A PROJECT REPORT ON

VARIABLE POWER SUPPLY

GUIDED BY Mrs. PALLAVI INGLE PREPARED BY DHARANG SHAH JIGNESH VYAS 10EC154 09EC065

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

YEAR: 2010

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING SAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING RESEARCH AHMEDABAD-380060

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the following students of the third semester Electronics and Communication Engineering have successfully submitted the project report entitled VARIABLE POWER SUPPLY for the term ending in November-2010. The work prepared by them is found satisfactory. Name Dharang Shah Jignesh Vyas Number 10EC154 09EC065

Date: Place:

Project Guide (Mrs. Pallavi Ingle)

Head of E.C. Department (Mrs. Nidhi Bhatt)

Principal (Dr. Rupesh Vasani)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost we would like to thank SAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING RESEARCH, AHMEDABAD for giving us the opportunity to undertake this project work.

We are thankful to our guide Mrs. Pallavi Ingle, lecturer in Electronics and Communication Department, Sal Institute of Technology & Engineering Research, for her valuable guidance and continuous inspiration during the entire Project Work. We are also thankful to Mrs. Nidhi Bhatt, Head of the Electronics and Communication Department, Sal Institute of Technology & Engineering Research, for supporting in successful completion of the project.

INDEX

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT INDEX LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF TABLES

i ii iv v

1-INTRODUCTION
1.1 1.2 Introduction Scope 1 1

2-PROJECT PORTRAYAL
2.1 General Block Diagram and its Description 2.1.1 Transformer 2.1.2 Rectifier 2.1.3 Smoothing 2.1.4 Regulator Component List Schematic of Variable Power Supply Working of the Circuit 2 2 2 2 3 3 4 5

2.2 2.3 2.4

3-HARDWARE PORTRAYAL
3.1 3.2 3.3 Transformer Diode Capacitor 3.3.1 Electrolyte Capacitor 3.3.2 Unpolarised Capacitor 3.3.3 Capacitor Colour Code Resistor 3.4.1 Resistor Colour Code 8 9 10 10 11 11 11 12

3.4

ii

3.5 3.6 3.7

Variable Resistor LED LM317

13 13 15 17

Reference

iii

LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. 2.1 Fig. 2.2 Fig. 2.3 Fig.2.4 Fig. 2.5 Fig. 2.6 Fig. 2.7 Fig. 2.8 Fig. 3.1 Fig. 3.2 Fig. 3.3 Fig. 3.4 Fig. 3.5 Fig. 3.6 Fig. 3.7 Fig. 3.8 Fig. 3.9 Fig. 3.10 Fig. 3.11 Fig. 3.12 Fig. 3.13 Fig. 3.14 Block Diagram of Variable Power Supply Schematic of Variable Power Supply Transformer & Bridge Rectifier Transformer Output Rectifier Output Smoothing & Regulation circuit DC Output PCB of Variable Power Supply Symbol of Transformer Transformer Symbol of Diode Diode Symbol of Capacitor Capacitor Symbol of Resistor Resistor Symbol of Variable Resistor Variable Resistor Symbol of LED LED Inside the LED IC-LM317 2 4 5 5 5 6 6 7 8 8 9 9 10 10 11 11 13 13 13 13 14 15

iv

LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 Table 2.2 Table 2.3 Table 2.4 Table 3.1 Table 3.2 List of Resistors used in Circuit List of Capacitors used in Circuit List of ICs used in Circuit List of Miscellaneous Components used in Circuit Colour Code of Capacitor Colour Code of Resistor 3 3 3 3 11 11

1.

I
1.1 1.2 Introduction Scope

NTRODUCTION

1 1

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
A power supply is a device that supplies electrical energy to one or more electric loads. The term is most commonly applied to devices that convert one form of electrical energy to another. A regulated power supply is one that controls the output voltage or current to a specific value, the controlled value is held nearly constant despite variations in either load current or the voltage supplied by the power supply's energy source. Variable power supplies are common laboratory and service shop test equipment, allowing the output voltage to be adjusted over a range.

