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Published on 1 - January - 2006

Masterclass:Air Conditioning Fundamentals - Part 1

Mike Creamer of Business Edge revisits his Masterclass series of articles, updating and adding to the information which proved so useful to readers when the series was first published ten years ago. In this reincarnation, the series will cover both air conditioning and refrigeration and serve as an ongoing source of technical reference for experienced personnel as well as providing a solid educational grounding for newcomers to our industry.

What is air conditioning? Full air conditioning implies the control of temperature and humidity levels within a conditioned space. Control of pressure is occasionally required for special applications. Air conditioning will always include the ability to reduce the temperature and humidity level of the air being processed. Most equipment will offer the option of heating to raise air temperature and more specialised equipment has an optional humidification facility to raise air humidity levels. Air conditioning also includes the control of motion of the air and the regulation of purity levels. This can be summarised as follows:

Fig 2: The relationship between force, area and pressure

Temperature Air temperature is controlled by the removal (cooling) or addition (heating) of sensible heat energy. Humidity Air humidity level is determined by the moisture content and is controlled by the removal (dehumidification) or addition (humidification) of latent heat energy. Purity Air purity is a measure of cleanliness or air quality and is controlled by filtration and/or ventilation. Ventilation is the controlled introduction of outside (ambient) fresh air into the conditioned space to dilute the concentration of contaminants. Motion Motion or air movement covers the distribution and velocity of air introduced to the conditioned space. This is controlled by the air conditioning unit(s) or an air distribution system (ductwork and grilles). Sound Sound or noise control may be required to attenuate (reduce) the noise generated by the equipment and distribution system.

Air conditioning is normally applied to maintain the comfort and working efficiency of people or manufacturing, industrial and scientific processes. The combination of the above elements has generated the term HVAC but an air conditioning system need not include all these elements. For thousands of years mankind relied upon fires for heating and cool water for relief in high temperatures. The Romans conceived an effective form of radiant heating in certain buildings by circulating heated air through hollow walls and floors. In the warmer climates of the Middle and Far East, wet mats suspended in open doorways provided evaporative cooling. The incredible Leonardo da Vinci designed and built an enormous evaporative cooler in the 15th century. This machine consisted of a large drum rotated by water power (or by slaves when available) which drew in air and supplied this to the conditioned space after washing and cooling the air inside the drum. Only within the last hundred years has air conditioning become established and during this time the technology has developed to very advanced levels. Air conditioning is now a major industry throughout the world worth billions of pounds annually. Temperature The temperature reading for air given by a normal thermometer or digital thermometer is defined as dry bulb temperature (C). The higher the sensible heat energy content of the air, the higher the dry bulb temperature. Percentage saturation This is the ratio of the actual moisture content of the air in relation to the maximum moisture content the air could support at the same dry bulb temperature. (Please note that the term relative humidity should not be used in this context.) Human comfort The objective of all comfort air conditioning installations and systems is to ensure the comfort of individuals in the conditioned zone and this is achieved by control of temperature and percentage saturation levels within prescribed limits. Following studies by ANSI (the American

National Standards Institute) and ASHRAE (the American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers), which measured the effects of temperature, humidity (percentage saturation), air motion and clothing on human comfort, the ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55-1981 was developed. The results are very extensive but, for our general purposes, the ideal comfort envelope is as defined in Fig1. Basic definitions and principles This series of articles is based purely on SI units. Mass The mass of an object is the quantity of matter it contains. Unit of measure kg. Force Force is the push or pull exerted by one body on another. Unit of measure: N (Newton). Weight The weight of a body is equal to the force exerted upon it by the gravitational attraction of the Earth. At sea level, the Earth exerts a force of 9.81N on each kg of matter (N/kg). Force and weight are in fact different although the unit kg is used for both. Density and specific volume Density is the mass per unit volume of a substance and is expressed as kg/m3:

Specific volume defines the volume occupied per unit mass and is expressed as m3/kg:

Density and specific volume vary with temperature and pressure. Specific gravity

Specific gravity (sg) is defined as the ratio of the weight of a substance in relation to the weight of an equal volume of water. As this is a ratio there are no units of expression.

Specific gravity changes with temperature. For non-scientific calculations this can usually be ignored. The density of water is l000kg/m3 (at 4C). Pressure Pressure is given by unit force divided by area and is normally expressed as N/m2:

There are many units for the expression of pressure and these include kN/m2, Pa or kPa, mbar or bar and, of course, Ib/in2. Numerous factors exist for conversion from one unit to another. Example: Fig 2 shows a tank containing 1m3 of water weighing 1000kg. The downward force due to gravity is equal to 9.81N/kg. The total force exerted on the base of the tank is therefore 9810N.

Alternatively, this could be expressed as:

Atmospheric pressure Atmospheric pressure is created by the gravitational force exerted upon the atmosphere throughout the full height of approximately 80km (50 miles). This results in an atmospheric pressure at sea level of approximately 1.01325bar (14.7psi). Atmospheric pressure therefore decreases with increasing altitude due to the reduced weight of air above the measured point. Atmospheric pressure is directly related to the density of the air and since this varies with temperature, atmospheric pressure also varies. This is measured by a barometer to indicate imminent weather changes.

Fig 3: pressure-zero, absolute, guage and vacuum

Absolute gauge and vacuum pressure Absolute pressure (Pabs) is the pressure exerted by a gas or a liquid above zero pressure. Zero pressure exists when a space is fully evacuated of any gas or liquid. Gauge pressure is measured by instruments that indicate a difference between the pressure of the atmosphere and the pressure of the gas or liquid. It is therefore necessary to add atmospheric pressure to gauge readings to establish absolute pressure. Vacuum pressure is measured by instruments that indicate the difference between atmospheric pressure and zero pressure (see Fig 3). A conventional pressure gauge reads the positive pressure of a gas or liquid above atmospheric pressure. A compound gauge is able to indicate both positive pressure and the negative pressure created by vacuum pressure (see Fig 4).

