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Textile Research Journal
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DOI: 10.1177/004051756903900907
1969 39: 844 Textile Research Journal
I. M. Stuart
Some Developments of Olofsson's Theory of Woven Fabric Structure

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844
Literature Cited
1. Ba1cerzyk, E., Calvet, E., Boivinet, P., and Hempel,
K., Thermogenese de mouillage de fibres cellu-
losiques dans l'eau et le methanol, Compt, Rend,
256, 3674-3676 (1963).
2. Balcerzyk, E., Boivinet, P., Calvet, E., and Hempel,
K., Therrnogenese de mouillage des fibres d'alcool
polyvinylique, Compt, Rend. 256, 4005-4007
(1963).
3. Ba1cerzyk, E. and Kozlowski, W., Microcalorimetric
Investigation of the Wetting of Some Protein
Fibers by Various Liquids, Prseqlqd Wlokienniczy,
21,296-297 (1967).
4. Ba1cerzyk, E., Kozlowski, W., and Wlodarski, G.,
Thermokinetics of Cellulose Fiber Penetration by
Physically and Chemically Reactive and the Struc-
ture of Accessible Regions, Textile Res. J. 39,666-
677 (196)9.
4a. Balcerzyk, E. and Hempel, K., Calorimetric Investi-
gations of Molecular Sieves, To be published.
5. Calvet, E. and Prat, H., "Microcalorimetrie. Appli-
cations physico-chimiques et biologiques," Paris,
Masson, 1956, pp. 83-84 and 87-88.
6. Calvet, E. and Prat, H., ibid., Chapter VIII.
7. Crank, j., "The Mathematics of Diffusion," Oxford,
Clarendon Press, 1957.
TEXTILE RESEARCH JOURNAL
8. Fraser, R. D. B. and Rogers, G. E., Bromine All-
worden reaction, Biochem. Bioplzys. Acta 16, 307-
316 (1955).
9. Frei, R., Synthetische Molekularsiebe fur selektive
Adsorption, Chem, Rundschau 13,509-510 (1960),
10. Hermans, P. H., Staining of Viscose Rayon Cross
Sections, Textile Res. J. 18, 9-18 (1948).
11. Mercer, E. H., The Heterogeneity of the Keratin-
fibers, Textile Res. J. 23, 388-397 (1953).
12. Nikonovich, G. V., Leont'eva, S. A., Byrkhanova,
N. D., and Usmanov, Kh. U., The Structure of
the Surface and of Ultrathin Sections of Polynosic
Fibers, Khim. Volokna 5,54-59 (1965).
13. Novikova, S. A. and Vorob'eva, V. 1., Microscopic
Investigation of Dyed Cross-sections of Viscose
Fibers, Khim. Volokna 3, 51-53 (1964).
14. Palil, N. B., Dweltz, N. E., and Radhakrishnan, T.,
Studies on Decrystallization of Cotton, Textile
Res. J. 35, 517-523 (1965).
15. Trotman, E. R., "Dyeing and Chemical Technology
of Textile Fibres," London, Griffin, 1964, pp. 93-99.
16. Usmanov, Kh. U. and Nikonovich, G. V., "The
Electron Microscopy of Cellulose," Tashkent. Press
Acad. Sci. Uzbek. SSR, 1962, pp. 51-66 (Russ.).
17. Woods, H. ]., Some Problems in the X-Ray Diffrac-
tion and Electron Microscopy of Keratin Fibers.
J. Polymer Sci. Part C, 20, 37-48 (1967).
Manuscript received October 16, 1968.
------- < ! ' ~ - ~ Ijlr;ji>ii> -------
Some Developments of Olofsson's Theory
of Woven Fabric Structure
I. M. Stuart
Division of Textile Physics, CSIRO, Ryde, Sydney, Australia
Abstract
The theory of woven fabric structure and yarn shape proposed by B. Olofsson is de-
scribed and appraised. Some developments of this theory are given. These develop-
ments enable more straight-forward application of the theory to be made. Alternative
but similar formulas are deduced which are applicable to the case of a partially set
fabric under no tension. Some applications of these formulas are described and the
connection with similar theories of yarn shape used by Peirce is shown.
