METAL CASTING Introduction Casting - may be defined as a metal object obtained by allowing molten metal to solidify in a mold, the

shape of the object being determined by the shape of the mold cavity. Founding or casting is the process of forming metal objects by melting metal and pouring it into molds. Foundry a commercial establishment for founding or producing castings. Advantages of metal-casting process over other methods of shaping metals such as machining, forging, welding, stamping, hot working, etc.: 1. The most intricate shapes, both external and internal, may be cast. As a result, many other operations such as machining, forging, and welding may be minimized or eliminated. 2. Because of their metallurgical nature, some metals can only be cast to shape since they cannot be hot-worked into bars, rods, plates, or other shapes from ingot form as a preliminary to other processing. The highly useful and low cost cast irons, which exceeds all other metals in tonnage cast, illustrate this fact. 3. Construction may be simplified. Objects may be cast in a single piece which would otherwise require construction in several pieces and subsequent assembly if made by other methods. 4. Metal casting is a process highly adaptable to the requirements of mass production. Large numbers of a given casting may be produced very rapidly. The use of castings in the automotive industry provides ample illustration of this point. 5. Extremely large, heavy metal objects may be cast when they would be difficult or economically impossible to produce otherwise. Large pump housings, valves, and hydroelectric plant parts weighing up to 200 tons illustrate this application. 6. Some engineering properties are obtained more favorably in cast metals. A number of examples are given below: a. Machinability and vibration damping capacity in cast irons. b. More uniform properties from a directional standpoint; i.e., properly cast metals exhibit the same properties regardless of which direction the test piece is selected relative to the original casting. This is not true for wrought metals. c. Strength and lightness in certain light metal alloys which can be produced only as castings. d. Good bearing qualities are obtained in cast bearing metals. In general, a wide range of alloy composition and properties is produced is cast form. 7. A decided economic advantage may exist as a result of any one or a combination of the points listed above. The price and sales factor is a heavy one which continually weighs

the advantages and limitations of any process used in a competitive system of enterprise. Principal advantages to be gained by the other metal-processing methods: 1. Machining produces smooth surfaces and dimensional accuracy not obtainable in any other way. 2. Forging aids in developing the ultimate of fibered strength and toughness in steel. 3. Welding provides a convenient method of joining or fabricating wrought or cast products into more complex structures 4. Stamping produces lightweight sheet-metal parts. Types of foundries : Foundries may be classified according to the nature of their work and their organizational framework. Jobbing foundry one having a physical plant such that it usually contracts to produce a casting or a small number of castings of a given kind. Production foundry a highly mechanized shop which requires that large numbers of a given kind of casting be made in order to produce them at low cost. Semiproduction shops are those in which a portion of the work is of a jobbing nature while the balance is production casting. Captive foundry one which is an integral part of some manufacturing company and whose castings are consumed mainly in the products of the parent organization. Independent foundry usually a separate company that produces castings for any number of customers. Basic steps in making sand castings: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Patternmaking(including core boxes) Coremaking Molding Melting and pouring Cleaning

Patternmaking. Patterns are required to make molds. The mold is made by packing some readily formed plastic material such as molding sand around the pattern. When the pattern is withdrawn, its imprint provides the mold cavity which is ultimately filled with metal to become the casting. A pattern may simply be visualized as an approximate replica of the exterior of a casting. If the casting is to be hollow, as the case of pipe fitting, additional patterns, referred to as core boxes, are used to form the sand that is used to create these cavities.