Fig 4

Pressure of a column of liquid The pressure exerted by a column of liquid due to gravitational force is dependant upon the density of the liquid and the height of the column: (see Fig 5)

Measurement of atmospheric pressure Atmospheric pressure can be measured using a mercury barometer. The height (h) of the column of mercury (hg) supported by atmospheric pressure allows a direct pressure reading to be obtained and is normally indicated as inHg or mmHg (see Fig 6).

Fig 5: pressure exerted by a column of liquid

Work, power and energy Work is described as the product of a force exerted upon a body resulting in motion. This is expressed as:

Example: A water chiller weighing 1000kg is lifted from ground level to the roof of a building. The vertical distance is 15m. The force applied is exerted against gravity. Weight in kg must therefore be converted to Newtons:

Power defines the rate at which work is applied or absorbed. Power is determined by:

Using the previous example, if the chiller is lifted to the roof in 5min(300s) the power required will be:-

Energy is defined as the ability to perform work. A body possesses energy when it has the capacity to perform work. Energy is measured in Joules and takes a number of forms: Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by a body due to motion or velocity. Kinetic energy is given by:

Potential energy is the energy possessed by a body due to its position or configuration. The amount of work done by a body when moving from a given position or configuration to a reference position or condition is the measure of the body's potential energy and is given by:

Total external energy is the total of kinetic energy and potential energy possessed by a body.

Fig 6: Mercury barometer

Conversion of energy The First Law of Thermodynamics basically states that the amount of energy in a thermodynamic system is constant and that none can be gained or lost unless it is converted from one form to another. Energy takes many forms including mechanical energy, electrical energy, chemical energy and heat energy. Energy cannot therefore be destroyed and is simply transferred from one body to another or converted in form.

Published on 1 - March - 2006

Masterclass: Refrigeration Cycles - Part 3

THE PRIMARY refrigerant used in air conditioning for decades is R22 (HCFC22). Whilst its ozone depletion potential (0.05) is much less than other less friendly earlier refrigerants (ODP 1.0), it is still necessary to phase this refrigerant Accordingly, the majority of new air conditioning systems now useout. However, there are still many systems operating on R22 and this will beR410a. the case for some years to come. When we originally wrote this article, almost 10 years ago, R22 was a popular and widely used However, we considered revising the content of the article below,refrigerant. basing this on refrigerant R410A. However, in order to be accurate we would then need to consider the fact that this refrigerant has a glide characteristic due to its mixed composition. We have therefore decided to use R22 in our work below

since its single component and non-glide characteristics are more suited to the fundamentals that we are about to explain. The glide characteristics of refrigerant such as R407C, R410A and R404A will be covered in due course. Fig 1 provides a clear visual understanding of the behaviour of water at a pressure of 1.01325 bar when heat energy is added or removed. It is important to remember the key values for water shown in Fig 1 as these can be used in many calculations for air conditioning and refrigeration design and commissioning work.

Figure 1: Enthalpy (heat energy) values for water at 1.0325 bar

Steam tables Changes in pressure above any liquid or vapour affect the temperatures at which a change of state occurs and the amount of heat energy involved. Steam tables list these different values over a wide range of pressures. Table 1 (page 22) lists the values for water at a few selected pressures. Note the substantial changes that occur in a specific volume and the rate of change of pressure in relation to saturation temperature. Observe the substantial amount of latent heat energy transfer involved

in the change of state from Saturated Liquid to Saturated Vapour (or from Saturated Vapour to Saturated Liquid) and how this changes considerably with pressure. This is far greater than the small amount of sensible heat energy associated with a change in temperature alone. Clearly, a cooling system for air conditioning or refrigeration using a circulating fluid would be most effective if the latent heat energy transfer can be harnessed through a change of state. The Vapour Compression Cycle and Absorption Cycle use this characteristic very effectively. The Double Effect Absorption Cycle actually uses water as the refrigerant. The Single Effect Absorption Cycle uses ammonia as the refrigerant. A refrigerant can be defined as a circulating fluid transferring heat energy from one part of the system to another. The vapour compression cycle uses a wide range of refrigerants according to application requirements including operating temperatures, pressures, ambient temperatures and efficiency. Compare the characteristics of R22 (dichloroflouromethane in Table 2 with those of water in Table 1. Pressure-enthalpy diagram The figures in Table 2 have been taken from Tables of Refrigerant Properties which fully define all the thermodynamic characteristics of R22. These figures can also be obtained from software packages or from the pressure-enthalpy diagram shown in Fig 2. The detailed operating characteristics of a working vapour compression system can be plotted on this diagram. The vapour compression cycle The primary purpose of an air conditioning or refrigeration system is to remove heat energy at a low temperature from a conditioned space or body and transfer (reject) this heat energy into another medium at a higher temperature. Heat energy may be rejected into air, water or soil. This process is very often continuous since heat energy will always continue to flow from higher temperature surroundings into the conditioned space being maintained at lower temperature. Insulation plays a major part in minimising this heat energy flow in low temperature applications. Air conditioning and refrigeration heat load Heat energy flows from higher temperature surroundings through the fabric of the conditioned

space are termed Transmission or Conducted gains. There are many other sources of heat gain to the conditioned space and these include heat energy from: Solar radiation energy striking the surfaces of the building or cold store (sensible) Warm, moist air entering the conditioned space through infiltration or ventilation (sensible and latent) Products or processes (sensible and latent) Lighting, motors, machinery and computers (sensible) Occupants (sensible and latent) These are carefully calculated and the total is popularly known as the Heat Load or Cooling Load. The heat load normally comprises Sensible Heat and Latent Heat and the air conditioning or refrigeration system must be capable of removing these continuously. The sum of sensible and latent heat energy is know as Total Heat or Total Enthalpy. Air conditioning and refrigeration loads will be discussed later in the series.