Keywords
1. Theories, "'oven Fabric Structure, Yarn Crimp.
3. Models (Mathematical), Mathematical Analysis.
4. Yarn Tension, Yarn Geometry, Yarn Crimp; Bending Rigidity; Bending Moment,
Curvature.
5. Crimp Amplitudes, Crimp Radius.
Introduction
D. Olofsson has proposed [4, 5J a model of the
structure of simple woven fabrics. From this model,
the shape and various properties related to the
shape of the wave form of the yarn crimp are pre-
dicted, and a relationship is determined which
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SEPTEMBER 1969
845
2Q
2Q
Fig. 1. Parameters h, p, 1, and 8 describe the
shape of the yarn crimp.
Thus, the yarn is proposed to bend like an ini-
tially curved elastic beam.
Finally, Olofsson proposes a proportionality be-
tween the released curvature K and the curvature
K of the yarn in the fabric. He introduces a Param-
(1)
M = B (K - K
o
)
=B{dO _dO\ }
ds ds 0
fabric center plane of the yarn between adjacent
points of maximum displacement of the crimp form;
h is the projection onto the normal to the fabric
center plane of this section of yarn between adjac-
ent points of maximum displacement; 1 is the
curvilinear length of this section of the center line
of the yarn; and 0", is the maximum inclination of
this center line to the center plane of the fabric,
which occurs, by symmetry, where the center line
of the yarn passes through the center plane of the
fabric. The variable s gives the curvilinear distance
from this point of intersection to a current point,
and 8 is the inclination of the yarn center line at this
point to the fabric center plane; x and yare the
projections of s onto the plane of the cloth and
normal to the cloth.
Olofsson's second postulate concerns the bending
properties of the yarn. The yarn is assumed to
have a curvature K 0 when released from the fabric
(where Ko would generally be a function of s).
The bending moment M is taken to be proportional
to the difference between the curvature K of the
yarn in the fabric and the curvature of the yarn
when released. The factor of proportionality is a
bending rigidity B, assumed to be constant along
the length of the yarn. Thus, Olofsson proposes
that
connects the forces acting on the yarns with bend-
ing properties and shape properties of the yar?
The factors determining the shape of the yarn III
the fabric are postulated to be the tension acting on
the fabric and the cross-yarn reaction forces in con-
junction with elastic bending of the yarn in
the bending moment is proportional to the differ-
ence between the final and initial curvatures. In
this theory, the yarn is allowed to retain some crimp
when removed from the fabric, and thus various
aspects of partially set fabrics can be considered.
This is in contrast to similar theories proposed by
F. T. Peirce [6J and P. Grosberg and S. Kedia [2J
who regarded the yarn in the fabric as being de-
formed from an initially straight state. These
theories of woven fabrics and similar theories of
knitted fabric structure proposed by Postle and
Munden [7, 8J, in which the yarn is assumed to be
straight when removed from the fabric, have limited
application when the fabric being studied
of a material which takes set. The technIque
adopted by Olofsson to introduce partial set is
simple and can be applied to the theories of the
structure of knitted fabrics.
Some aspects of Olofsson's theory, in particular
in the study of simple woven fabrics with no tension
applied, have been developed by the author. Some
simplifications have been effected, and formulas
have been devised in which functions of the yarn
shape are expressed in terms of parameters, such as
the yarn crimp, which can be measured.