Coremaking. Cores are forms, usually made of sand, which are placed into a mold cavity to form the interior surfaces of castings. Thus the void space between the core and mold cavity surface is what eventually becomes the casting. Core boxes are required to produce cores, so that this operation is again dependent on the pattern department. Molding. Molding consists of all operations necessary to prepare a mold for receiving molten metal. Molding usually implies ramming molding sand around a pattern placed in a supporting frame, withdrawing the pattern to leave the mold cavity, setting of cores in the mold cavity, and the finishing and closing of the mold. The mold is then ready for pouring. Melting and pouring. The preparation of molten metal for casting is referred simply as melting. Melting is usually done in a specifically designated area of the foundry, and the molten metal is transferred to the molding area where the molds are poured. Cleaning. Cleaning refers to all operations necessary to the removal of sand, scale, and excess metal from the casting. The casting is separated from the molding sand and transported to the cleaning department. Burned-on sand and scale are removed to improve the surface appearance of the casting. Excess metal, in the form of fins, wires, parting line, and gates, is cut off. Defective castings may be salvaged by welding or other repair. Inspection of the casting for defects and general quality follows. The casting is then ready for shipment or further processing; for example, heat treatment, surface treatment, or machining. PATTERNS Types of Patterns 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Single or loose patterns Gated patterns Match-plate patterns Cope and drag patterns Special patterns or pattern devices

Loose Patterns. Loose patterns are single copies of the casting but incorporating the allowances and core prints necessary to producing the casting. Gating systems are hand-cut in the sand. Gated Patterns. Gated patterns are an improvement on ungated loose patterns. The gating system is actually a part of the pattern and eliminates hand cutting of the gates. Match-plate Patterns. Large quantity production of small castings requires match-plate patterns or more specialized types of pattern equipment. The cope and drag portions of the pattern are mounted on opposite sides of a wood or metal plate conforming to the parting

line. Match plates are also integrally cast, in which case pattern and plate are cast as one piece in sand or plaster molds. Cope and Drag Pattern Plates. Cope and drag pattern plates consist of the cope and drag parts of the pattern mounted on separate plates. The cope and drag halves of the mold may thus be made separately by workers on different molding machines. Separate pattern plates require accurate alignment of the two mold halves by means of guide and locating pins and bushings in order that the upper and lower parts of the casting will match. Special Patterns and Devices. Specialized pattern equipment is employed when the types discussed above are not suitable. PATTERN ALLOWANCES a. Shrinkage Allowance. Shrinkage allowance on patterns is a correction for solidification shrinkage of the metal and its contraction during cooling to room temperature. The total contraction is volumetric, but the correction for it is usually expressed linearly. Pattern shrinkage allowance is the amount that a pattern is made oversize to compensate for the contraction of the casting metal. Shrinkage allowances for some of the common metals Cast iron ..1/8 in. per ft. Brass.3/16 in. per ft. Aluminum.3/16 in. per ft Steel...1/4 in. per ft b. Pattern Draft Draft is the term applied to the taper on all vertical surfaces of a pattern, so that it can be removed from the sand without excessive rapping by the molder and without injury to the mold. The surface from which the draft starts is called the face of the pattern. The amount of draft to be allowed depends upon a. the length of the part that is to be drawn from the sand, and b. upon the intricacy of the work. The usual allowance is 1/8 in per ft. of height and this is generally sufficient for small and comparatively plain patterns. For other types of work, an amount of in. to 3/8 in per ft. may be given, especially when the part of the pattern is molded in the cope and a perfect lift is essential. c. Finish refers to an extra amount of metal that is added to certain parts of a casting so that they may be finished or machined to proper size. On small or medium sized iron castings, an allowance of 1/8 in is sufficient for the machining operations. For large steel castings, the finish may vary from to in. For non-ferrous castings, such as brasss and aluminum, it may vary from 1/32 to 1/8 in.

