town? .. 2. Is there a subway in your country? .. 3. What is the number of Richards house on Linden Street? .. 4. What topics do you usually talk about with someone you meet for the first time? .. 5. Do you like staying in a hotel? ..
(questions from Howard Beckerman, Family Album, U.S.A, Editura Univers, 1993)

An effective questioning technique is one that elicits fairly prompt, motivated, relevant and full responses. If your questions result in long silences, are answered by only the strongest pupils, bore the class, or elicit only very brief or unsuccessful answers, then there is probably something wrong. Effective questioning should follow a few criteria: Clarity. The pupils should immediately grasp what the question means, and what kind of answer is required. The language must be simple, clear and unambiguous. Learning value. The questioning should start with an invitation to observe or identify. The question should stimulate thinking and responses that will contribute to further learning of the target material. It shouldnt be irrelevant, unhelpful or merely time-filling. The key word is What?
Anca Cehan 9

What are the people in the picture doing? What is the difference between these two animals? What surprised you in this anecdote? What is this? Interest. The pupils should find the question interesting, challenging, stimulating. Availability. Most of the pupils in the class should be able to answer the question. However, allowing a few seconds wait-time before accepting a response can make the question available to a larger number of pupils. Extension. The question should invite and encourage extended and/or varied answers. Try to eliminate questions which can be answered simply by Yes or No, or by any single word. Questions likely to get fuller answers often start with Why?, How?, What would happen if? Grading. The questions should build up to higher levels of thinking.

The way you respond to your pupils answers will affect the way they perform at the time but also the way they will perform in the future. You will need to respond to content not only to the language form. If there is no answer at all during questioning, if your pupils cannot think of what to say, prompt them forwards. This kind of help has to be offered gently, with tact and discretion. Here are a few suggestions for managing your pupils answers: Be prepared to wait for an answer. Refrain from filling the gap immediately if the question is met with initial silence. During the silence, use non-verbal communication, give encouraging nods or raise your eyebrows. You may also try a short prompt. Signal that you are actually enjoying the silence and are not in the least embarrassed or annoyed. Encourage pupil answers. Praise the good answers and preserve the selfesteem of those who give wrong answers. The pupils should be sure that their responses will be treated with respect, that they will not be put down or ridiculed if they say something inappropriate. Give help if you see it is needed during an answer. Try to get answers from as many pupils as possible. Responding only to the bright and eager tends to focus attention on them at the expense of the others. A reluctant pupil can be helped by being nominated to answer an easy question. Encourage answers which express the pupils personal thoughts or feelings, or which are bold and imaginative. Even if it is incorrect, such an answer deserves praise. Encourage respect for the contribution of others. Set a good example of respect, courtesy and constructiveness and then expect it of the pupils. Do not tolerate sarcasm, aggression, or destructive criticism.

3.5 Class Discussion

Effective questioning leads to class discussion. However, an average class may be too big to operate as a successful discussion group. That is why you have to be in firm control, and the rules for discussion should be clearly established. In the role of discussion leader you need to be neutral and to exercise a democratic style. A class discussion must be brought to a satisfactory close by summarising the main points made and the conclusions reached. Discussion techniques are particularly useful for topics involving personal attitudes and in problem solving.

Anca Cehan

10

Can you now list a few disadvantages of whole class teacherled teaching?

Whole class teaching is an important part of a teachers repertoire of methods, and has a lot of potential. It relies on teacher talk, which may be more or less inspiring and motivating. That is why, during class teaching the pupils may become passive as individual differences are ignored and their motivation may decrease. However, class teaching has its place in the repertoire of a teacher, provided it is not the only method in use!

4 Pupils Independent Activities

Before reading the next section, try to think of a few important advantages of pupils independent activities.