Figure 2: Pressure-enthalpy diagram containing all thermodynamic properties of R22

The evaporator Since the capacity of a refrigerant to absorb heat energy is greatest when changing state from liquid to vapour, the heater exchanger (Evaporator) within the conditioned space is continuously supplied with liquid refrigerant which vapourises in order to absorb heat energy from the conditioned space. Air is used to transport sensible and latent heat energy from products, lights, machinery and occupants to the evaporator. In order for this to be effective and efficient, an evaporator fan is used to pass return air over the evaporator coil and to distribute conditioned air throughout the space. If liquid refrigerant R22 is allowed to vapourise at a pressure of 1.01325 bar, the Saturation Temperature (or Evaporating Temperature) will be -48C. As the refrigerant vaporises, heat energy is absorbed and is termed Latent Heat of Vaporisation. The latent heat of vaporisation (approx 140kj/kg) required to vapourise the liquid is taken from the conditioned space thus providing cooling. The heat energy from the space is transferred to the vapour. However, in order to maintain the conditioned space at a suitable temperature for comfort air conditioning (22C), it is not necessary for the refrigerant to change state at such a low temperature (evaporating temperature). The design of the evaporator and the amount of airflow will determine what evaporating temperature is required for a given leaving air temperature from the evaporator coil. If an evaporating temperature of 5C were required, it would be necessary to raise the evaporating pressure to 5bar.

Figure 3

Superheat Note that some of the heat energy from the room is also raising the temperature of the refrigerant above the saturation temperature within the evaporator. This superheating of the refrigerant is essential to protect the compressor from taking in liquid refrigerant which would otherwise result in mechanical damage and failure. However, as superheating the vapour does not absorb much heat energy from the conditioned space and also makes poor use of the evaporator, it should be maintained at a minimum level of 5-7K. The process taking place is shown on the pressure/enthalpy diagram in Fig 3. The amount of energy absorbed by the refrigerant during vaporisation is 167kJ/kg (latent heat of vaporisation) and a further 3kJ/kg has been absorbed during superheating of the vapour. The total of these (170k)/kg is equal to the amount of cooling performed in the evaporator (and the space) and is termed the Net Refrigerating Effect.

Figure 4

The compressor The superheated refrigerant vapour leaving the evaporator must be recycled and returned to liquid form for use at the evaporator. In order for the refrigerant to be returned to a liquid state, it is necessary to remove heat energy by bringing the refrigerant into contact with a medium (sink) at a lower temperature. If the system is to reject this

heat energy to outdoor air during peak summer conditions where the air temperature may be as high as 30C, the saturation temperature of the refrigerant must be raised from 5C to a higher temperature than 30C, say 40C. This is achieved by raising the pressure of the saturated vapour leaving the evaporator by passing the vapour through a compressor. This higher saturation temperature is known as the Condensing Temperature. The process taking place within the compressor is shown on the pressure/enthalpy diagram in Fig 4. Note that the compression process follows the lines of Constant Entropy. The refrigerant has taken up 23kJ/kg of energy during this process and this is termed the Heat of Compression. The resulting leaving temperature is now much higher than the entering temperature (70C) and the condensing pressure has been raised to 15bar.

The condenser The condenser must remove heat energy from the refrigerant and reject this to a lower temperature medium (sink), usually outdoor (Ambient) air. Assuming an ambient temperature of 30C and a condensing temperature of 40C, a temperature difference of 10K exists. This is often known as the Approach Temperature.

Figure 5

Total heat of rejection

The energy that must be rejected by the condenser comprises the heat energy removed by each kg of refrigerant passing through the evaporator (170kJ/kg) and the heat energy added to each kg of refrigerant passing through the compressor (23kJ/kg). The total heat that must be rejected therefore equals 193kJ/kg and is termed the Total Heat of Rejection (THR). The Condenser Coil is therefore normally larger than the evaporator coil. The gas leaving the compressor and entering the condenser is considerably superheated. The condenser must therefore Desuperheat the refrigerant first by 30K until the saturation temperature of 40C is reached (70-40=30K). When the refrigerant has reached the saturation temperature, the condenser will then remove substantial latent heat energy as the refrigerant changes state from saturated vapour to saturated liquid. This energy is known as the Latent Heat of Condensation (417250=167kJ/kg). The condenser normally holds a small amount of liquid refrigerant at the base of the coil. If the system is fitted with a Liquid Receiver, the condenser coil holds very little liquid refrigerant as this is stored in the liquid receiver. This liquid, at a starting temperature of 40C, loses further heat energy to the air passing over the coil at 30C (and whilst residing in a liquid receiver). This causes the refrigerant to be Subcooled to a temperature below the saturation temperature. Fig 5 shows a loss of 10kJ/kg due to sub-cooling in the condenser coil and the liquid receiver (250 minus 240kJ/kg). The process through the condenser and liquid receiver on the pressure/enthalpy diagram is illustrated in Fig 5. ===========================================
Published on 1 - April - 2006

Masterclass: Refrigeration Cycles - Part 4

In the last article we looked at the vapour compression cycle and the behaviour of the recirculating refrigerant (R22) as it passes through the evaporator, compressor and condenser. In this month s article we continue with the expansion device and move on to describe the absorption refrigeration cycle. The expansion device The refrigerant is now available as a high pressure, sub-cooled liquid for return to the evaporator coil via the expansion device. This is normally a regulating valve (TEV thermostatic expansion valve) with a sensor attached to the external surface of the refrigerant pipe leaving the evaporator coil. The TEV regulates the flow of liquid

refrigerant into the evaporator coil by maintaining a pre-set superheat value at the evaporator coil outlet. This ensures that the evaporator is adequately supplied with liquid refrigerant to meet the instantaneous cooling load and that the superheat is correctly maintained at a level which ensures the best utilisation of evaporator capacity, whilst ensuring liquid refrigerant does not return to the compressor. The TEV will be studied in greater detail later in the series. Liquid refrigerant enters the TEV at 15bar, a saturation temperature of 40C and at a temperature of 32.5C. As the liquid refrigerant passes through the valve from the high pressure region to the low pressure region, the pressure drops top 5bar causing the saturation temperature to fall immediately to 5C at 5bar.