d. Machining provisions in order to facilitate the handling of certain types of castings during the machining operations, provisions should be made to hold or to prevent distortion of the work. e. Allowance to overcome warp some castings tend to become distorted or warped when cooling. This is due to uneven metal thickness or to one surface being more exposed than another , and therefore cooling more rapidly. The exact amount of allowance necessary can be determined only by trial, but the need for it and the approximate amount can be closely estimated from the shape of the casting. f. Allowance for rapping During the process of rapping, the cavity tends to increase in size. No definite amount as the proper allowance for shake can be given, as this must be determined almost entirely by experiment. CASTING PROCESSES SAND CASTING Green-sand Molding. Green molding sand may be defined as a plastic mixture of sand grains, clay, water, and other materials which can be used for molding and casting processes. The sand is called green because of the moisture present and is thus distinguished from dry sand. Advantages of green-sand molding 1. Great flexibility as a production process. Mechanical equipment can be utilized for performing molding and its allied operations. Furthermore, green sand can be reused many times by reconditioning it with water, clay, and other materials. The molding process can be rapid and repetitive. 2. Usually the most direct route from pattern to mold ready for pouring is by green-sand molding. 3. Economy. Green-sand molding is ordinarily the least costly method of molding unless special reasons exist which favor the other casting processes. Limitations in the use of green-sand molding 1. Some casting designs require the use of other casting processes. Thin, long projections of green sand in a mold cavity are washed away by the molten metal or may not even be moldable. 2. Certain metals and some castings develop defects if poured into moulds containing moisture. 3. More intricate castings can be made by some other casting processes. 4. The dimensional accuracy and surface finish of green sand castings may not be adequate. 5. Large castings require greater mold strength and resistance to erosion than is available in green sands.

Dry-sand Molds. Dry-sand molds are actually made with molding sand in the green sand condition. The sand mixture is modified somewhat to favor food strength and other properties after the mold is dried. The drying operation is one inherent disadvantage of a dry-sand mold. However , because the mold is dry, the volume of gas formed when the casting is poured is much less than with green sand molds, and casting defects attributed to moisture should be absent. Floor and Pit Molding. The production of large intricate castings weighing from 1 to over 100 tons is, of course, one of the special advantages of the casting processes. Floor molding is done on the floor of bays of the foundry set aside for these heavy molding jobs. When the pattern being molded is too large to be handled in flasks, the molding is done in pits. Molding pits are concrete-lined box-shaped holes in the molding floor. Cement-bonded-sand Molds. Cement-bonded molding sand is a mixture of sand, 8 to 12 per cent high-early-strength hydraulic cement, and 4 to 6 per cent water. This sand develops great hardness and strength by the setting action of portland cement. Core-sand or Core Molds. Sometimes molds are made entirely of an assemblage of cores. In place of patterns, core boxes are used for making all parts of the mold. The cores are fitted together to make the mold, being located by alignment bosses and holes. They usually are poured without a flask surrounding the mold. Shell Molding (C Process). Shell molding is a new comer among the molding process for making sand castings. The essential feature of the shell or Croning process is the use of thin walled moulds, in which the external surface follows the contour of the mould cavity.The shell is cured in two stages. When the sand mixture drops onto a pattern heated to about 350 to 700 F, the plastic partially thermosets and builds up a coherent sand shell next to the pattern. The thickness of this shell is related to pattern temperature, dwell time on the pattern, and the sand mixture. DIE CASTING a) Gravity die casting ( Permanent mold casting) b) Pressure die casting Gravity Die Casting (Permanent Mold Casting). The essential feature of die casting is the use of permanent metal molds, into which molten alloy is either poured directly or injected under pressure, giving rise to the separate processes of gravity and pressure die casting. Molds which can be reused many times are made of metal, usually gray cast iron or steel, though sometimes of bronze. The mold cavity (or die cavity) in a permanent mold is often cast to its rough contour and then is machined to its finished dimensions. The gating system as well as mold cavities are

