Emm 214 - Notes - 2013

EMM 214 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING II DR C.
M MURIITHI 1
Course content
DC motor and generator; equivalent coupled circuits for electrical & energy conversion,
performance, characteristics, testing and speed control.
Transformers; couple circuits & two winding transformers. Equivalent circuits & phase
diagrams of single-phase transformer. Transformer efficiency & regulation. Three-phase
winding, connecting, grouping & operation. Three phase induction motors; operation,
equivalent circuit, performance characteristics & control. Synchronous Motors. Adjusting The
Field Excitation
Course prerequisites
This course assumes a sound background in Circuit Theory
Methods of delivery(teaching)
Types and quantities of teaching activities: Lectures/Tutorial: 3hrs per week. Laboratory
experiments: Per Lab time table.
Teaching and learning materials: Lecture notes.
Type of student activities: Normal lecture attendance.
Feedback mechanisms to students: Strict attendance of lectures and tutorial classes.
(ii) Assessment & Grading
Final Exam 70%
CAT 1,2,3 10%
Homework Assignments 5%
1,2,3
Laboratory 15%
TOTAL 100%
Textbooks (Reading list):

1. B.L. Theraja, A.K. Theraja: Electrical Technology, S. Chand & Co.
Ltd., 1999
2. Edward Hughes: Electrical Technology, ELBS, 1991
3. H. Cotton: Electrical Technology, CBS, 1984
Course Lecturer
Dr. Maina C.M.
Email address: cmmuriithi@eng.jkuat.ac.ke
EMM 214
EMM 214 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING II DR C. M MURIITHI 2
1. ELECTROMAGNETISM: INTRODUCTION TO
MACHINE THEORY
1.1 Introduction
Electromagnetism is the energy conversion process whereby electrical energy is
converted to mechanical energy and vice-versa by means of an electromagnetic
system.
In this topic we’ll explain how mechanical forces can be developed by magnetic
attraction and alignment and how rotary motion therefore be realized
1.2 Conversion process in a machine

An electromagnetic machine is one that links an electrical energy system to
another energy system by providing a reversible means of energy flow in its
magnetic field.
The magnetic field is therefore the coupling between the two systems and is the
mutual link.
The energy transferred from the one system to the other is temporarily stored in
the field and then released to the other system.
An electromagnetic system can develop a mechanical force in two ways:
(a) By alignment
(b) By interactions
(a) Forces Of Alignment.
N N
Force of attraction
Force of attraction
Force of alignment
S S
(a) (b)
Fig 2.1 Force of attraction and alignment
In fig 2.1(a) the two poles are situated opposite one another and a flux passes from
one to the other and hence they are attracted towards one another.
The force of alignment acts in any direction that will increase the magnetic energy
stored in the arrangement. In fig 2.1(a) it will try to bring the poles together since
these decreases the reluctance of the air gap in the magnetic circuit and hence will
increase the flux and consequently stored energy.
In fig 2.1(b), poles are not situated opposite one another. The resultant forces tries
to achieve greater stored energy by two component:
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i) By attraction of poles towards one another

ii) By aligning of the poles laterally
If the poles move laterally, the cross-sectional area of the air-gap is increased and
the reluctance is reduced with consequent increase in the stored energy.
(b) Force of alignment in a reluctance motor
Frotor
Fstator
(a)
(b)
The centrally pivoted rotor magnet position as in fig 2.2(a) will not have any
tendency to turn. Suppose that there is an angular displacement δ, between the two
magnetic axes, fig 2.2(b).
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As indicated by the arrows, and also by the field lines round the conductors, forces
will be exerted both attractive and repulsive tending to bring the magnets into
alignment.
The total force and the corresponding turning moment (torque) will vary with the
angular position being a maximum when δ =90o.
1.3 The Magnetic Aspects