1.2 SCOPE
One of the basic building blocks of electronics project is building DC power supplies from an AC source of 110 v ac or 220 v ac. The common DC voltages that are required to power up the devices are generally in the range of 3 v dc to 30 v dc. Typically the fixed types of DC voltages are 5 v, 9 v, 12 v, 15v and 18 v dc. With the advancement of technology, many devices are using 1.8 v dc, 3.7 v dc, 6.7 v dc etc these days. So the need of variable power supply is most in todays world.

SAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING RESEARCH (EC)

2.

ROJECT

ORTRAYAL

2.1 General Block Diagram and its Description 2.1.1 Transformer 2.1.2 Rectifier 2.1.3 Smoothing 2.1.4 Regulator 2.2 Component List 2.3 Schematic of Variable Power Supply 2.4 Working of the Circuit

2 2 2 2 3 3 4 5

2. PROJECT PORTRAYAL
2.1 GENERAL BLOCK DIAGRAM & ITS DESCRIPTION

Fig. 2.1 Block Diagram of Variable Power Supply Figure 2.1 shows the general block diagram of the variable power supply system. It consists of mainly four blocks i.e. Transformer, Rectifier, Smoothing and Regulator.

2.1.1 TRANSFORMER
Transformer is used to step-down the mains AC voltage. Mains supply (230 v AC) is the input of the transformer. This voltage is step down by transformer as per its rating.

2.1.2 RECTIFIER
There are several ways of connecting diodes to make a rectifier to convert AC to DC. The bridge rectifier is the most important and it produces full-wave varying DC.

2.1.3 SMOOTHING
Output from the rectifier is pulsating dc. It contains the ripple. Smoothing process removes the ac components and gives smooth dc.

SAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING RESEARCH (EC)

Project Portrayal

2.1.4 REGULATOR
It makes the output voltage constant against the change in the input ac voltage and the change in the load current. Most regulators IC include some automatic protection from excessive current (overload protection) and overheating (thermal protection).

2.2 COMPONENT LIST

Resistor Value 10 47 1K 1K (pot) Table 2.1 List of Resistors used in circuit Capacitor Value 0.1 F (100KPF) 1000 F/50 V 10 F/50 V 22 F/50 V Table 2.2 List of Capacitor used in circuit Quantity 1 1 1 1 Quantity 1 1 2 1

IC
Number LM317 Table 2.3 List of ICs used in circuit Miscellaneous Component Value Quantity Quantity 1

Transformer 12-0-12 V/500 mA 1 Diode 1N4007 4 LED 3 mm 2 Table 2.4 List of Miscellaneous components used in circuit
SAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING RESEARCH (EC)

Project Portrayal

SAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING RESEARCH (EC)

Project Portrayal

2.4 WORKING OF THE CIRCUIT

Transformer & Bridge Rectifier

Fig. 2.3 Transformer & Bridge Rectifier

230 V AC is given as the input to the primary side of the transformer. Transformer converts the 230 V AC into 24 V AC. Diode D1, D2, D3, and D4 make the bridge rectifier. Bridge rectifier converts the ac into pulsating dc.

Fig. 2.4 Transformer Output

Fig. 2.5 Rectifier Output

Figure 2.4 shows the output of the transformer, which is 24 V AC. Figure 2.5 shows the output of the bridge rectifier, which is pulsating dc.

SAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING RESEARCH (EC)

Project Portrayal

Smoothing & Regulation

Fig. 2.6 Smoothing & Regulation circuit Figure 2.6 shows the Smoothing & Regulation circuit. The output of the bridge rectifier becomes the input at the capacitor C1. Capacitor works as a filter, which converts the pulsating dc into pure (smooth) dc. D5 is the LED which works as an input indicator. LM317 is the voltage regulator IC, which is use for voltage regulation. Output from the capacitor C1 becomes the input at pin-3 of LM317. Output voltage is adjustable using resistor pot which is connected to pin-1 of LM-317 through resistor R2. Output is taken from pin-2 of LM-317 with reference to ground. D6 is the LED which works as an output indicator.