machined making it possible to obtain very good finish and dimensional accuracy in castings. Principal alloys so cast include aluminum, magnesium, zinc, lead, copper-base alloys, and cast irons. Arising form their use of permanent molds, both gravity and pressure processes are noted for low production costs combined with high initial tooling costs. Pressure Die Casting Pressure die casting differs from permanent-mold casting in that the molten metal is forced into the mold cavity under high pressures, 1000 to 100,000 psi. These conditions give a unique capacity for the production of intricate components at relatively low cost. The main features of a machine are the system for injecting the metal and the means of clamping the die and actuating its movements during the production and ejection of a casting. Two basic types of unit are used for injection, these being referred to as hot and cold chamber systems. In the hot chamber or gooseneck type of machine, a reservoir of molten metal is maintained at a temperature well above the melting point. For casting, metal from the chamber is forced through the gooseneck into the die, which is held in direct contact with the exit orifice. Hot chamber machines are extensively used for the casting of zinc base alloys but are unsuitable for aluminum and other alloys of higher melting point, since they give rise to contamination with iron due to prolonged contact of the molten alloy with the walls of the chamber. The cold chamber machine is preferred for alloys of higher melting point. Metal for a single shot is loaded into a cylindrical chamber through a pouring aperture; a piston then forces the metal into the die, the entire operation being completed in a few seconds so that iron contamination is virtually eliminated. Advantages of Pressure Die Casting 1. A Production rate of 150 to 250 die-cast cycles per hr with up to 500 shots per hr possible. 2. Commercial dimensional tolerances of +0.001 to +0.003 in. can be obtained easily in some castings. 3. Thin sections, down to 0.015 in. in small castings, can be cast because of the pressures involved. 4. Accurate coring and casting of inserts is possible, 5. Surface finish of many castings is such that they can be buffed directly. 6. Rapid cooling rate produces high strength and quality in many alloys; zinc-based diecasting alloys, for example, would not be used in many of their present applications if they could only be sand-cast.

INVESTMENT CASTING (also known as the lost-wax process, or precision casting) The term investment refers to a cloak or special covering apparel, in this case a refractory mold, surrounding a refractory-covered wax pattern. In this process a wax pattern must be made for every casting and gating system to be cast. The patterns are cast by injection molding. The wax pattern is in effect die-cast in metal molds. To obtain the wax pattern it is necessary to have a master metal pattern from which the die can be cast using low-melting alloys, or the die itself may be machined as a negative of the pattern. The essential steps in the manufacture of a precision investment casting are summarized as follows: 1. Construction of a die containing an impression of the casting 2. Production and assembly of expendable patterns 3. Investment of the patterns to form a one-piece refractory mold 4. Pattern elimination and high temperature firing 5. Casting and finishing Advantages of Investment Casting 1. Casting high-pouring-temperature alloys to accurate dimensions. 2. Machining on castings of many difficult-to-machine alloys is reduced or eliminated. 3. Casting of great exterior and interior intricacy may be cast. 4. Thin sections may be cast, even in the high-pouring-temperature alloys, because of the heated molds. 5. Unlike pressure die casting, it is applicable to alloys of virtually any composition. The application of investment casting is principally in the field of small components which can be produced in large assemblies around single running systems. PLASTER MOLD CASTING This process may be used for copper and aluminum-base alloys, but not ferrous alloys. Plasters used for molding consist of mixtures of gypsum or plaster of Paris, CaSO4. H2O, and ingredients such as talc, asbestos fiber, silica flour, and others to control the contraction characteristics of the mold and setting time. Steps 1. The plaster is added to water and mixed to the desired consistency. 2. After mixing, plaster in a creamy condition is poured over the pattern and retained in a flask. A pattern parting, stearic acid dissolved in petroleum spirits may be used. Generally metal patterns are necessary because the water in the plaster raises the grain of wood patterns and makes then almost impossible to draw.