Discussion of 010fs50n's Theory
To set up his theory, Olofsson uses three postu-
lates. He first proposes that the yarn crimp shape
is determined by the forces acting on the yarn. He
thus calls his model a "geometric mechanical
structure." This is in contrast to the well known
yarn shape proposed by Peirce [6]. Peirce pro-
posed that over the region of contact the yarn con-
forms to the cross section of the intersecting thread
and is straight between contact regions. Olofsson
idealizes the forces acting on a yarn to a tension P
parallel to the direction of the projection of the
yarn on the plane of the fabric and a reaction force
2Q derived from the cross threads, localized at the
points on the center line of the yarn where the crimp
wave-form amplitude is greatest (see Fig. 1). This
latter force replaces the distributed reaction force
between the yarns. The yarn crimp shape is de-
scribed by the parameters p, h, I, and 8",: p is the
"pitch" of the waveform or the projection on to the
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846 TEXTILE RESEARCH JOURNAL
1\1 = (- B1/;) K.
eter 1/; which he calls the form factor and proposes
that
Thus, with this postulated proportionality be-
tween the released and in-fabric curvatures, the
yarn behaves as an originally straight rod with a
bending rigidity of (- B1/;). It is this property that
enables the subsequent analysis to proceed
smoothly.
Writing Equation 2 as
dOI = (1 + 1/;) de
ds u ds
and integrating this equation between the points
s = 0, 0 = Om and s = 1/2, 0 = 0, Olofsson obtains
(4a)
(4b)
1
and {32 = - ~ p2 + Q2
B
dO
as s = 0,0 = Om and - = 0
ds '
1
and at s = 2' 0 = 0.
He introduces parameters a and {3
where tan a = Ijl
where
1
1 + c = p= F (2E - F), (Sa)
~ = 2k (2E - F) (Sb)
k = sin Om/
2
(Sc)
d
28
1/;B ds
2
= - P sin 0 + Qcos 8,
(r/2
F = ) 0 (1 - k
2
sin
2
lp)-ldlp
He obtains a general solution of the differential
equation under these boundary conditions, which
gives parameters like x, y, and s as explicit functions
of 0, a, and {3. He proceeds to give the results (in
graphical form) of the calculation from this general
solution of the ratio hfP and the angle Om as func-
tions of the yarn crimp (c = ~ - 1), for a variety
of values of a under different conditions of loading
and both positive and negative values of 1/;. He
demonstates that, irrespective of the conditions
h
used, the dependence of p and Om on c closely fol-
lows that obtaining when Q= 0,' so that a = O.
The shape of the yarn under these conditions he
calls the "a = 0 geometry." It can be shown that
this is the form assumed by an elastica under com-
pression (see Fig. 2). The equations describing the
over-all parameters of this shape are: .
with boundary conditions,
yarns with the introduction of one parameter. !/t.
the form factor.
Olofsson proceeds to establish the differential
equation which follows from the equilibrium of the
yarn under the action of the forces P and 2Q. This
is
(3)
(2) K = (1 + 1/;) K
where the subscript 0 refers to the released state.
This equation enables 1/; to be estimated.
To justify such an apparently sweeping assump-
tion as that embodied in Equation 2, it might be
pointed out that the detailed shape of a crimp-wave
form has only a second-order effect on relationships
derived from the shape. This has been demon-
strated by Olofsson [4J, as shall be described be-
low, and is further demonstrated in this paper.
Among possible released crimp-wave forms that (a)
have an inflection where they cross the fabric
center plane, (b) have zero slope at the point of
maximum displacement from the center plane, and
(c) have continuous curvature, the selection of the
one which fulfills Equation 2 probably has little
effect on the results obtained therefrom. The as-
sumption is justified because it facilitates the analy-
sis and enables the consideration of partially set
As will be seen, this assumption facilitates the
analysis of the differential equation describing the
equilibrium of the yarn under the forces P and 2Q.
It becomes possible to account for a released curva-
ture in the yarn, and thus to consider a partially set
fabric without assuming a form for this released
curvature.
When 1/; = 0, K
o
= K and thus the yarn is set at
the curvature it exhibits in the fabric.
When 1/; = - 1, K = 0, corresponding to a com-
pletely unset yarn which would be straight on re-
moval from the fabric. Substituting Equation 2
into 1, Olofsson obtains
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SEPTEMBER 1969
847
and
{r/2
E = [ (1 - k
2
sin
2
lP)ldlP
Olofsson proposes that when questions arise in
which the shape of the yarn crimp form comes into
consideration the "a = 0 geometry" be used. It is
shown below how Equations 5 can lead to simpler
and more easily applied relationships.