Fig. 2.7 DC Output Figure 2.7 shows the DC output, which is available at pin-2 of IC LM-317 with respect to ground.

SAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING RESEARCH (EC)

Project Portrayal

SAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING RESEARCH (EC)

3.

ARDWARE

ORTRAYAL
8 9 10 10 11 11 11 12 13 13 15

3.1 Transformer 3.2 Diode 3.3 Capacitor 3.3.1 Electrolyte Capacitor 3.3.2 Unpolarised Capacitor 3.3.3 Capacitor Colour Code 3.4 Resistor 3.4.1 Resistor Colour Code 3.5 Variable Resistor 3.6 LED 3.7 LM317

3. HARDWARE PORTRAYAL
3.1 TRANSFORMER

Fig. 3.1 Symbol of Transformer

Fig. 3.2 Transformer

Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to another with little loss of power. A transformer consists of two coils (often called 'windings') linked by an iron core. There is no electrical connection between the coils; instead they are linked by a magnetic field created in the core. Transformer only works with AC (alternating current) because they require a changing magnetic field to be created in their core. Step-up transformers increase voltage, step-down transformers reduces voltage. Most power supplies use a step-down transformer to reduce the dangerously high mains voltage to a safer low voltage. The input coil is called the primary and the output coil is called the secondary. The two lines in the middle of the transformer symbol represent the core. Transformers waste very little power so the power out is (almost) equal to the power in. Note that as voltage is stepped down current is stepped up. Alternating current flowing in the primary (input) coil creates a continually changing magnetic field in the iron core. This field also passes through the secondary (output) coil and the changing strength of the magnetic field induces an alternating voltage in the secondary coil. If the secondary coil is connected to a load the induced voltage will make an induced current flow. The correct term for the induced voltage is 'induced electromotive force' which is usually abbreviated to induced e.m.f. The iron core is laminated to prevent 'eddy currents' flowing in the core. These are currents produced by the alternating magnetic field inducing a small voltage in the core, just like that induced in the secondary coil. Eddy currents waste power by needlessly heating up the core but they are reduced to a negligible amount by

SAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING RESEARCH (EC)

Hardware Portrayal laminating the iron because this increases the electrical resistance of the core without affecting its magnetic properties. The ratio of the number of turns on each coil, called the turns ratio, determines the ratio of the voltages. A step-down transformer has a large number of turns on its primary (input) coil which is connected to the high voltage mains supply, and a small number of turns on its secondary (output) coil to give a low output voltage. turns ratio = Vp Np = Vs Ns
and

power out = power in Vs Is = Vp Ip

Vp = primary (input) voltage Np = number of turns on primary coil and Ip = primary (input) current

Vs = secondary (output) voltage Ns = number of turns on secondary coil Is = secondary (output) current

3.2 DIODE

Fig. 3.3 Symbol of Diode

Fig. 3.4 Diode

In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts electric current in only one direction. The term usually refers to a semiconductor diode, the most common type today. This is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material connected to two electrical terminals. The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one direction (called the diode's forward direction) while blocking current in the opposite direction (the reverse direction). Thus, the diode can be thought of as an electronic version of a check valve. This unidirectional behaviour is called rectification, and is used to convert alternating current to direct current, and to extract modulation from radio signals in radio receivers. Electricity uses up a little energy pushing its way through the diode, rather like a person pushing through a door with a spring. This means that there is a small voltage across a conducting diode, it is called the forward voltage drop and is about 0.7V for all normal diodes which are made from silicon. The forward voltage drop of a diode is almost constant whatever the current passing through the diode so they have a very steep characteristic.

SAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING RESEARCH (EC)

Hardware Portrayal When a reverse voltage is applied a perfect diode does not conduct, but all real diodes leak a very tiny current of a few A or less. This can be ignored in most circuits because it will be very much smaller than the current flowing in the forward direction. However, all diodes have a maximum reverse voltage (usually 50V or more) and if this is exceeded the diode will fail and pass a large current in the reverse direction, this is called breakdown.

3.3

CAPACITOR

Fig. 3.5 Symbol of Capacitor

Fig. 3.6 Capacitor

A capacitor or condenser is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of conductors separated by a dielectric. When a voltage potential difference exists between the conductors, an electric field is present in the dielectric. This field stores energy and produces a mechanical force between the plates. The effect is greatest between wide, flat, parallel, narrowly separated conductors. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, which is measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current. The conductors and leads introduce an equivalent series resistance and the dielectric has an electric field strength limit resulting in a breakdown voltage.

3.3.1. ELECTROLYTE CAPACITOR

Electrolytic capacitors are polarised and they must be connected the correct way round - at least one of their leads will be marked + or -. They are not damaged by heat when soldering. There are two designs of electrolytic capacitors; axial where the leads are attached to each end and radial where both leads are at the same end. Radial capacitors tend to be a little smaller and they stand upright on the circuit board. It is easy to find the value of electrolytic capacitors because they are clearly printed with their capacitance and voltage rating. The voltage rating can be quite low and it should always be checked when selecting an electrolytic capacitor. If the circuit parts list does not specify a voltage, choose a capacitor with a rating which is greater than the circuit's power supply voltage. 25V is a sensible minimum for most circuits.

SAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING RESEARCH (EC)

10

Hardware Portrayal

3.3.2. UNPOLARISED CAPACITOR

Small value capacitors are unpolarised and may be connected either way round. They are not damaged by heat when soldering. They have high voltage ratings of at least 50V, usually 250V or so.

3.3.3. CAPACITOR COLOUR CODE

A colour code is used on polyester capacitors for mainly. The top three colour bands giving the value in pF. Ignore the 4th band (tolerance) and 5th band (voltage rating). Note that there are no gaps between the colours bands, so two identical bands actually appear as one wide band. FIRST DIGIT (pF) First Colour BLACK 0 BROWN 1 RED 2 ORANGE 3 YELLOW 4 GREEN 5 BLUE 6 VIOLET 7 GREY 8 WHITE 9 SECOND DIGIT MULTIPLIER (pF) Third Colour Second Colour BLACK BLACK 0 x1 BROWN BROWN 1 x 10 RED RED 2 x 102 ORANGE ORANGE x 103 3 YELLOW YELLOW x 104 4 GREEN GREEN 5 x 105 BLUE BLUE 6 x 106 VIOLET VIOLET x 107 7 GREY GREY 8 x 108 WHITE WHITE 9 x 109 Table 3.1 Colour Code of Capacitor TOLERANCE Fourth Colour
BLACK

20 %

GREEN

5%

WHITE

10 %

Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits to block the flow of direct current while allowing alternating current to pass, to filter out interference, to smooth the output of power supplies, and for many other purposes. They are used in resonant circuits in radio frequency equipment to select particular frequencies from a signal with many frequencies.

3.4 RESISTOR

Fig. 3.7 Symbol of Resistor

Fig. 3.8 Resistor

A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that produces a voltage across its terminals that is proportional to the electric current through it in accordance with Ohm's law: V = IR
SAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING RESEARCH (EC)

11

Hardware Portrayal Resistors are used to limit current or divide voltage, and in some cases, generate heat. Common resistors are carbon-composition, carbon film, metal film, and wire wound. Resistors are elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel/chrome). The primary characteristics of a resistor are the resistance, the tolerance, maximum working voltage and the power rating. Other characteristics include temperature coefficient, noise, and inductance. Less well-known is critical resistance, the value below which power dissipation limits the maximum permitted current flow, and above which the limit is applied voltage. Critical resistance depends upon the materials constituting the resistor as well as its physical dimensions; it's determined by design. Resistors can be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits, as well as integrated circuits. Size, and position of leads (or terminals) are relevant to equipment designers; resistors must be physically large enough not to overheat when dissipating their power.