Independent learning is characterised by the pupils active and responsible participation in the lesson: the pupils show study skills (personal organisation and learning skills) they take active steps to prepare for work they show initiative in finding the resources they need for the work assigned they show initiative in getting help form their classmates before seeking help from the teacher they offer help to classmates they contribute to the task in a responsible way they are often organised in teams they often follow up classroom work with further investigation they are so involved or absorbed in their work that the teacher is able to step back.

Independent learning can take place in various groupings: individual, pair or team / small group. The pupils need to be thoroughly prepared and briefed for independent learning tasks and they should be constantly monitored and controlled. Two modes of independent learning can be distinguished a) supervised study (individual or paired work), and b) supported independent work (individual, paired or small group). Mode Supervised learning Supported independent work Pupil grouping individual or paired individual paired or small group Briefing for task whole class Teacher circulating group Monitoring and control Teacher circulating

Anca Cehan

Adapted after Waterhouse P., 1990, Classroom Management, Network Educational Press, Stafford, p. 56 11

4.1 Supervised Learning

In supervised learning, the teacher sets a task or a series of tasks to be done individually, or in pairs. After you give the explanation of what to do and how to do it to the class as a whole, the individual pupils or pairs then proceed with their tasks. Your role is to monitor to move around the class, checking that everyone is on task, helping with problems, making suggestions, giving advice, supervising work and behaviour. During such an activity, you can find opportunity to talk to individuals or small groups. This system helps the pupils to be more active and this can be an important move towards real pupil independence. However, when working individually, the pupils may feel deprived of the stimulus of working with other people, or they may find out that they are unable to make decisions and are still dependent on your directions. Here are a few suggestions for how you can reduce the pupils dependence on the teacher: brief thoroughly before the task allocate enough time for the task make sure the task is at the right level and the pupils can cope with it and the resources necessary for it encourage the pupils to seek help from each other spend time listening to individual pupils, encouraging them to expand on their difficulties and their problems refrain from answering a pupils question directly; try to get the same pupil to answer the question or get another pupil to join in intervene by asking questions of your own to find out how well they have understood the task do not revert to class teaching, although this may seem an economical way of solving problems keep a low profile, monitoring quietly and unobtrusively

4.2 Supported Independent Learning

The concept of supported independent learning or individualised learning is sometimes identified with the provision of a self-access centre, or a full self-access learning programme. These offer various kinds of materials, and the pupils may participate in the choice of materials, and then work on their own, in groups or in pairs. Individualised learning may have a more modest sense, too: the pupils are given a measure of freedom to choose how and what they learn at a particular time. This implies less direct teacher supervision and more learner autonomy and responsibility for learning. Tasks and materials are adapted or selected to suit the individual. Individualised learning is a serious attempt to provide for different learner needs and to place a higher responsibility for learning on the learners themselves. Individualised learning is the opposite of lockstep learning, where everyone in the class is expected to do the same thing, at the same time, in the same way. Procedures that allow for individual choice include: 1. Speed: how fast or slowly each individual may work (everyone being engaged in the same basic task) 2. Level: tasks may be presented in easier or more difficult versions, so that the pupil can choose the one that suits his/her level 3. Topic: the pupil will be able to select tasks that vary in the subject or topic, while all are based on the same language skill or teaching point
Anca Cehan 12

4. Language skill or teaching point: each pupil may choose to work on a different aspect of language (e.g. listening, grammar, reading, etc). Try to summarise the disadvantages of pupils individualised learning.

5 Pupil Groupings: Pair Work and Group Work

In pair and group work pupils perform a learning task through interaction. Both pair and group work are forms of learner activation that are of particular value in the practice of oral fluency. They have the added advantages of fostering learner responsibility and independence, of improving motivation and contributing to a feeling of cooperation and warmth in the class. Pair and group work can mark a transition from one stage of the lesson to the next.

