Ali BAZZI Chapter 6 Multiple Division techniques

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) Comparison of FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA Walsh Codes Near-far Problem Types of Interferences Analog and Digital Signals Basic Modulation Techniques Amplitude Modulation (AM) Frequency Modulation (FM) Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) Phase Shift Keying (PSK) Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
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Frequency

User n User 2 User 1 Time Single channel per carrier All first generation systems use FDMA

Frequency

User 1

User 2

User n

Time Multiple channels per carrier Most of second generation systems use TDMA

Frequency

User n

. . .

User 2

User 1

Time

Code Users share bandwidth by using code sequences that are orthogonal to each other Some second generation systems use CDMA Most of third generation systems use CDMA
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 Control channel Forward (Downlink) control channel Reverse (Uplink) control channel Traffic channel Forward traffic (traffic or information) channel Reverse traffic (traffic or information) channel

Reverse channel (Uplink)

f

Control channels
f

f1 f2 fn

f1 f2

fn

MS
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Traffic channels

Forward channels (Downlink)

BS

MS #1 MS #2

f1 f2

f1 f2

MS #n

fn

fn

BS

Reverse channels (Uplink)

Forward channels (Downlink)

Guard Band Wg

Sub Band Wc

Frequency

Total Bandwidth W=NWc

f1

f2

fn

f1

f2

fn

Frequency
Reverse channels Protecting bandwidth Forward channels

TDMA
Frequency f
#1

Slot
#1

Frequency f
#1 #1 #2

#2

#2

t t

#2

MS #1

MS #2

#n

MS #n Frame Frame

#n

#n

t Frame Frame

#n

BS

Reverse channels (Uplink)

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Forward channels (Downlink)

Frame
#1 #2 #n #1

Frame
#1 #2 #n

Frame
#2 #n

(a). Forward channel f Frame

#1 #2 #n #1

Frame
#1 #2 #n

Frame
#2 #n

(b). Reverse channel

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Frequency f=f

Frame
#1 #n #1 #2 #n #2

Frame
#n #1 #2 #n

#1

#2

Time Forward channel Reverse channel Forward channel Reverse channel

Channels in Simplex Mode

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Frequency Frame
#1 #2 #n #1

Frame
#1 #2 #n

Frame
#2 #n

Time

Guard time
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Head

Data

Frequency f
MS #1 MS #2 C1 C2

Frequency f
C1 C2

MS #n

Cn

Cn

BS

Reverse channels (Uplink)

Forward channels (Downlink) Ci

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Note: Ci x Cj = 0, i.e., Ci and Cj are orthogonal codes, x Cj = 0, i.e., Ci and Cj are orthogonal codes

Operation Allocated Bandwidth Frequency reuse Required channel BW No. of RF channels Channels/cell Control channels/cell Usable channels/cell Calls per RF channel Voice channels/cell Sectors/cell Voice calls/sector Capacity vs FDMA
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FDMA 12.5 MHz 7 0.03 MHz 12.5/0.03=416 416/7=59 2 57 1 57x1=57 3 57/3=19 1

TDMA 12.5 MHz 7 0.03 MHz 12.5/0.03=416 416/7=59 2 57 4* 57x4=228 3 228/3=76 4

CDMA 12.5 MHz 1 1.25 MHz 12.5/1.25=10 12.5/1.25=10 2 8 40** 8x40=320 3 320 16.8

? Delay Depends on the number of slots

** Depends on the number of codes

 Problem of radio transmission: frequency dependent fading can wipe out

narrow band signals for duration of the interference Solution: spread the narrow band signal into a broad band signal using a special code protection against narrow band interference
interference power detection at receiver spread signal power signal

Side effects:

protection against narrowband interference

f f

coexistence of several signals without dynamic coordination tap-proof

Alternatives: Direct Sequence, Frequency Hopping

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MERITS OF SPREAD SPECTRUM

" Because Spread Spectrum signals are noise-like, they are hard

to detect. " Spread Spectrum signals are harder to jam (interfere with) than narrowband signals " Spread Spectrum transmitters use similar transmit power levels to narrow band transmitters. " Because Spread Spectrum signals are so wide, they transmit at a much lower spectral power density, measured in Watts per Hertz, than narrowband transmitters.

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MERITS OF SPREAD SPECTRUM spread spectrum signals are hard to exploit or spoof. Signal exploitation is the ability of an enemy (or a non-network member) to listen in to a network and use information from the network without being a valid network member or participant. Spoofing is the act of falsely or maliciously introducing misleading or false traffic or messages to a network.

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dP/df i) f sender dP/df iii) f iv) receiver ii)

dP/df user signal broadband interference narrowband interference dP/df

f dP/df v) f

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Original signal to be transmitted. (ii) The sender spreads the signal and converts the narrow-band signal to broadband (Power level can be much lower without losing data) (iii) During transmission, narrow and broadband noise gets added. (iv) The receiver despreads the given signal, narrow band interference is spread, leaving the broadband as it is. (v) Receiver applies a band pass filter cutting off left & right of narrow band signal.
(i)

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channel quality

2 3 4

narrowband channels

frequency narrow band signal guard space

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In the figure above, Frequencies 1,2 and 5 have reasonably good quality of service. Frequencies 3 & 4 are of very narrow band and they can get corrupted. Spread Spectrum can help in such a situation.

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channel quality 2 2 2

spread spectrum channels

spread spectrum

frequency

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 All narrow band signals are spread into broadband signals

using the same frequency range To separate the Channels, CDM is used. Each channel is allocated its own code which the receivers know. Because of secret code, spread spectrum acts as a security protection.