Equation Sa as expansions in powers of the modulus
k (See Byrd and Friedman [IJ)
F = 11"/2 I1 + lk
2
+ (9/64)k
4
+ O(k6)}
E = 11"/211 -lk
2
- (3/64)k
4
+O(k6)}
we obtain the expression for the crimp e as a func-
tion of k
= kll + (9/16)k
2
+O(k.)}
Fig. 2. Forces acting on yarn center line in a = 0
and a = r/2 conditions.
or k as a function of e
k = .yell - ge/16 +o(e
2
) } (7)
Then, by expressing!: and Om as expansions in
p
powers of k, and using Equation 7 to express these
expansions as power expansions in the crimp c, we
obtain
(9)
(8)
It 4 .t:
P=;;: 'VeIl + (3/16)e +0(e
2
) }
8m = 1 - (19/48)c +o(e
2
) }
and

p
where 8m is measured in radians.
The following expressions have been found in
similar ways or by differentiating Equations 8, 9,
and 5(a).
The final result of Olofsson's theory to be con-
sidered here concerns the equation he obtains which
relates the forces P and 2Q, the shape and the form
factor for general a.
This is
(6)
dPI 11" .t:
dh
= - -2 'Vel 1 + (7/16)e +o(e
2
) }
I GODdant
(10)
where is given by Equation 4b above, y; is the form
factor, and
dl\ 11" .,-
dh
= -2 'Vctl - (9/16)c + o(c
2
) I
p con.tant
dPI
dl
= 1 +c +0 (d
2
)
h constant
(11)
(12)
and
a = 11"/2 Geometry
In some studies (for example, of hygral expan-
sion), the loading conditions on the yarn are P = 0,
2Q O. It is of interest then to determine the
form of Equation 6 above, the force equation, for
this condition. We have then a = 11"/2, B = Q
B
where
k
a
= sin -
and
ka sin 4>m = sin [!(0 - 'a)]
Developments of Olofsson's Theory
The relationships given by Equations 5 describ-
ing the "a = 0 geometry" are inconvenient to use
as they stand. However, by a simple procedure,
equations can be obtained from them which are
much more useful. Thus, expressing F and E in
dOm 11" .t:
dh/l = 2" 'Vel 1 + (5/4)c +o(e
2
) } (13)
(l4a)
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848
TEXTILE RESEARCH JOURNAL
where
and
ex =kr/2 = sin [r/4 +8m12]
. sin r/4
sin cPm = sin [r/4 +8
m
l 2J
(14b)
(14c)
are Equations 14 above and
1 +c = !- = 1',;..
p -V2 sin 8
m
h 1',;.. - 2B,;..
P= -V2 sin e:
(17a)
(17b)
(20)
Equations 14 come from those following Equation
6 when (a) sgn Q = 1, sqnP = - 1, ex = r/2,
(Olofsson's Case 2) or (b) from Olofsson's Case 3,
which, when ex = r/2, is mechanically identical
with Olofsson's Case 2.
Tabulating these functions, starting with given
values of 8
m
, we obtain the numerical relationship
(see Appendix I)
1',;..2 = 3.87 -Ve(l +0.94c) (15)
so that the force Equation 6 reduces to
Q= 15.49 B lfC (1 +0.94c) 1
1
- (16)
Here, Equation 3 has been used to express v as a
function of I, 1
0
(8
m
) , and (8
m
)0.
Equations 15 and 16 are dependent on the yarn
crimp shape given by "ex = 1f12 geometry." This
geometry is determined by the loading on the
yarn, as shown in Figure 2. Further relationships
similar to Equations 8 and 9 can be obtained by a
combination of analytic and numerical methods
from the equations describing this shape. These
The identity of these equations with Olofsson's
[4J Equations 36 and 37 when sgn P = - 1, sgn
Q = 1 with ex = r/2 follows from the identity
2k cos 8
m
= -V2 sin 8
m
,
a consequence of Equations 14b and 14c.