5.1 Pair Work Organisation

The amount of practice each pupil gets is greatly increased by the use of pair work. The pupils can sit either facing each other for conversation or side by side when looking at the same book or paper. Pair work can be done simply by some pupils turning round or moving along a bit to sit with a partner. Young learners tend to prefer to make pairs with their special friends and this is often perfectly satisfactory. However, it is a good idea sometimes to vary who sits with whom. It is sensible to be more selective about pairing if you are planning an activity which is long, and perhaps difficult for some pupils. You may wish to try to pair a good pupil with a less able one, if this can be done without it being too obvious. For quick snippets of oral practice, use random pairing which occurs as a result of seating. This has the advantage of not interrupting the flow of the lesson too much. To organise pair work, you need to give a clear directive, e.g. We can do this as pair work. Will the front row please turn round and work with the people behind them. Pupils soon get used to the idea of pairing, and a simple Well do this in pairs prompts them to sort themselves out quite quickly and quietly.

5.2 Group Work Organisation

Group work tends to occur less frequently but pupils who have got used to pair work can easily be put into groups. One way is to organise them as if for pair work, and then say Were going to work in bigger groups, so you three pairs make Group 1, you three Group 2 , and so on. With a class which is used to group work you may say Were going to do the next activity in groups. So take your notebooks and pens and get into groups of six, please. A few moments of chaos may follow, but once group work has become a normal part of the class routine, it will not be much trouble. Before you fix the group size, say what resources (books, handouts, etc.) the pupils will need. Once the groups have been formed, give clear, precise instructions about what you want them to do. Also, give examples of what you expect and indicate how much time they will have to complete the task. The instructions given at the beginning are crucial: if the pupils do not understand exactly what they have to do there will be time-wasting, confusion, and lack of effective practice. A preliminary rehearsal or dry run of a sample of the activity with the full class can help to clarify things. A group of 4 8 pupils is large enough to produce a variety of opinions and responses, but small enough to give each pupil a sense of belonging. If each group consists of an even number of pupils, this allows you to set activities for pairs or for the
Anca Cehan 13

whole team. A common approach is to start an activity with paired work and to take the results of pair work to the whole group. Some teachers find that having group leaders (different ones on each occasion) and/or giving each group a name (Group A, Group B, etc. or the Wonder team, the Dream team, etc.) helps to make the session run smoothly. At first you will probably want to name the leaders, but in time each group can choose its own. Every group member should have a job and be answerable to the group. The jobs should be rotated frequently. Also, every member of the group should know that help for another member of the group is encouraged. Select tasks that are simple enough to describe easily. Sometimes it may be costeffective to explain some or all in Romanian. You should be able to foresee what language will be needed, and have a preliminary quick review of appropriate grammar or vocabulary. Also, before giving the sign to start, you should tell the class what the arrangements are for stopping: if there is a time limit, or a set signal for stopping. If the groups simply stop when they have finished, then you should tell them what they will have to do next. In the table below tick the advantages that characterise pair work, group work or both: pair group work work both
increases the amount of pupil speaking time allows pupils to work and interact independently promotes pupil independence allows the teacher time to work with one or two chosen pairs helps the classroom to become a more relaxed and more friendly place helps pupils to share responsibility can be easily organised personal relationships are less problematic more opinions and more contributions are made public encourages cooperation and negotiation skills more private than whole class work promotes learner autonomy pupils can choose their level of participation

5.3 Pair and Group Work in Progress

While the pupils are working in pairs or groups, you have two options: either to go from group to group, ask and contribute, or keep out of the way. You could stand at the front, at the back or anywhere else in the classroom, and monitor what is happening, or go round the class observing. You can be acting as monitor or as prompter, resource or tutor. What can be your contribution during pair and group work?