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Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum for CDMA

Transmitter
Spreading

Receiver
Despread Digital signal s(t)

Digital signal s(t) Code c(t)

Spreading signal m(t) Code c(t)

Power

Power

Power

Frequency
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Frequency

Frequency

 XOR of the signal with pseudo-random number (chipping

sequence)

many chips per bit (e.g., 128) result in higher bandwidth of the signal
tb user data 0 tc chipping sequence 01101010110101 = resulting signal 01101011001010 1 XOR

Advantages reduces frequency selective fading in cellular networks

base stations can use the

same frequency range several base stations can detect and recover the signal soft handover

Disadvantages precise power control necessary

tb: bit period tc: chip period

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tc = Chip Period tb = Bit Period Spreading factor s = tb/tc s*original bandwidth is the new bandwidth. It determines the BW of the resulting signal

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 Most civil applications need a spreading factor of 10 to

100. Military applications use a speeding factor of around 10,000.

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- Barker Codes are used as a pseudo random numbers

(chipping codes). Ex:

- 10110111000 (used in 802.11 wireless LANS) - 11 - 110 - 1110 - 11101 - 1110010 - 1111100110101
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Let the code to be transmitted be 110. Let the Chip Barker Code be 10110111000 Hence the transmitted code is: 11111111111 11111111111 00000000000 XOR 10110111000 10110111000 10110111000 - 01001000111 01001000111 10110111000

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At the Receiver : The transmitted signal is XORed with the same chip sequence. 01001000111 01001000111 10110111000 XOR 10110111000 10110111000 10110111000 Resulting in : 11111111111 11111111111 00000000000 This is the original signal 110

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Concept of Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum

Transmitter
Spreading

Receiver
Despread

Digital signal

Spreading signal

Digital signal

Hopping Pattern Power Power

Hopping Pattern Power

Frequency
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Frequency

Frequency

An Example of Frequency Hopping Pattern

Frequency

Time

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Wal (0, t) Wal (1, t) Wal (2, t) Wal (3, t) Wal (4, t) Wal (5, t) Wal (6, t) Wal (7, t)
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t t t t t t t t

Near-far Problem

MS2

BS

MS1

Received signal strength

Distance
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Distance d1 MS1

MS2

d2

BS

Types of Interference in CDMA

Interference baseband signals

Baseband signal

Spreading signal

Despread signal
Interference signals

Frequency

Frequency

Frequency

Interference in spread spectrum system in CDMA

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Channel1

Channel2 Power

f1

f2

Frequency

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Power Control in CDMA

Controlling transmitted power affects the CIR

1 Pr Pt = 4df c
Pt = Transmitted power Pr = Received power in free space d = Distance between receiver and transmitter f = Frequency of transmission c = Speed of light = Attenuation constant (2 to 4)

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 Why need modulation? Small antenna size

Antenna size is inversely proportional to frequency e.g., 3 kHz 50 km antenna 3 GHz 5 cm antenna Limits noise and interference, e.g., FM (Frequency Modulation) Multiplexing techniques, e.g., FDM, TDM, CDMA
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 Analog Signal (Continuous signal)

Amplitude S(t) 0 Time

Digital Signal (Discrete signal) Amplitude 1 + 0 _ Bit

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1 Time

Human hearing Human speech

Voice-grade Telephone channel

100 Pass band Guard band Frequency cutoff point 0
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..

10,000

Frequency (Hz)

Guard band

200

3,500

4,000

Frequency (Hz)

Message signal x(t)

Time

Carrier signal

Time

AM signal s(t)

Time

Amplitude of carrier signal is varied as the message signal to be transmitted. Frequency of carrier signal is kept constant.
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Message signal x(t)

Time

Carrier signal

Time

FM signal s(t)

Time

FM integrates message signal with carrier signal by varying the instantaneous frequency. Amplitude of carrier signal is kept constant.
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 1/0 represented by two different frequencies slightly offset from carrier frequency
Carrier signal 1 for message signal 1 Carrier signal 2 for message signal 0 1 Message signal x(t) FSK signal s(t)
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Time

Time 0 1 1 0 1 Time Time

 Use alternative sine wave phase to encode bits

Carrier signal

sin( 2f ct )

Time

Carrier signal

sin( 2f ct + )
1 Message signal x(t) PSK signal s(t) 0 1 1 0 1

Time

Time Time

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Q
0,1

1,1

0,0

1,0

(a) BPSK

(b) QPSK

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47

Combination of AM and PSK

Two carriers out of phase by 90 deg are amplitude modulated

Q

1000

1100

0100

0000

1001

1101

0101

0001

1011

1111

0111

0011

1010

1110

0110

0010

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Rectangular constellation of 16QAM

 special pre-computation avoids sudden phase shifts

MSK (Minimum Shift Keying)

bit separated into even and odd bits, the duration of each bit is doubled depending on the bit values (even, odd) the higher or lower frequency,

original or inverted is chosen the frequency of one carrier is twice the frequency of the other Equivalent to offset QPSK GMSK (Gaussian MSK), used in GSM

even higher bandwidth efficiency using a Gaussian low-pass filter

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If Even and Odd bits are both zero : - f2 is inverted. If Even bit is 1 and odd bit is zero: - Lower frequency f1 is inverted. If Even bit is zero and the odd bit is 1: - f1 is taken without phase change, as is. If Both even and odd bits are 1 : - frequency f2 is taken as is.

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0 even 0 1 0 1 bit 0 0 1 1 odd signal h n n h value - - + + h: high frequency n: low frequency +: original signal -: inverted signal

data even bits odd bits

low frequency

high frequency

MSK signal No phase shifts!

t
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