The relationships found are
h _,-
p= 1.29 ""e(l +0.21e) (18)
8m = 1.94.,je(1 - 0.41e) (19)
By differentiation of equations for the crimp
1 +e = and Equation 18,
we obtain
dPI -
dh
= - 1.55 "c(1 +0.31e)
I eon.tant
Table I compares the defining equations and
the numerical expressions for : and I
p h I-eon.t.
for the "ex = 0" geometry and the "ex = r/2"
geometry.
TABLE I. Defining Equations and Relationships
a == 0 Geometry a ... 11'/2 Geometry
I
1 +c ... - ... F/(2E - F)
P
h
- ... 2k/(2E - F)
P
k == sin 9./2
Defining Equations
1 +c = !_... F....
P sin em
h F.m - E"m
p== 8..
k ... sin (11'/4 +9./
2
)
ksinfJ.. = sin 11'/4
e; ... 1.94 1 - 0.41c)
dPI
dh ... - 1.55 *(1 +0.31c)
l-eolltlt.
Relationships
h -
- == 1.29 +0.21e)
p
h
- ... 1.27 +0.1ge)
p
e.. == 2*(1 - 0.40e)
dPI
dh ... - 1.57 *(1 +0.44c)
'-oonllt.
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(22)
SEPTEMBER 1969
Comparison of the numerical relationships con-
firms Olofsson's claim that the parameters relating
the shape of the crimp wave (such as hlp and 8m) ,
expressed as functions of c, are fairly independent
of ex and are well approximated by their values for
.a = O. Between ex = 0 and ex = 1T'12, there is a
difference of the order of only 2% in the value of
hiP and 3% in the value of Om. This is a strong
indication that the shape of the crimp wave form
has only a second order effect on relationship de-
rived from that shape.
Substituting either Equation 9 or Equation 19
into Equation 16 for Q, neglecting the factor of c
in these expressions, and assuming that t = to
(that is, that there is no change in curvilinear length
when the yarn is removed from the fabric), we
obtain
Q = 15.49 B;C (1 + 0.94c) 11 - ~ I (21)
This equation enables the value of the interyarn
force Qto be calculated for a partially set condition
of a fabric under zero tension.
Some Applications
Some relationships are obtained from the equality
of the interyarn forces Ql and Q2' as calculated by
Equation 16 for either warp or weft values. Writ-
ing Equation 16 for both warp (suffix 1) and weft
(suffix 2), we obtain
_ 15.49 B1 ~ ( 1 +0.94 C1) 1.
1
. I
Ql - /
1
2
'1'1
Q
_ 15.49 B2 ~ ( 1 +0.94 C2) 1.
1
. I
2 - 1
2
2
'1'2
Expressing 1as a function of c and P,
l = p(1 +c)
and equating QI and Q2' we obtain
.w;. 1 + 1.06 C2 PI
2
B2 '/;2
1 + 1.06 Cl' -{C; = P2
2
B
1
'/;1
This can be compared with the approximate
equation found by Peirce [6J who considered what
is effectively the "ex = 1T'/2 geometry" with initially
straight yarns, so that '/;1 =!/t2 = - 1. Peirce's
equation is
849
In Equation 22, B
1
and B
2
are the warp and weft
yarn bending rigidities. The measurable quantity
in bending rigidity is the bending rigidity of unit
width of fabric (EI). We now assume that this
rigidity is the sum of individual yarn rigidities.
1
11
B 1 = (EI) 1 PI P2
= (Elh' (1 +Cl) 'P2
I h f
11.. d d th
I ere, t e actor - 1S mtro uce because e
PI
yarn rigidity is a curvilinear one and that contribut-
ing to the fabric rigidity would a be rectilinear one,
So, substituting in Equation 22 for B
1
and B
2
, we
obtain an expression for the ratio of the weft form
factor to the warp form factor.