3. Setting of the plaster involves hydration of the gypsum: CaSO 4. + 3/2 H2O = CaSO4. 2 H2O + heat. 4. The molds are dried at 400 F or higher. 5. After setting 20-30 minutes the pattern can be rapped and blown off the mold by air. Permeable (porous) casting plaster can be made by beating air bubbles into the plaster slurry with a mechanical mixer. Advantage 1. Because of its dimensional accuracy and good surface finish many castings such as rubber-tire molds, foam-rubber molds, cast match plates, and the like are molded in this way. CENTRIFUGAL CASTING The essential feature of centrifugal casting is the introduction of molten metal into a mold which is rotated during solidification of the casting . Centrifugal casting refers more specifically to the forces used to distribute the metal in the mold than to a specific molding process. Molds for this process are usually specially designed, thus considered a special process. Pipes, gun tubes, bushings, and a variety of centrifugal casting are made by this process. Three categories 1. True centrifugal casting 2. Semicentrifugal casting 3. Centrifuging The casting of a plain pipe or tube is accomplished by rotation of a mold about its own axis, the bore shape being produced by centrifugal force alone and the wall thickness determined by the volume of metal introduced. This practice is widely referred to as true centrifugal casting. In the case of a component of varying internal diameter or irregular wall thickness a central core may be used to form the internal contours, feeder heads then being introduced to compensate for solidification shrinkage. A further step away from the original concept is the spacing of separate shaped castings about a central down runner which forms the axis of rotation. These variations are referred to respectively as semicentrifugal casting and centrifuging or pressure casting: in both cases, since the castings are shaped wholly by the mold and cores, centrifugal force is used primarily as a source of pressure for feeding.

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF A GOOD MOLDING MATERIAL a. Green Strength The sand used for moulding after water has been mixed in it is known as green sand. It must have adequate strength and toughness after it has just been forced into the shape of the mold. b. Dry and Hot Strength when the metal is poured, the material adjacent to it dries up. The mold material must: resist erosion due to metal flow resist mold cavity enlargement c. Permeability heat from the metal causes evolution of great amounts of steam and other gases. The mold must be porous enough to allow gases to escape, or else be trapped in as gas holes. d. Thermal stability the heat can cause rapid expansion. The materail must be dimensionally stable to prevent cracking, buckling, flaking off e. Refractoriness must not melt, soften or adhere to molten metal f. Flowability- must pack well under usual packing modes g. Collapsibility- It is difficult to remove the casting if the sand becomes hard after solidification of the metal. It must be easily collapsible such that the casting is removed easily Ingredients of expendable molds 1. Aggregate the refractory material 2. Binder binds refractory materials together 3. Additives/modifiers- modifies properties to more desirable ones SAND CONTROL TESTS 1. Moisture content test Low moisture content in the sand does not develop strength properties, whereas high moisture content decreases permeability. Moisture content can be measured by conventional method (i.e. measuring the weight loss of a sand sample after drying in an oven) or by using a moisture teller. The latter is based on the chemical reaction: CaC2 + 2 H2O = 2Ca(OH)2 + C2H2. Weighted amount of sand sample and calcium carbide are mixed thoroughly. The pressure of the gas generated has been calibrated directly in the percentage of moisture. 2. Grain fineness test- the sand is placed at the top of a sieve shaker which contains a number of sieves. 3. Permeability test- Permeability of air is the amount of air that can pass through the opposite faces of a unit cube in unit time, across a pressure difference of one gram per centimeter square.

4. Strength test- Sand sample to be tested is held between grips. Compressive load is applied until the sand collapses. The amount of load exerted on the sample is indicated by a dial. Tensile and shear test are also carried out. 5. Refractoriness- The segercone method is commonly used for measuring refractoriness of sand. Different cones of different materials, whose softening temperatures are known, are heated along with the specimen. At a particular temperature, the tip of the segercone melts. The tip of the cone, whose melting is similar to the specimen is noted. Another test consist of heating the sand to 1580C and dimensional changes are noted. A good refractory sand must not expand more than 7%. 6. Mould hardness test- Indentation hardness tester is the commonly used instrument to measure hardness. On pressing the hardness tester on the moulded sand, the indentor penetrates the mould surface. The depth of penetration has been calibrated in terms of hardness units and hardness reading is taken directly on scale. RISERS Definition: A reservoir of molten metal which is designed to solidify last and which is directly attached to the casting to prevent formation of shrinkage voids. Function: To feed molten metal to the casting as it solidifies; To prevent internal or external shrinkage cavities in the casting Size and Shape of each feeder head must satisfy two requirements: 1. Freezing time: The head must freeze sufficiently slowly to ensure that liquid metal will be available throughout the freezing of the section to be fed. 2. Volume feed capacity: The head must be capable of supplying a sufficient volume of liquid to compensate for liquid and solidification shrinkage.