Figure 1

Flash gas The drop in pressure forces the refrigerant to immediately drop in temperature from 32.5C to 5C and a portion of the refrigerant is vaporised (flash gas) as the remainder rejects heat energy. This is effectively a loss of refrigeration capacity since less liquid refrigerant is now available for subsequent cooling within the evaporator. The balance of liquid refrigerant remaining vaporises within the evaporator and is superheated by approximately 5-7K. The cooling effect resulting

from this process is known as the net refrigerating effect. The flash gas process does not result in any change of energy since the remaining liquid has lost an equal amount of energy to that gained by the vapour produced. The absorption refrigeration cycle The absorption refrigeration cycle was conceived by Carl Munters, a Swedish chemist. He was also responsible for the development of the lithium chloride desiccant dehumidifier, a remarkable product with which the writer was extensively involved whist working at Rotaire Driers Ltd (now Munters Ltd) over several years. This technology will be described later in the series. The absorption refrigeration cycle is mainly directed at air conditioning applications. There are two basic variants: single-effect and doubleeffect. The cycle utilises two fluids, one termed the refrigerant, the other being referred to as the absorbent. These fluids are: Refrigerant / Absorbent Single-effect absorption machine: ammonia / water Double-effect absorption machine: water / lithium bromide The presence of either ammonia or lithium bromide within a confined space occupied by people cannot be allowed from a safety viewpoint and the cooling equipment must therefore be sited outside the building to be conditioned. As it is not possible to pipe ammonia into the building, the DX split system approach cannot be employed and all absorption cycle equipment is therefore designed to chill water (water chiller) which is then piped to the conditioned space(s). The chilled water is supplied to fan coil units sited in each of the conditioned spaces. The application of this technology is therefore well suited to multiple room systems or large spaces requiring air conditioning. Absorption chillers are a well-established technology that can offer considerable advantages over conventional, mechanically driven, vapour compression chillers. Rather than using a mechanically driven, electrically powered compressor and conventional refrigerants, the absorption cycle uses the fluid pair described above and a heat source. The refrigerant has a high affinity for the absorbent, which essentially means that the absorbent attracts the refrigerant vapour and absorbs the refrigerant.

This creates an attraction, which can be likened to the suction action of a mechanical compressor in a vapour compression cycle. The cooling cycle is driven by the heat source, which is typically a gas burner, steam or hot water. The heat source is used to boil and drive the refrigerant out of the refrigerant/absorbent mixture. This mixture is normally termed solution. The refrigerant is then passed through a condenser to remove the latent heat of condensation, thus returning the refrigerant to liquid form. It is then passed to the evaporator where evaporation draws heat from the recirculating chilled water. The resulting vapour from the evaporator is attracted to and absorbed by the absorbent solution to complete the cycle. In effect, the mechanical compressor of a conventional vapour compression cycle has been substituted with a chemical pump driven by heat.

Figure 2: Single effect absorption cooling cycle

The generator Referring to Fig 2, the refrigerant/absorbent solution in the single effect cycle is heated directly by a gas burner or by hot water or steam from a combined heat and power (CHP) system or boiler. The boiling

point (saturation temperature) of the refrigerant is lower than that of the absorbent and the solution therefore separates as the refrigerant evaporates and passes to the condenser. The pure concentrated absorbent passes to the absorber vessel. The heat applied to the generator also generates the high side pressure of the system. The condenser The air-cooled condenser rejects heat from the refrigerant to atmosphere, causing the refrigerant to desuperheat and condense to liquid form. The liquid refrigerant then passes through an orifice having the same action as an expansion device in the vapour compression cycle, which results in a reduction in pressure and saturation temperature. The refrigerant then passes to the evaporator. The evaporator Water returning from all fan coil units contains heat energy from the conditioned spaces and is passed through the evaporator where the heat energy is absorbed by the refrigerant vaporising at low pressure and saturation temperature. The low-pressure refrigerant vapour is drawn to the absorber by the absorbent. The chilled water returns to the building to perform further cooling.

Figure 3: Double effect absorption cooling cycle

The absorber The concentrated absorbent is cooled and mixed with the low-pressure refrigerant resulting in a weak solution. This weak solution is pumped back to the generator to complete the cycle. The pump The pump is the only moving part in the absorption cycle and is usually a diaphragm pump running on a single-phase power supply drawing very low current. Double-effect absorption cycle

This is a variation on the single-effect cycle and has two generator stages. Heat energy is recovered from the first stage and is utilised in the second stage. Consequently, these units are more efficient than single effect units. The double-effect absorption cycle normally employs water as the refrigerant and lithium bromide as the absorbent as stated above. This cycle operates at very low pressures within the evaporator in order to produce a low saturation temperature for water. Construction As ammonia reacts adversely with copper and brass, the entire refrigeration circuit is constructed from steel. Capacity range Absorption chillers are available in the following capacity ranges: Direct-fired absorption cycle chillers: 10 kW to 5MW Indirect-fired absorption cycle chillers: 20 kW to 5MW Most direct fired units are able to offer an optional gas-fired heating capability. Energy efficiency The performance efficiency of all heating and cooling equipment can be defined by the coefficient of performance (COP). Chilling output is divided by energy input to arrive at COP. Single effect absorption chillers have a COP of approximately 0.6 and double effect units can boost this to 0.95. The COP of vapour compression chillers is often quoted between 2.5 and 3.0. However, the generation of electricity results in losses that do not occur with the burning of gas. If the generation efficiency of electricity at the power station were assumed to be 33%, the true overall COP of vapour compression chillers would fall between 0.83 and 1.0. TEWI The total equivalent warming impact (TEWI) is a measure developed by the air conditioning and refrigeration industry to assess the total contribution to global warming emissions for a specific item of air conditioning or refrigeration equipment. These emissions include the energy consumption of the equipment throughout its working life and the energy efficiency of the equipment plays a major part in determining the TEWI rating for a particular item of equipment. It

must be remembered that each model in every manufacturers range of electrically driven and absorption cycle products will have different efficiency levels and TEWI ratings. Other systems exist that will transfer heat energy from one part of the building to another thus attaining incredibly high COPs and very low TEWI ratings. ==========================================
Published on 1 - May - 2006