During pair and group work you have an opportunity to work with individual pupils whom you feel would benefit from your help. Do not spend too long with one pair or group as this sometimes leads to other pupils losing interest in the task as they feel you have lost
Anca Cehan 14

interest in them. Pair and group work which goes on for too long causes problems as the pupils get bored. If you have set a time limit, this will help you to draw the activity to a close at a certain point. In principle, you should try to finish the activity while the pupils are still enjoying it and interested, or only just beginning to flag. A frequent problem is that some pairs or groups will finish earlier than others, and will want or need to do something else. When they are tired, some will be happy to just wait for the others to finish. In other circumstances, you may ask them all to stop the activity after the first pairs or groups have finished. This solution removes the problem of boredom, but it may de-motivate those who have not yet finished. It is wise to have a reserve task planned to occupy the members of groups who finish earlier than expected.

5.4 Feedback to Pair and Group Work

When pairs and groups stop working together, a feedback session usually takes place. The pupils need to discuss what occurred during the activity, and you need to provide assessment and make corrections. Feedback on the task may take many forms: giving the right solution (if there is one) listening to and evaluating suggestions pooling ideas on the board displaying materials the groups have produced having a few pairs or groups to demonstrate the language they used, and so on.

Where the task had definite right or wrong answers, you need to ensure that it was completed successfully. By comparing solutions, ideas, and problems, the pupils can reach a better understanding of the task or topic. Your main objective is to express appreciation of the effort that has been invested and its results. Constructive feedback on pupils work will enhance their motivation. Feedback on language mistakes is only one part of the process. Feedback on language may be integrated into the discussion of the task, or provide the focus of a separate lesson later. The achievements of the group members could be publicised and recorded either individually, or as sum totals for the group. Rewards (and minor sanctions) should be given on a pair or group basis. Could you now summarise the disadvantages of group work?.

Some teachers may be hesitant about using pair work and group work with very large classes. They fear that they will have difficulty in controlling the pupils. There is no doubt that collaborative work can lead to a lot of noise if it is not controlled carefully. For this reason, you may find it useful to explain why you want to do pair work and group work and to impress upon the class the need to behave in a responsible way. On the first one or two occasions when you organise pair or group work, you should be especially firm in dealing with noisy or troublesome pupils. Some thinking needs to be given to the life-span of the group. While permanent groups may not be the best solution, constant changes are not advisable, either. A group should start with a clearly defined task to be done within a defined time. This helps the pupils build a sense of team identity but also removes the fear of being locked into a grouping which an individual may feel uncomfortable with. While the pupils are
Anca Cehan 15

working in pairs or groups, you need to observe how well they interact together. You will need to change the pairs ot groups in future if you notice that some pupils cannot concentrate on the task and talk about something else (usually in Romanian), that one pupil dominates the group, or that some weaker pupils are lost. The advantages of pair and group work soon become apparent. Questions directed at the pairs or at the teams can anticipate longer, more thoughtful answers, which are the result of group deliberation. This overcomes the main disadvantage of the class dialogue which can degenerate into a succession of short questions, with one-word answers supplied by the bright and eager, and the teacher jumping from one student to another in search of the right answer. In the collaborative work approach, different solutions can be explored, and pupils can learn to justify their arguments to their fellow group members.

Summary
Effective lesson management needs careful planning. The cornerstone of effective management is a clearly understood and consistently monitored set of rules and procedures that prevents management problems in all stages of the lesson. These take into account both the characteristics of the pupils and the physical environment of the classroom. Lesson rules and procedures are the steps for the routines the pupils follow in their learning activities. While in whole class teacher-led activities opportunities for pupil participation are limited, collaborative learning activities (pair work and group work) relie on interaction to promote cooperative knowledge construction, increased motivation and interest.

Key Concepts
lesson management patterns of interaction whole class teacher-led activities pupils independent activities class dialogue questioning teacher feedback supervised learning supported independent learning pair work group work

Further Reading
1. 2. 3. Harmer, Jeremy (2001) The Practice of English Language Teaching , Longman Underwood, Mary (1987) Effective Class management. A Practical Approach , Longman Ur, Penny (1996) A Course in Language Teaching. Practice and Theory , Cambridge University Press

Anca Cehan

16