SOLIDIFICATION TIME AND THE CHWORINOV RULE Casting losses thermal energy by transferring it to surroundings by radiation, conduction, convection. Even without establishing relative importance of the three modes of heat transfer, it is apparent that the surface area (SA) relative to volume V is important in determining the rate of heat transfer. Chworinov Rule postulates that the total freezing time of any casting is a direct function of the ratio of its volume to its surface area: t = B(V/SA)2 where t is the freezing time B is the mold constant ( When metal is poured into the mold, most of heat is eventually absorbed by the mold itself therefore properties of the mold are important in heat flow.) This expression was developed theoretically and was found to correspond well with experimental determinations made on a wide variety of cast shapes ranging from plates to spheres. RISER SHAPE For riser to solidify later than casting t(riser) must be greater than t(casting), i.e. Br (V/SA)2 riser > Bc (V/SA)2casting If materials for mold and riser are same Br = Bc (V/SA)2 riser > (V/SA)2casting For riser to have long solidification time, it must have large V compared to SA. This indicates that minimum riser size would be obtained for a sphere. Practical difficulties with sphere: 1. usually difficult to mold 2. presents feeding problems because last metal to freeze is at center of sphere where it could not be used to feed the casting. Practicalities dictate the use of cylinders with D = H (where D is the riser diameter and H is the height). Maximum value of H, Hmax = 1.5D (additional height is no advantage; means additional surface and extra metal merely feeds lower part of riser).

RISER SIZE A. CAINE METHOD Caines method uses the concepts of: 1. Relative Volume, RV RV = volume of riser/ volume of casting = Vr/Vc 2. Freezing Ratio, FR, or relative freezing time FR = (SA/V)casting / (SA/V)riser He uses an empirical equation of the form X = a / (y b) + c where x = freezing ratio y = relative volume a and b = constants which relate to the mode of solidification and the contraction of the metal as it cools from pour temperatue through solidification range (experimentaly determined) c = a measure of the difference in relative freeze rates of riser and casting due to independent variables ( c = 1 when both riser and casting are cast in the same mold material i.e. both are dissipating heat at the same rate) B. NRL METHOD Based on the observation that the relative volume ( RV = Vr/Vc) must be greater for chunky castings (than for platelike castings) because of their low SA to V ratios. Major simplification : Uses the concept of a shape factor for the casting ( instead of tedious calculation of SA/V ratio). SHAPE FACTOR, SF The shape factor is given as the sum of the length L and width W of casting divided by the thickness T: SF = (L + W)/T L, W and T are calculated using the maximum dimension of the PARENT section of the casting, i.e. if a casting has small appendages, then the appendages are not used in calculating SF but they do enter into the calculation for the casting volume V.

NRL involves 3 steps: 1. The shape factor for the casting is determined, using the dimensions of the main body of the casting or of the section being considered; 2. The ratio Vr/Vc is derived from the graph; 3. Vr is calculated from the volume of the casting or section. CASTING OF CAST IRON V of Cast Iron on solidification: The formation of graphite in cast iron if in sufficient quantities can lead to expansion which compensate for the solidification shrinkage. In such cases, no riser is needed. However if the amount of graphite cannot fully compensate for the solidification shrinkage, we need to determine the carbon effect and use graphs obtained empirically. Carbon Effect, CE: CE = %C + %Si/3 Empirical observation for carbon effect on V of cast iron: If (C + Si/7) 3.9 no contraction!!! (no risers needed)