The relationship between the flux density B in teslas (Wb/m2) and magnetizing
for H in amperes per meter (A/m) is given by
B   o H .................2.1
where
 o  4  10 7
μ- Relative permeability
H-field intensity
In an electrical machine the flux paths are either in air, hydrogen, water insulation
or other non-magnetic material and also in iron for which μr varies with H and
may have a value of 1000 or more.
Hysteresis` loop
The typical Magnetization curve, the relationship between B and H is highly none
linear.
If H is decreased and reversed, the curve does not retrace the same path.
Energy expended in domain changes is not all recoverable and the domains retain
their new magnetic axes. Consequently, when H=O, there is a residual value of
flux density the magnitude of which, Bres, depends on the material, its crystal
structure and the value of B.
To bring B=O requires a coercive field intensity, coersivity, HC, which is
negative.
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Fig 2.5
1.3.1 IRON LOSSES
a) Hysteresis loss
If a ring of iron with cross-section area A, mean circumferential length l is
magnetized by a coil carrying i amperes through N turns, the supply must
(d )
provide a component of voltage e  N to sustain a changing current and
dt
flux and to account for i*R work done against emf in time dt:
( B  A) Hl
e  i  dt  N  dt............................2.2
dt N
where B- flux density
N i  A
H ......................................................2.3
l  m 
(b) Eddy Current Loss
Since iron is a conductor, a changing flux induces emfs and currents within
the iron mass. These eddy current produce losses, heating and
demagnetisations.
1.4 Magnetic Circuit Calculation
Basically, there are two types of magnetic circuits, called series and
parallel.
Analogous to electric circuits a magnetic series circuit is one in which the flux
set up by the current-carrying coil, the excitation, is common throughout the
entire circuit. Parallel circuits are defined as those having more than one path
for the flux to close.
Air gaps may be present which have a significant influence on the excitation
requirements.
Air gaps may be introduced on purpose such as the air gap in rotating machine
to separate the rotating member from the stationary one.
Typical, in magnetic circuit calculations, it is desired to determine the required
MMF or flux density for a specific condition.
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Since magnetic circuit can be represented by analogous electric circuit,

methods of solution applicable to electric circuit can be extended to those for
magnetic circuits.
The major different is the nonlinear characteristic of the ferrous magnetic
material of which the magnetic circuit is composed.
It then becomes necessary to use B-H curve for the specific material used.
Below is a typical B-H curve for sheet steel, cast steel and cast iron.
1.4.1 Fringing and leakage fluxes:

In magnetic circuits there is a tendency for the flux to ―leak out‖ of the
magnetic path or ―spread out‖ in the air gap.
Leakage flux is not very effective and therefore requires a greater MMF.
The spreading out of the flux in the air gap is called the fringing effect.
i. Hysteresis And Eddy Current Losses In Magnetic Circuits.

For the purpose of calculation and basic understanding the following formulas
are used.
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1. For a volume V of magnetic material going through f cycles of

magnetization per second the power dissipated in Hysteresis loss, Ph is
Ph  K h  V  f  Bmax
n
-----------------------2.5
n
where Kh = Hysteresis constant, relating loop area to Bmax
n = experimentally determined constant (1.5 – 2.5)
f = frequency of supply,
Bmax = maximum flux density
Generally Hysteresis loop area is proportional to the power lost in that

material.
2 For calculation of eddy current losses, Pe, an empirical equation is used:

Pe  K e  ( Bmax  t  f ) 2 -------------------------------2.6
where
Ke is a constant determined by the material.
t – thickness of laminations.
Generally the thinner the lamination the lower the eddy current losses, since
eddy current losses are proportional to the square of the thickness.
Also eddy current losses vary as the square of frequency whereas the
Hysteresis losses vary directly with frequency.
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Eddy current tend to flow perpendicular to the flux and in such as to oppose
any changes in the magnetic field.(Lenz’s law)
Both Hysteresis and eddy current losses (core losses) greatly affect operating
temperatures, efficiencies and rating of magnetic devices.
1.5 Magnetic Forces Between Iron Surfaces

Consider a fixed core with an excitation coil and a movable iron core called an
armature.
Assume that the two cores have the same cross-sectional area of square meters
and are a small distance of l meters apart.
If the coil carries a current it will set up a flux density of B in the air gap.
Mathematically the attractive force Fm between the two-iron surfaces is equal
to:
B2 A
Fm  ..N 
2 o
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To prove the above consider the force of alignment between two poles of a
magnetic circuit as shown:
1) Assuming no fringing of flux the uniform flux density of the air-gap is

given by:

B
A
2) Suppose that the poles can be separated by a small distance dx, with B,
Ф remaining constant.
The work done due to the forces between the poles will then be:
dWm  F  dx
3) Assume now that the magnetic core is ideal, that is, it is of infinite
permeability and therefore requires no MMF to create a magnetic field in it.
Thus the stored magnetic energy will be contained entirely in the air-gap.
When the contacts separate the air gap is increased by a volume A*dx but
since the flux density ,B, is constant the energy density is also constant.
The increase in stored energy will be given by:
B2
dW f  A  dx
2 o
And since the system is ideal,
dWm  dW f
B2
F  dx  A  dx
2 o
B2
F A
2 o
Example
The poles faces of a lifting magnet shown have an area of 200cm2 which is
also the cross sectional area of the 60 cm long flux path in the cast steel
magnet. The poles faces are 30 cm apart. Determine the coil current required
on the magnet to lift 267kg of cast iron plate separated by 1mm from the poles
faces.
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2. Transformer Theory
2.1. General introduction
Bulk electrical energy is generated by medium voltages (e.g., 11-kV) at places, which
are often far away from the places of its consumption (e.g., urban centres,
industries, homes, etc.). This energy is transmitted with minimum loss over
these long distances by high voltages (e.g., 110, 132, 220 kV), but low
utilisation voltages (e.g., 415/240 V in Kenya) are necessary to operate most of
the end-use electrical appliances and/or applications, and also for safe handling
of electric circuits. The ―transformer‖ is the electrical device that allows
electrical energy to be received at one voltage and delivered at another voltage
(higher or lower). That is, a transformer is a piece of static electric device
designed to convert electric energy received at one voltage (current) into one at
another voltage (current) by means of electromagnetic induction. Remember
that according to law of electromagnetic induction, a changing magnetic field
flux linking or cutting a circuit will always induce a voltage in that circuit
whose magnitude is proportional to the rate of change of flux-linkages.
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The power received and that delivered by a transformer is equal and has same
frequency but different values of voltage and current.
In its simplest form, a transformer consists of a core of sheet (laminated) steel and
two or several windings which are electrically separated but linked together by a
common magnetic flux (i.e., coupled electromagnetically) (see Fig. #1). The purpose
of the core is to enhance the inductive (magnetic) coupling between the windings
(coils), and the objective of using a laminated core is to reduce eddy currents. The
winding receiving the energy (i.e., the one in which electric energy is fed into from
the AC supply mains) is called primary winding. All the quantities associated with
this winding are also called primary (primary turns, primary voltage, primary current,
etc.), and their symbols are indexed ―1‖. The transformer winding delivering energy
to the load (i.e., from which energy is drawn out) is called secondary winding, and all
the quantities associated with it are referred to as secondary and indexed ―2‖.
A transformer with only two windings is called a double-wound transformer; a
transformer with three or more windings is termed multi-winding transformer.
Other transformer classifications include: (a) single- and poly-phase
transformers (depending on the type of circuit in which a transformer is used or
operated); (b) step-up [V1  V2] and step-down [V1 > V2] transformers; (c)
power and instrumentation transformers, depending on the application; (d)
core-type and shell-type transformers; (e) dry-type, liquid-filled and gas-filled
transformers, depending on the cooling medium used; (f) general-purpose and
special-purpose transformers; (g) indoor and outdoor transformers, depending
on installation environment; (h) transmission and distribution transformer,
depending on purpose in a power system.
Thus, the sphere of transformer application is very wide. The focus of this topic is on
the basic design features and operating principles of general-purpose, single-
phase, two-winding transformers.
2.2. Operating Principles