' 1 ~ 2 1 1 ~ C t 1 +0.06 Cl P2
3
(EI) 1 (23)
'I' = -vc;'1 + 0.06 C2' P1
3
' (Elh
Discussion
It has been shown how the equations describing
Olofsson's "ex = 0 geometry" can be reduced to
simpler approximate forms suitable for both the-
oretical and numerical investigations.
An alternative system of relationships has been
presented which corresponds to an "ex = -rr/2 geo-
metry." This system corresponds to the case when
the fabric is under no tension and should be more
appropriate for application to fabrics relaxed under
tensionless conditions. I t has been shown how this
case corresponds to that studied by Peirce [3J (with
the addition, however, of the form factor !/t).
Olofsson's theory with ex = 1T'/2 improves on that of
Peirce because of the introduction of the form
factory !/t, which allows the yarns to have a partial
set. Relationships between parameters such as
h/] and Om are independent of the loading level {3
and the form factor v. These parameters (/3 and
'"] enter into consideration only in expressions like
Equations 6 and 21 which relate the loading to the
shape of the yarn wave form.
1 That this is not generally so has been established by
Grosberg [3J who has found that the fabric bending stiffness
may exceed the sum of the crimped yarn bending stiffness by
up to 100%.
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850
Appendix I
This appendix gives the outline of the calculations
by which Equations 18, 19, and 2, were determined
TEXTILE RESEARCH JOURNAL
(Table AI). The elliptic functions F(f/ and E(q,}
were found by interpolation in tables from Byrd
and Friedman [1].
TABLE AI. Outline of Calculations
hlp
! [ Fe(</J) __ IJ"
C
1 [hiP l]b
c
0 0 0
10 0.008183 0.116984 0.9291
20 0.033467 0.237867 0.9308
30 0.078258 0.367202 0.9340
40 0.147333 0.511156 0.9391
50 0.249551 0.679320 0.9474
60 0.402182 0.889011 0.9609
0.2143
0.2142
0.2141
0.2140
0.2138
0.2135
-0.4444
-0.4381
-0.4276
-0.4125
-0.3923
-0.3662
"Analysis of Equations 14, 17 giveslim = -<JiS = 3.8730.
0.......0
b Analysis of Equations 14, 17 gives lim = @ = 1.2910.
e-O 'IIC '\,}9
Analysis of Equations 14, 17 gives lim 87: = 1f..
4
5
= 1.9365.
-0 vc '\J
d cis c1aculated using Equation 17(a).
hlp is calculated using Equation 17(b).
Literature Cited
1. P. F. Byrd and Friedman, M. D., Handbook of
Elliptic Integrals, Berlin, Springer-Varlag, 1954.
2. Grosberg, P. and Kedia, S., Mechanical Properties
of Woven Fabrics. Pt. I: The Initial Load Exten-
sion Modulus of Woven Fabrics, Textile Res. J. 36,
71-79 (1966).
3. Grosberg, P., The Mechanical Properties of \Voven
Fabrics. Pt. II: The Binding of Woven Fabrics,
Textile Res. J. 36, 205-211 (1966).
4. Olofsson, B., General Model of a Fabric as a Geo-
metric-Mechanical Structure. J. Textile Insi. 55,
TS41-TS57 (1964).
5. Olofsson, B., Model Studies of Relationships Be-
tween Geometry, Fine Structure and Mechanical
Properties of Worsted Fabrics, Proc. Int. Wool
Testile Res. Conf., Paris, 1965, Section 4, pp. 439-
449.
6. Pierce, F. T., The Geometry of Cloth Structure.
J. Textile Inst. 28, T4ST96 (1937).
7. Postle, R. and Munden, D. L., Analysis of the Dry-
Relaxed Knitted Loop Configuration. Pt. I: Two
Dimensional Analysis, J. Textile Inst. 58, 329-365
(1967).
8. Postle, R. and Munden, D. L. Analysis of the Dry-
Relaxed Knitted Loop Configuration. II:
Three Dimensional Analysis, J. Textile Inst. 58
352-365 (1967). '
Man".tript ,,,eived Novemlle, 13,1968.
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