Silicon frees more carbon to form graphite. NRL Method for designing risers for castings with appendages: Steps: 1. Calculate SF of parent (or main casting): SF = (L+W)/T 2. Get relative volume RV value from graph of RV vs. SF. Note: For cast iron determine carbon effect (CE = %C + %Si/3). 3. Solve for the volume of riser using the equation RV = Vr/Vc Where Vr is riser volume Vc is the volume of the casting (Vc = Vparent + f.Vappendage) f is % parasitic

i)

% parasitic, f, is determined by following the procedure below classify whether parent is plate or bar ; repeat for appendage If W > 3T PLATE W < 3T BAR

ii)

classify as 1. Plate feeding plate (PP) 2. PB 3. BB 4. BP Calculate Tappendage/Tparent Using the graph of f vs. Tappendage/Tparent , determine the value of f.

iii) iv)

THE GATING OF CASTINGS The gating system is that part of the mold cavity through which the metal is poured to fill the casting impression. VARIATIONS IN GATING POSITIONS

Top gating When metal is poured through a top gate or directly into an open feeder head, the stream impinges against the bottom of the mold cavity until a pool is formed; this is kept in a state of agitation until the mould is filled. The erosive effect of the unconfined stream can be severe, whilst the associated splashing gives opportunity for oxidation. Principal advantages of top gating are : (a) its simplicity for molding (b) low consumption of additional metal

(c) above all, the generation of temperature gradients favorable to feeding from top heads; this arises from the proportionately rapid cooling of the first metal poured, followed by the progressive accumulation of metal from above until the mold is full. Bottom gating Quiet entry of metal into the mould cavity is best achieved by its introduction at the lowest level. Using this method the metal rises steadily through the mold, splashing is eliminated and dislodged molding material tends to be carried to the surface. Despite the greater complexity of molding the method is much used for heavy castings. Side gating Molding can be simplified by the discharge of metal into the side of the mold cavity through the ingates molded along a parting plane; this practice offers the best compromise between molding convenience and the ideal gating arrangement. CASTING DEFECTS 1. SHRINKAGE Shrinkage assumes various forms but in all cases it occurs because molten metal shrinks as it solidifies, in all portions of the final casting. Shrinkage is avoided by making sure that the volume of the casting is adequately fed by risers which sacrificially retain the shrinkage. High pouring temperatures can aggravate shrinkage. 2. HOT TEARS OR CRACKS These defects occur because the casting cannot shrink freely during cooling, owing to constraints in various portions of the moulds and cores. The two sources of stress causing hot tears are (a) differences in contraction of mold and casting and (b) differences in time at which contraction occurs at different locations within the mold. Exothermic (heat producting) compounds may be used (exothermic padding) to control cooling at critical sections to avoid hot tearing. .

3. GAS POROSITY Gas porosity is a form of spherical or elliptical holes within the cast metal. These are usually due to occluded gas in the melt that had no chance to rise and escape through the casting top or its risers. Gas porosity often comes from the atmosphere or from mold-metal interactions. Overheating of melt and excessive moisture in molds and/or cores tends to promote this flaw type. 4. COLD SHUT Cold shut is an interface in a casting that lacks complete fusion because of the meeting of two streams of liquid metal from different gates. Caused by excessively low pouring temperature and rate of metal delivery. Improved gating and higher pouring temperatures are remedies. 5. BLOWS AND SCARS A blow, caused by the rapid evolution of gas from a wet mold or chill, produces gas holes in the metal. A scar is an unfilled packet due to build up of mold gas in cope pockets in amounts sufficient to prevent metal flow. 6. INCLUSIONS Sand inclusions and dross are nonmetallic oxides which come from disintegrated portions of mold or core walls and/or from oxides (formed in the melt) which have not been skimmed off prior to introduction of the metal into the mold gates. Careful control of the melt, proper holding time in the ladle and skimming of the melt during pouring will minimize or obviate this source of trouble. 7. INCOMPLETE CASTING

Incomplete casting, such as misruns (due to premature solidification), insufficient volume of metal poured, and runout (due to loss of metal from mould after pouring).