Transformer operation is based on the principle of the electromagnetic interaction
of two or, in the general case, of any number of coils (windings), which are stationary
with respect to each other. Figure #2 shows a schematic diagram of a two-winding,
single-phase transformer, which was shown pictorially in Fig. #1. If a voltage v 1(t)
from an AC mains is applied across the terminals 1 – 1/ of the winding, it will cause a
current i1(t) to flow in this winding. The resulting magneto-motive force (MMF) i1N1
will induce in the core a changing magnetic flux, which in turn induces an alternating
EMF of self-induction, eL1 in the primary and an alternating EMF of mutual
induction, eM2, in the secondary. When the secondary circuit is completed, the EMF
of mutual induction eM2 gives rise to an alternating current, i2, in the secondary
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winding and consequently through the load, which is connected to the secondary
terminals 2 – 2/.
In this way AC power (p1 = v1.i1) is transferred from the primary circuit to the
secondary circuit (i.e., p2 = eM2.i2). To improve the efficiency of this power transfer,
the electromagnetic linkage between the windings must be enhanced.
Electromagnetic linkage between the primary and secondary windings may be
enhanced by using a laminated core assembled from steel sheets. The transfer of
power from the primary to the secondary is also affected by the design of the primary
and secondary windings.
1 I1 I2
2
 
V1 E1 E2 V2
1/ 2/
Fig. 2 (b). Schematic diagram
Modern transformers consist of various constructional elements: magnetic core,

windings, tank, etc. The magnetic core together with the coils wound on it constitutes
its active part. The rest of the elements are called non-active or ancillary. Detailed
description of the design aspects of these transformer elements may be found in a
standard electric machines text.
2.3. Transformer Equations & Equivalent Circuit Models

An analysis of transformer operation in any condition is based on the equations of the
primary and secondary winding voltages and on the equations of the primary
and secondary MMF. Magneto-motive force (MMF) is essentially the cause of
the existence of a magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit. It is normally given by
the product of current and the number of conductors (turns) of a winding
through which a current flows. The unit of MMF is sometimes expressed as
―ampere-turns‖. However, since ―turns‖ has no dimension, the S.I. unit of
MMF is the ampere just like current. MMF is also often expressed in terms of
the magnetic field strength, H as MMF = N.I = H.l; where l is the mean length
of the flux path in meters.
As already mentioned, an alternating voltage v1 of frequency f Hz applied across
the primary winding (having N1 turns) of a transformer causes the current i1 to flow
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through it. The resulting MMF i1N1 produces an alternating magnetic flux through the
iron core. As the current drawn by the primary winding is alternating at a frequency
of f, the flux produced will also have the same frequency. The flux produced by i1
and linking both the primary and secondary windings is called the mutual flux, and is
denoted 12 and its maximum value — m. That part of the flux produced by i1, but
linking only the primary winding is called primary leakage flux, and denoted 11. If
the secondary circuit is complete and current i2 flows, then a leakage magnetic flux
linking only the secondary winding, denoted 22, will be produced. In turn, the
alternating fluxes 12, 11 and 22 produces alternating EMFs of mutual- and self-
induction in the primary and secondary windings.
The polarity of the mutually induced voltages in a transformer reflects the reaction
against the changing flux that creates the voltages. That is, the polarity of a
mutually induced voltage in the secondary coil by the flux produced by a
current in the primary coil will be such that it will tend to establish a secondary
current that produces a flux directed opposite to the one that produces this
voltage (i.e., Lenz’s law). Mathematically, this may be expressed as follows:
di1
e2  M
dt
The polarities of voltages mutually induced in both the primary and the secondary
coils may also be indicated using a method known as dot convention (instead
of the reaction method). In the dot convention method, a dot is placed on one
terminal of each coil. These dots carry the sign information regarding the
mutually induced voltages.
There are two problems associated with polarity dots. One is to determine a proper
set of dot markings when the physical arrangement of the coupled coils is
given. The other is to determine how the dots are used in writing the circuit
equations that describe the two magnetically coupled windings of the
transformer.
(a) Determining proper set of dot markings.