Masterclass: Compressors - Part 5

In the last article we looked at refrigeration cycles. We shall now move on to the key components of the vapour compression cycle starting with the heart of the system the compressor. Refrigerant vapour compressors fall into five principal types: 1. Reciprocating 2. Scroll 3. Screw 4. Rotary vane 5. Centrifugal Reciprocating piston compressors The reciprocating piston compressor is still by far the most widely used being employed in all fields of commercial refrigeration, process cooling, industrial refrigeration, close control and comfort air conditioning. Early models of refrigeration compressors were of the so-called opendrive type, with the pistons and cylinders sealed within a crankcase, the crankshaft extending through the body for connection to an external power source. Open compressors are widely used for many applications. Open-drive compressors can be connected to a motor in direct-drive arrangement using a flexible coupling or side-by-side for belt-drive configuration. The semi-hermetic compressor was pioneered by Copeland to overcome various difficulties including shaft alignment, seal failures, the short life of belts and direct drive components. The semi-hermetic compressor is driven by an electric motor mounted directly on the

compressor crankshaft, with both the motor and the compressor working parts hermetically sealed within a common enclosure. The shaft seal is thereby eliminated and the motors can be specifically sized for the load to be handled. The resulting design is compact, economical, efficient and basically maintenance free. Removable heads, stator covers, bottom plates and housing covers allow easy access for field repairs. A small penalty in energy consumption will occur as the gas absorbing motor heat energy is expanded and the mass flow rate through the compressor is therefore reduced. Waste motor heat energy must also be rejected at the condenser and this component must be increased in size and capacity to allow for this.

Figure 1: Open drive compressor cutaway

Figure 2: Open drive compressor

Figure 3: Semi hermetic compressor cutaway

The welded hermetic compressor represents a further decrease in size and cost, and is widely used in small horsepower unitary equipment. Again the motor is mounted on the compressor crankshaft, but the body is formed from a metal shell hermetically sealed by welding. No field repairs can be performed on this type of compressor. The compression process Before attempting to analyse the performance of compressors it is necessary to become familiar with the series of processes, which make up the compression cycle of a reciprocating piston compressor. A compressor, with the piston shown as four points in its travel in the cylinder is illustrated in Fig 4. As the piston moves downward on the suction stroke, low-pressure vapour from the suction line is drawn into the cylinder through the suction valves. On the upstroke of the piston, the low-pressure vapour is first compressed and then discharged as a high-pressure vapour through the discharge valves into the head of the compressor.

Figure 4: The compression cycle

To prevent the piston from striking the valve plate, all reciprocating compressors are designed with a small amount of clearance between the top of the piston and the valve plate when the piston is at the top of its stroke. The volume of this clearance space is called the clearance volume and is the volume of the cylinder when the piston is at top dead centre. This means that not all the high-pressure vapour will pass out through the discharge valves at the end of the compression stroke. A certain amount will remain in the cylinder in the clearance volume region. Reference to Fig 4, 5 and 6 will help to clarify the operation of the compressor. Fig 5 is a time-pressure diagram in which cylinder pressure is plotted against crank position and Fig 6 is a pressurevolume diagram.

Figure 5: Time pressure diagram plotting cylinder pressure against crank position

Figure 6: Pressure volume diagram

At point A, the piston is at the top of its stroke, which is known as top dead centre. When the piston is at this position, both the suction and discharge valves are closed. The high pressure of the vapour trapped in the clearance space acts upward on the suction valves and holds them closed against the pressure of the suction vapour in the suction line. Because the pressure of the vapour in the head of the compressor is

approximately the same as that of the vapour in the clearance volume, the discharge valves are held closed either by their own weight or by light spring loading. As the piston moves downward on the suction stroke, the highpressure vapour trapped in the clearance space is allowed to expand. The expansion takes place along line A-B so that the pressure in the cylinder decreases as the volume of the clearance vapour increases. When the piston reaches point B, the pressure of the re-expanded clearance vapour in the cylinder becomes slightly less than the pressure of the vapour in the suction line; whereupon the suction valves are forced open by the higher pressure in the suction line and vapour from the suction line flows into the cylinder. The flow of suction vapour into the cylinder begins when the suction valves open at point B and continues until the piston reaches the bottom of its stroke at point C. During the time that the piston is moving from B to C, the cylinder is filled with suction vapour and the pressure in the cylinder remains constant at the suction pressure. At point C, the suction valves close, usually by spring action, and the compression stroke begins. The pressure of the vapour in the cylinder increases along line C-D as the piston moves upward on the compression stroke. By the time the piston reaches point D the pressure of the vapour in the cylinder has been increased until it is higher than the pressure of the vapour in the head of the compressor and the discharge valves are forced open; whereupon the high-pressure vapour passes from the cylinder into the hot gas line through the discharge valves. The flow of the vapour through the discharge valves continues as the piston moves from D to A while the pressure in the cylinder remains constant at the discharge pressure. When the piston returns to point A, the compression cycle is completed and the crankshaft of the compressor has rotated one complete revolution. Efficiency parameters There are two basic efficiency parameters used to quantify the performance of reciprocating and the other positive displacement types. These are volumetric efficiency and isentropic efficiency. It is convenient to plot these values in the way shown in Fig 7 and 8 because they are primarily dependent on pressure ratio. Volumetric efficiency is the ratio of volume of gas actually pumped to