3.4.1 RESISTOR COLOUR CODE

FIRST DIGIT 1st Colour Band BLACK 0 BROWN 1 RED 2 ORANGE 3 YELLOW 4 GREEN 5 BLUE 6 VIOLET 7 GREY 8 WHITE 9 SECOND DIGIT MULTIPLIER 2nd Colour Band 3rd Colour BLACK BLACK 0 x1 BROWN BROWN x 10 1 RED RED 2 x 102 ORANGE ORANGE x 103 3 YELLOW YELLOW x 104 4 GREEN GREEN 5 x 105 BLUE BLUE 6 x 106 VIOLET VIOLET x 107 7 GREY GREY 8 x 108 WHITE WHITE 9 x 109
GOLD SILVER x 0.1 x 0.01

TOLERANCE 4th Colour Band

BROWN RED

1% 2%

GOLD SILVER

5% 10%

Table 3.2 Colour Code of Resistor For traditional resistors there are usually FOUR coloured bands. The first two coloured bands will show the first two digits, the third band provides the multiplier by which the first two digits must be multiplied (i.e. number of zeros); together this gives the value of the resistor (the resistance) in Ohms. The fourth coloured band indicates the tolerance of the resistor that is how close the actual resistance may be to the value indicated. A 1k Ohm (1000 Ohm) resistor with a 20% tolerance could have a value anywhere between 800 and 1200 Ohms.

SAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING RESEARCH (EC)

12

Hardware Portrayal

3.5 VARIABLE RESISTOR

Fig. 3.9 Symbol of Variable Resistor

Fig. 3.10 Variable Resistor

A resistor may have one or more fixed tapping points so that the resistance can be changed by moving the connecting wires to different terminals. Some wire wound power resistors have a tapping point that can slide along the resistance element, allowing a larger or smaller part of the resistance to be used. Where continuous adjustment of the resistance value during operation of equipment is required, the sliding resistance tap can be connected to a knob accessible to an operator. Such a device is called a rheostat and has two terminals. Variable resistors consist of a resistance track with connections at both ends and a wiper which moves along the track as you turn the spindle. The track may be made from carbon, cermets (ceramic and metal mixture) or a coil of wire (for low resistances). Variable resistors may be used as a rheostat with two connections (the wiper and just one end of the track) or as a potentiometer with all three connections in use. Miniature versions called presets are made for setting up circuits which will not require further adjustment. Variable resistors are often called potentiometers. They are specified by their maximum resistance, linear or logarithmic track, and their physical size. The standard spindle diameter is 6mm.

3.6 LED

Fig. 3.11 Symbol of LED

Fig. 3.12 LED

SAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING RESEARCH (EC)

13

Hardware Portrayal A Light-Emitting Diode (LED) in essence is a P-N junction solid-state semiconductor diode that emits light when a current is applied though the device. By scientific definition, it is a solid-state device that controls current without the deficiency of having heated filaments. Light emitting diodes (LEDs) are a general source of continuous light with high luminescence efficiency, and are based on the general properties of a simple twin-element semiconductor diode encased in a clear epoxy dome that acts as a lens.

Fig. 3.13 Inside the LED

At the heart of a light emitting diode is a semiconductor chip fabricated in a manner similar to that of common integrated circuits, which are utilized a wide array of devices ranging from computers to household appliances. The diode semiconductor contains several very thin layers of material that are sequentially deposited onto a supporting substrate (usually silicon or doped gallium). The first semiconductor material that is deposited onto the substrate is doped with atoms containing excess electrons to yield what is termed an n-type semiconductor. A second doped material, containing atoms having too few electrons (a p-type semiconductor), is then deposited onto the first semiconductor to form the diode. The region created between the doped semiconductor materials is known as the active layer. When a voltage is applied to the diode, holes (positive charges) from the ptype region and electrons (negative charges) from the n-type region meet in the active layer to produce light. The wavelength of light emitted by the diode is dependent upon the chemical composition and relative energy levels of the doped semiconductor materials that comprise the p and n regions. By varying the composition of the doped semiconductors, a wide range of emitted wavelengths can be generated that represent every primary colour in the visible light spectrum. After being fabricated, the semiconductor diode chip is mounted in a reflector cup connected to a lead frame, and is bonded to the anode and cathode terminals of the frame through miniature bonding wires. The entire assembly is then encased in a solid epoxy dome lens that enables emitted light to be focused in a single direction.
SAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING RESEARCH (EC)