A systematic method for determining the dot markings on the two coupled coils
consists of the following six steps:
(i) Arbitrarily select one terminal of the coil (normally the upper terminal of
the primary coil) and give it a dot. For example the upper terminal 1.
(ii) Assign a primary current into the arbitrarily selected dotted terminal.
This current is labelled i1.
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(iii) Use right-hand rule to determine the direction of the magnetic field flux
established by the primary current i1 inside the coupled coils. This flux is
labelled 21.
(iv) Arbitrarily pick one terminal of the secondary coil and assign a current
into this terminal. For example the upper terminal 2, and label this
current i2.
(v) Use right-hand rule to determine the direction of the flux established by
the secondary current i2 inside the coupled coils. This flux is marked
12.
(vi) Compare the directions of the two fluxes 21 and 12. If the fluxes are
additive, a dot is placed on the terminal of the secondary coil where the
test secondary current enters. If the fluxes are subtractive, a dot is placed
on the terminal of the secondary coil where the test secondary current
leaves.
(b) Consideration of polarity dots in writing circuit equations.

We use the mesh-analysis method to illustrate the procedure for considering
polarity dot marks when writing circuit equations.
(i) Assume a circuit in which a set of dot marks are already given.
(ii) Arbitrarily select reference currents in the primary and secondary
circuits.
(iii) The self-induced voltage is a voltage drop in the direction of the current
producing it.
(iv) The polarity of the mutually induced voltage is determined as follows:
When the reference direction of a current enters the dotted terminal of a
coil, the reference polarity of the voltage that it induces in the other coil
is positive at its dotted terminal. Alternatively, when the reference
direction of a current leaves the dotted terminal of a coil, the reference
polarity of the voltage that it induces in the other coil is negative at its
dotted terminal.
di1 di
Primary loop equation:  v1  i1 R1  L1 M 2 0
dt dt
di di
Secondary loop circuit: v 2  i 2 R2  L2 2  M 1  0
dt dt
di di
Note: M 1  e 2 and M 2  e1
dt dt
The magnitude of the mutually-induced voltage or EMF in the windings can be

determined by the law of electromagnetic induction. Thus, if the mutual core flux is
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(t) = m sin (t  ), then according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction,
the instantaneous value of voltage or EMF induced in an ideal coil is equal to the time
rate of change of the flux linking the coil. That is,
d d d  
e(t )    N   N  sint    (2.1)
dt dt dt  m   
The differentiation of the above equation gives the following expression for the
induced EMF:
e(t )  N sint     / 2  (2.2)
m   
This last equation is in the form
e(t )  E m sint   e  (2.3)
Thus the maximum value of the induced voltage or EMF is Em = 2fNm, and its
phase is e =  - /2 (i.e., the induced EMF lags the mutual flux by 900). Therefore,
the RMS value of the induced voltage (EMF) in a coil is
Em 2fN m
E   4.44 fN m (2.4)
2 2
The equation (2.4) is called the general transformer equation. This equation may
be written for the primary and secondary windings of a transformer having
respectively N1 and N2 number of turns as follows:
E1  4.44 fN 1 m (2.5)
E 2  4.44 fN 2 m (2.6)
It follows from the last set of equations that
E1 N 1
 k (2.7)
E2 N 2
The constant k which is equal to the winding turns ratio is called the voltage
transformation ratio (or simply, transformation ratio) of a transformer.
As mentioned above, the currents i1 and i2 also produces alternating leakage
fluxes 11 and 22, which in turn produces alternating EMFs of self-induction in the
respective windings. The magnitude of the EMF of self-induction produced in the
windings can be determined thus:
di1 di 2
e s1   L11 ; e s 2   L22 (2.8)
dt dt
where L11 and L22 are leakage inductance of the primary and secondary windings,
respectively (i.e., inductance parameters relating the voltage induced in the primary
and secondary windings due to alternating currents in the respective windings). In
phasor form, these equations can be written as follows:
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E s1   jI1 X 1 ; E s 2   jI2 X 2 (2.9)