the theoretical swept volume of the compressor. This will be bore area x stroke x speed for a piston compressor. The effect of the clearance volume means that the volumetric efficiency is always less than 100% and decreases in a linear manner with pressure ratio. This is primarily due to the effect of the clearance volume. As will be described later, scroll and screw compressors can have higher volumetric efficiencies because these types have no clearance volume. Isentropic efficiency is the measure of energy efficiency. It is the ratio of ideal gas compression power to actual absorbed power. The major energy losses arising in compressors consist of friction losses, flow losses, heat losses and electrical motor losses. These will vary to some extent from one compressor type to another and so the isentropic efficiency may typically be in the range 60%-80%. For open compressors, shaft power input is used and for semi-hermetic and hermetic types, electrical power input is used and this must be taken into account if the efficiencies of the two types are compared.

Figure 7: Volumetric efficiency

Figure 8: Isentropic efficiency

Piston compressor development From the beginning of vapour compression refrigeration, piston compressors have been the workhorse of the refrigeration, air conditioning and heat pump markets. Piston compressor technology has traditionally offered good efficiency levels and, through proper design and application, piston compressors have become very reliable. In addition, the design and operating parameters of piston compressors are well developed and understood and the technology presents no particular manufacturing problems. Industry demands placed on systems are changing and the requirements of compressors changing accordingly. Competition, high energy costs and environmental considerations are compelling manufacturers to develop even more efficient systems for the future. To do this cost effectively (for example, without inordinate heat exchanger size) will require compressor efficiencies higher than current reciprocating piston compressor technology can achieve. System sound levels are of increasing concern, with an increasing number of local regulations placing tighter restrictions on the sound levels of systems. These demands have lead some compressor manufacturers away from piston compressor technology to more advanced compressor technologies. NEXT MONTH: More on compressors

Published on 1 - June - 2006

Masterclass: Compressors - Part 6

This month we continue our study of compressors and the alternatives to the reciprocating compressor. Scroll Compressors The scroll is a simple compression concept centred around the unique involute spiral shape of the scroll and its inherent properties. Two identical scrolls are mated together forming concentric spiral shapes. The concept was proposed almost 100 years ago but has only relatively recently been developed to practical engineering and mass production levels. As shown in Fig 1, during compression, one scroll form (fixed scroll) remains stationary while the other scroll form (orbiting scroll) is allowed to orbit around it. Note that the orbiting scroll does not rotate or turn but merely orbits the stationary scroll. The orbiting scroll draws gas into the outer crescent-shaped gas pocket created by the two scrolls. The centrifugal action of the orbiting scroll seals off the flanks of the scrolls.

As the orbiting motion continues, the gas is forced toward the centre of the scroll and the gas pockets become compressed. When the compressed gas reaches the centre, it is discharged vertically into a chamber and discharge port in the top of the compressor. The discharge pressure, forcing down on the top scroll, helps seal off the upper and lower edge tips of the scrolls. During a single orbit, several pockets of gas are compressed simultaneously, providing smooth, continuous compression. Both the suction process (outer portion of the scroll members) and the discharge process (inner portion) are continuous. When compared to piston compressor technology, the scroll compressor offers several significant advantages:

Figure 2: In a scroll compressor, only two components, a fixed scroll and orbiting scroll, are required to compress gas

Simplicity Only two components, a fixed scroll and orbiting scroll, are required to compress gas. These two components replace the approximately fifteen components in a piston compressor, which are required to do the same work.

Figure 1: Operation of the scroll compressor

Efficiency - The Scroll compressor offers three efficiency advantages over a piston compressor: 1 The suction and discharge processes of a scroll compressor are physically separated, reducing heat transfer between suction and discharge gas. In a piston compressor, the cylinder is exposed to both suction and discharge gas, resulting in high heat transfer. This reduces the efficiency of the compressor (see fig 3). 2 The scroll compression and discharge process is very smooth. A scroll compresses gas in approximately 112 revolutions as compared to less than half of a revolution for a piston compressor. The discharge process occurs for a full 360 of rotation versus 30-60 of rotation for

a piston compressor. 3 The scroll compressor has no valves. While a piston compressor requires suction and discharge valves, the scroll design does not require a dynamic valve. This eliminates all valve losses. The result is that the scroll compressor is inherently 10-15% more efficient than a piston compressor. High Volumetric Efficiency A scroll compressor has no clearance volume. All gas that is trapped in the compression process in the outer pocket of the scroll members is released through the discharge port. This means that the scroll compressor inherently has a higher capacity than a piston compressor at extreme operating conditions. Noise Level A scroll compressor has extremely limited motion, which, unlike a piston compressor, can be perfectly balanced. Because suction and discharge flow is continuous, a scroll compressor has very low gas pulses. No dynamic valves equals no valve noise, a common problem in a piston compressor, is not a factor. Durability While a piston compressor has been designed to be durable in all types of systems, significant design effort and system cost is required to protect the compressor from liquid slugging and debris in the system. A scroll compressor can be designed to be compliant to both liquid and debris. This can be done by allowing the scroll forms to separate from each other in the presence of contaminants or liquid. This feature allows a compliant scroll compressor to have superior tolerance to liquid and debris. Compliance has the added benefit of allowing the scrolls to wear-in over time; that is, to increase compressor and system efficiency with running time. Compliance refers to the method in which the two scroll members interact to achieve high efficiency and durability simultaneously. The unique and patented Copeland Compliant Scroll Compressor, with both radial and axial compliance, has several advantages:

Figure 3: In a scroll compressor, the suction and discharge process are physically separated, reducing heat transfer between suction and discharge gas.

Figure 4: the scroll compression and discharge process is very smooth. A scroll compresses gas in approximately 1 1/2 revolutions as compared to less than half of a revolution for a piston compressor. The discharge process occurs for a full 360degrees of rotation versus 3060degrees for a piston compressor.