14

Hardware Portrayal Diffusion of light through the epoxy lens is controlled by embedding tiny glass particles into the lens that scatter light and spread the light beam emerging from the lens. Epoxy lenses can also be tinted with dyes to indicate the colour of the diode when in the active (on) state. Clear epoxy lenses do not contain dyes or diffusing glass and produce the greatest amount of light output, but are limited to a very narrow viewing angle. The angle of the light cone emitted by the diode-reflector cup combination can be altered by changing the epoxy lens shape, the geometry of the reflector cup, and the size and distance between the semiconductor diode and the nose of the epoxy lens. By varying the composition of the doped semiconductor materials utilized to fabricate the diode, common light emitting diodes can manufactured that emit light in both the visible and infrared wavelength regions. The most common semiconductors employed in diode construction are aluminium, arsenic, gallium, indium, phosphorous and nitrogen (as nitrides), which can be combined in a variety of different proportions and doping levels. The wavelength (colour) of light produced by a light emitting diode is determined exclusively by the nature of the doped semiconductor materials and is independent of dyes utilized to colour the epoxy dome lens. Typical visible wavelengths emitted by semiconductor diodes are red (650 nanometres), orange (620 nanometres), yellow (585 nanometres), green (555 nanometres), and blue (480 nanometres). White light LEDs are manufactured by a variety of mechanisms, but often contain a phosphor material in the reflector cup that intercepts high-energy blue light from the diode and emits secondary radiation across the entire visible light spectrum.

3.7 LM317

Fig. 3.14 IC-LM317

The LM317 adjustable 3-terminal positive voltage regulator is capable of supplying in excess of 1.5A over a 1.2V to 37V output range. They are exceptionally easy to use and require only two external resistors to set the output voltage. Further, both line and load regulation is better than standard fixed regulators. Also, the LM317 is packaged in standard transistor packages which are easily mounted and handled. In addition to higher performance than fixed regulators, the LM317 series offers full overload protection available only in IC's. Included on the chip are current limit, thermal overload protection and safe area protection. All overload protection circuitry remains fully functional even if the adjustment terminal is disconnected.

SAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING RESEARCH (EC)

15

Hardware Portrayal Normally, no capacitors are needed unless the device is situated more than 6 inches from the input filter capacitors in which case an input bypass is needed. An optional output capacitor can be added to improve transient response. The adjustment terminal can be bypassed to achieve very high ripple rejection ratios which are difficult to achieve with standard 3-terminal regulators. Besides replacing fixed regulators, the LM317 is useful in a wide variety of other applications. Since the regulator is floating and sees only the input-to-output differential voltage, supplies of several hundred volts can be regulated as long as the maximum input to output differential is not exceeded, i.e., avoid short-circuiting the output. Also, it makes an especially simple adjustable switching regulator, a programmable output regulator, or by connecting a fixed resistor between the adjustment pin and output, the LM317 can be used as a precision current regulator. Supplies with electronic shutdown can be achieved by clamping the adjustment terminal to ground which programs the output to 1.2V where most loads draw little current.

SAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING RESEARCH (EC)

16

R
Book

EFERENCES

Principle of Electronics By V. K. Mehta and Rohit Mehta

Websites
www.alldatasheet.com www.wikipedia.com
www.kpsec.freeuk.com

SAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING RESEARCH (EC)

17