where X1 and X2 leakage inductive reactance of the primary and secondary windings,
respectively.
Thus, in each of the transformer windings two EMFs are induced: that due to the
mutual flux and that due to the leakage flux. If we take into account the fact that each
winding also has some resistance R1 and R2, then by applying KVL we can write
down the following phasor voltage equation for the primary winding:
V1  E 1  E s1  I1 R1 (2.10)
or
  ( E )  jI X  I R  E  I ( R  jX )   E  I Z
V (2.11)
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
In general, the inductive and resistive voltage drops appearing in the above equation
are small and therefore can be neglected in most approximate analysis tasks. In
this case, the voltage across the terminals of the primary winding (i.e., source
voltage) will be equal to the EMF induced in it by the mutual flux. That is,
V  ( E ) (2.12)
1 1
Using a similar analysis, the following voltage equation can be written for the
secondary winding when it is connected to an external load ZL:
E 2  E s2  I2 R2  I2 Z L (2.13)
or
  I Z  E  jI X  I R  E  I ( R  jX )  E  I Z (2.14)
V2 2 L 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
The voltage equations (2.11) and (2.14) are the fundamental transformer voltage
equations and are the widely used in transformer theory and analysis.
Having derived the transformer voltage equations, we now turn to its MMF and
hence current equation. In order to derive the transformer current equation it is
convenient to assume two working conditions: no-load (when a voltage v1 is applied
across the terminals of the primary winding with the secondary winding circuit open-
circuited), and on-load (when the secondary winding circuit is not open-circuited).
Under the no-load conditions, the current i1 flowing in the primary winding is called
exciting current and denoted i0. It is the current necessary to produce the mutual flux
in the magnetic core. The MMF produced by this exciting current, F0 is given by the
expression:
F0 = F12 = i0N1 = 12Rm, (2.14)
where Rm is the reluctance of the magnetic circuit of the transformer core.
If the transformer is now loaded (i.e., a load Z2 is connected across the terminals
of the secondary winding), a current i2 will now flow. This current flowing in the
secondary winding will create a MMF i2N2, which, according to Lenz’s law, tends to
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reduce the amplitude of the same flux in the core. But, in a lossless transformer, the
amplitude of the core flux must not change, since it is responsible for always
inducing an emf equal to the applied voltage into the primary winding (see Eq. 2.12).
Therefore, when a load is connected to the secondary, additional primary current
must flow in order to develop a primary MMF component which exactly cancels the
secondary MMF. That is, the current flowing in the primary winding will increase
from i0 to i1 and the MMF, which produces the mutual flux, is now a summation of
the primary and secondary MMFs, F1 and F2. That is,
F12 = F1 + F2 = 12Rm = i1N1 + i2N2 (2.15)
If we assume a constant value for the mutual flux, then we can write down the
following phasor MMF equation:
F0  F12  F1  F2 (2.16)
or
I0 N 1  I1 N 1  I2 N 2 (2.17)
From this phasor MMF equation, it follows that
I1 N 1  I0 N 1  ( I2 N 2 ) (2.18)
Solving for I1 yields
I  I    N 2 I   I   I /
  (2.19)
1 0  N 2 0 1
 1 
N
where I1/  2 I2 is the load component of the primary current (i.e., the additional
N1
primary current that must flow in order to develop a primary MMF component which
exactly cancels the secondary MMF).
From the current equation (2.19), it follows that the primary current can be
considered as the sum of the two components: the exciting component, which
produces the mutual flux in the core, and load component, which produces a
MMF in the primary that compensates the demagnetising effect of the
secondary MMF. In good transformers, the exciting current is usually less than
5% of the current which the primary winding can be expected to pass when full
load is connected to the secondary.
As the transformer is loaded, the load component of the primary increases and
becomes much larger than the exciting current component. Therefore, under
load conditions, the above current equation reduces to
 V1
I0x1
I   I /  - N 2 I   I2 (2.20)
1 1 2
N1 k I0r1
- E1
The exciting current as described above, is composed of two components,
magnetising
V
current Im and current-supplying core losses Ic. The current-supplying
1
I0 m
I0 17
Ic
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m
Im
Fig. 3 E1
core losses is also composed of two components. One supplies the eddy-current
losses, and the other supplies hysteresis losses. The magnetising current being in
phase with the mutual flux, while the current-supplying core losses leading the
mutual flux by 90o (see Fig. #3)
The equations (2.11), (2.14), and (2.19) are the fundamental equations required to
carry out an analysis of transformer operation. For a phasor analysis of
transformer operation, these equations must all be represented as phasors
drawn on the same complex number plane. This, however, raises two main
computational difficulties. First, because of the generally large differences in
the numerical values of primary and secondary voltages and currents, drawing
their phasors on the same complex plane often raises a scaling difficulty. The
second difficulty is that of summing voltages and/or currents associated with
two electrically de-coupled circuits. This operation is complicated by the
difference in the number of turns in both the primary and secondary winding.
These difficulties complicate both the graphical and analytical study of
transformer operation. To overcome these difficulties, the parameters (EMF,
voltage, current, impedance) of the transformer are often scaled (or referred) to
the same number of winding turns. Generally, we refer (scale) secondary
parameters to the primary winding turns.
Scaling (referring) secondary circuit parameters to the primary side has the effect of
replacing a real transformer with a transformation ratio k = N 1/N2, with an
equivalent one having a transformation ratio k = N1/N2/ = 1, where N2/ = N1.
All the parameters associated with the scaled (referred) secondary
winding/circuit bear the same notation as in the real winding, but with a
superscript prime (/) sign: E2/, I2/, R2/, X2/, etc. This process replaces a real
transformer (in which the primary & secondary circuits are coupled
magnetically) with a system whose elements now have a voltaic (galvanic) or
electrical linkage. This system is what is generally referred to as transformer
equivalent circuit model (or simply as transformer equivalent circuit).
In scaling (referring) the secondary parameters of a transformer to its primary side it
is necessary to ensure:
(1) Invariance of secondary MMF, that is, equality of the real and scaled (referred)
secondary MMF: I2/N2/ = I2N2, whence I2/ = I2N2/N1 = I2/k.
(2) Invariance of power associated with the secondary winding, that is, equality of the
electromagnetic power of the real and scaled (referred) secondary: E2/I2/ = E2I2,
whence E2/ = E2I2/I2/ = kE2. Similarly, from the equality of apparent power V2/I2/ =
V2I2, we obtain V2/ = kV2.
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(3) Invariance of resistive power losses in the secondary, that is equality of ohmic
power losses in the real and scaled (referred) secondary: (I22)/R2/ = I22R2, whence
R2/ = k2R2.
(4) Invariance of reactive losses in the secondary, that is equality of reactive power
losses in the real and referred (scaled) secondary: (I22)/X2/ = I22X2, whence X2/ =
k2X2.
The voltage and the current equations for the equivalent transformer obtained by
referring (scaling) the secondary to the primary can be written as follows:
V   E  I ( R  jX )   E  I Z (2.21)
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