Figure 5: The scroll compressor has no valves. While a piston compressor requires suction and discharge vlves, the scroll design does not require a dynamic valve.

1 Continuous flank contact, maintained by centrifugal force, minimises gas leakage and maximises efficiency. 2 Radial compliance allows the scroll members to separate in the presence of liquid refrigerant or debris, eliminating high stress in the members and substantially improving the durability of the compressor. 3 Axial compliance allows the scroll tips to remain in continuous

contact in all normal operating conditions, ensuring minimal leakage without the use of tip seals. This means the scroll performance will not degrade over time because there are no seals to wear and cause gas leakage. Because of the radial and axial compliance feature, the Copeland Compliant Scroll Compressor has unprecedented liquid handling capability. In addition, it is designed to start under any system load. Combined, these characteristics simplify the system design, reduce the system operating costs and increase the durability of the system. NEXT MONTH: Rotary vane, screw and centrifugal compressors
Published on 1 - July - 2006

Masterclass:Compressors - Part 7
In parts 5 and 6 we studied reciprocating and scroll compressors. Rotary vane, screw and centrifugal compressors are covered here in part 7. Rotary vane compressors The rotary vane compressor employs a series of rotating vanes or blades, which are installed equidistant around the periphery of a slotted rotor. The rotor is mounted eccentrically in a steel cylinder so that the rotor nearly touches the cylinder wall on one side, the two being separated only by an oil film at this point. Directly opposite this point the clearance between the rotor and the cylinder wall is maximum. Heads or end plates are installed on the ends of the cylinder to seal the cylinder and to secure the rotor shaft. The vanes move back and forth radially in the rotor slots as they follow the contour of the cylinder wall when the rotor is rotating. The vanes are held firmly against the cylinder wall by action of the centrifugal force developed by the rotating rotor. In some instances the blades are spring loaded to obtain a more positive seal against the cylinder wall.

Figure 1: vane type rotary compressor

The suction vapour drawn into the cylinder through suction ports in the cylinder wall is entrapped between adjacent rotating vanes. The vapour is compressed as the vanes rotate from the point of maximum rotor clearance to the point of minimum rotor clearance. The compressed vapour is discharged from the cylinder through ports located in the cylinder wall near the point of minimum rotor clearance. The rotary vane compressor is a rotary positive displacement type, which has the advantage of simplicity where a complex screw or scroll form need not be manufactured. The high sliding speeds at the contact of the vanes with the cylinder walls demand careful design and generally limit this type of machine to smaller compressors such as fractional horsepower units. However, quite large displacement machines of this type have been successfully built and used as boosters. A booster is the first stage of a two-stage compression process. In such applications the loading is relatively light. Where higher compression ratios are required for low temperature applications, it is quite common for rotary vane compressors to be arranged in two- stage configurations. The rotary vane compressor does not have a sump to contain the oil reserve. The oil is therefore extracted from the discharge gas by means of an oil separator (described later in the series) and continually delivered in a controlled manner to the internal surface of the rotor housing to perform essential lubrication. Some models are now constructed within a body that has an oil reservoir adjacent to the compressor to simplify oil management and to improve the security of lubrication. Screw compressors

Screw compressors are extensively used in large air conditioning and industrial refrigeration applications. The first practical design of screw compressor was patented by Lysholm in Sweden in 1934 and developed by Svenska Rotor Maskina (SRM). Screw compressors based on the Lysholm design with twin screw rotors were introduced into the refrigeration market in 1958 and found their place in the refrigerating capacity gap between reciprocating and centrifugal machines. Following the use of injected oil for cooling, sealing and lubrication, the versatility, reliability and compactness of screw type compressors has been increasingly appreciated. This has earned them a significant share of the market in a capacity range now overlapping that of the reciprocating and centrifugal machines. The rotary screw compressor is a positive displacement helical-axial design and is well suited to high-pressure refrigerants and alternative gas applications such as propane, helium, CO2, natural gas and air. In the twin-screw compressor, compression is achieved by two intermeshing rotors housed in a close fitting casing (see fig 2). The male rotor has lobes which are non-symmetrical profile sections formed vertically along the rotor length and these mesh with corresponding recesses on the female rotor. As the rotors turn, gas is drawn through the inlet port to fill the space between adjacent lobes. When the interlobe space along the rotor length is filled the rotation of the rotors moves the end of the lobes past the inlet port so sealing the interlobe space. As the rotors continue to rotate, the intermeshing of the lobes on the discharge side of the compressors progressively reduces the space occupied by the gas causing compression. Compression continues until the interlobe space becomes exposed to the outlet port in the casing and the gas is discharged. The machine has few moving parts (seven): slide valve, two rotors and two sets of heavy-duty industrial bearings. This construction allows the compressor to operate at two-pole motor speeds (3600rpm synchronous) with high efficiency.

Figure 2: screw rotors that form the heart of the Bitzer screw compressor range

Uniform gas flow, unidirectional compression process, even torque and positive displacement through rotary motion contribute to vibrationfree operation. The design provides simplicity and the absence of a clearance volume leads to high volumetric efficiency. The screw compressor can be arranged with vertical or horizontal rotors and an illustration of the vertical screw compressor is shown in fig 3. Capacity control The screw compressor is able to offer infinite capacity modulation to as low as 10% of full load. This is achieved by means of a hydraulically actuated slide valve in the compressor housing which creates a gap to allow suction gas to pass back to the suction inlet manifold thus reducing the compressor pumping rate. As the gas is released prior to compression, it is assumed that minimal thermodynamic losses occur. The location of the capacity control slide valve is controlled electronically and is determined by temperature, pressure or power input signals for the optimum match of compressor capacity to load variations.

Figure 3: a sectional view of the vertical screw compressor

Single screw compressor An alternative type of screw compressor has been successfully developed and introduced. This is the single screw compressor. It has a screw rotor in mesh with two rotor seals. An efficient and reliable compressor was conceived by Bernard Zimmern from this known principle in the 1960s. The essential functional elements of today's single screw compressor are a six-flute driven rotor meshing with two star rotors each having eleven teeth. The star rotors are made from a special synthetic material and the dynamically balanced rotor is made from cast iron. The portion of the casing corresponding to the entry end of the cylindrical main rotor is relieved so that the inlet gas may enter the flutes both axially and radially. The discharge end of the main rotor extends a short distance beyond the points at which the flutes run out; the discharge ports comprising essentially triangular openings in the main rotor casing in this region. During the compression process, gas becomes trapped in the flutes by the teeth of the stars and is compressed by the face of each tooth until the flute wall uncovers the discharge port, and the compressed gas is completely expelled. The size of the discharge port determines the inbuilt compression ratio. The compression process occurring on the face

of the teeth of one star is exactly duplicated by a series of compression processes occurring on the opposite face of the other star. The existence of two stars thus causes each flute to be used twice in a complete revolution of the main rotor. Furthermore, the symmetry of the compression processes results in zero radial gas pressure loads on the main bearings. Also, because the flutes terminate on the cylindrical surface of the main rotor at the discharge end, it is possible to arrange that both ends of the main rotor are at suction pressure, in which case the thrust load approaches zero. Thus, apart from the weight of the rotor assemblies, the only loading on the bearings arises from gas pressure acting on the small-engaged area of 2 or 3 star teeth on each star. As the single screw is a positive displacement compressor, there are three stages to the compression cycle. The following illustrations in figure 5 will serve to describe these:

Figure 4: sectional view of Bitzer screw compressor

Suction: fig 5 - A & B Main rotor flutes a, b & c are open to suction at one end and are sealed at the other end by the star rotor teeth. As the main rotor turns, the effective length of the flutes increases with a corresponding increase in the volume open to the suction chamber as shown in fig 5 A. As flute a assumes the position of flutes b and c its volume increases, inducing suction vapour to enter the flute. Upon further rotation of the main rotor (Fig 5 - B), the flutes which have been open to the suction chamber engage with the star rotor teeth. This coincides with each flute being progressively sealed by the cylindrical annulus housing the main rotor. Once the flute volume is closed off from the suction chamber, the suction stage of the compression cycle is complete.

Figure 5: single screw compression process

Compression: fig 5 - C As the main rotor turns, the volume of gas trapped within the flute is reduced as the length of the flute shortens and compression takes place. Discharge: fig 5 - D As the star rotor tooth approaches the end of a flute, the pressure of the trapped vapour reaches a maximum value occurring when the leading edge of the flute begins to overlap the triangular shaped discharge port. Compression immediately ceases as the gas is delivered into the discharge port. The star rotor tooth continues to scavenge the flute until the flute volume is reduced to zero. This compression process is for each flute/star tooth in turn. As with the twin-screw compressor, this machine is also designed to run at 2-pole 3600rpm synchronous speed and utilises suction gas to

cool the 3-phase motor windings. Capacity control is achieved with a slide valve mechanism, which allows infinite modulation between 100 and 25% of full load capacity. Oil is normally injected through the casing near the discharge end of the compressor to act as a coolant, lubricant and sealant. Most of this oil leaves with the compressed gas where it is separated before being cooled and re-injected. Some single screw compressors do not require lubricating oil at all thus eliminating the need for oil control management equipment and leading to higher overall system efficiency. An oil separation section incorporating a sound attenuation chamber and a discharge gas non-return valve exists within the compressor. The separator also acts as the oil reservoir, has an oil level sight glass and a 150 mesh stainless steel oil strainer. An oil heater can also be incorporated to prevent refrigerant migration and condensation within the lubricating oil. Suction strainer In order to protect such compressors from dirt and particles, which may be recirculating with the system refrigerant, an integral suction strainer is incorporated to trap and retain these particles. This suction strainer is normally inaccessible. Where a compressor is installed into a site-built system, an additional suction strainer, which can be easily serviced, should be installed at the inlet to the compressor.

Figure 6: flow diagram of typical centrifugal water-cooled water chiller

Centrifugal compressors The operating principles of the centrifugal compressor are similar to those of the centrifugal fan or pump. Low-pressure, low-velocity vapour from the suction line is drawn in the inlet cavity or eye of the

impeller wheel along the axis of the rotor shaft. On entering the impeller wheel, the vapour is forced radially outward between the impeller blades by action of the centrifugal force developed by the rotating wheel and is discharged from the blade tips into the compressor housing at high velocity and at increased temperature and pressure. The high-pressure, high velocity vapour discharged from the periphery of the wheel is collected in specially designed passages in the casing which reduce the velocity of the vapour and direct it to the inlet of the next stage impeller or, in the case of the last stage impeller, to a discharge chamber, from where the vapour passes through the discharge line to the condenser. The centrifugal compressor is simple in principle and it is a perfectly balanced machine with no contacting compression surfaces. However, because high gas velocities are needed for this process, the centrifugal machine really only becomes effective in quite large sizes. Moreover, a high compression ratio could require many stages of compression. This increases cost and complexity and at the same time introduces more gas friction losses. The centrifugal compressor is very effectively applied in air conditioning applications where the pressure ratio is modest. Even under these conditions, the smaller types utilise speed step-up drives to attain the required compression ratio. Because the refrigerant itself generates the pressure, the vapour density of the refrigerant has to be taken into account in the compressor design and the centrifugal compressor is not nearly as versatile as piston or rotary positive displacement types. Such machines are normally of very large cooling capacity and are designed for substantial cooling loads in large buildings and industrial applications. These are heavily applied in the USA and other countries featuring large buildings operating in high ambient temperatures. NEXT MONTH: Air and Water Cooled Condensers