V2  E 2  I2 ( R2  jX 2 )  E 2  I2 Z 2
/ / / / / / / /
(2.22)
I  I   I /   I   I /  (2.23)
1 0 1 0 2
In the general case, the problem of deriving an equivalent circuit model for a
transformer may have several solutions, but each of which should satisfy the
fundamental voltage and current equations derived above.
According to the derived voltage and current equations, we can obtain the so-called
equivalent T-or exact circuit model of a transformer. In this model, the
transformer is represented as a combination of three branches, the primary one
with an impedance Z1 and current I1, the magnetising one with an impedance
Z0 and current Io, and the secondary branch connected in parallel with the
magnetising branch and with an impedance Z2/ + ZL/ and current I2/. This
transformer equivalent circuit model is shown in Fig. #4 (student to draw the
corresponding phasor diagram).
If we assume that the impedances R1 and X1 usually have relatively low values, then
the voltage drop across them can be ignored and the voltage induced in the
primary winding E1 taken as approximately equal to the supply voltage V1.
With this approximation the equivalent circuit called the gamma ( ) circuit is
obtained (student to draw this circuit and its phasor diagram). In this model,
the exciting current is not a function of the load on the transformer and makes
calculations much easier.
Another approximate transformer equivalent circuit can be obtained by assuming that
the exciting current is a very small percentage of the primary current, under
normal operating conditions. If this exciting current is ignored entirely, then
the circuit that results is called the series impedance approximate equivalent
circuit (student to draw the resulting circuit and its phasor diagram).
Since the leakage reactance of a transformer is usually significantly larger than the
winding resistances, the resistance in the equivalent series impedance circuit
model is often neglected. This gives a series reactance approximate circuit
model.
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I1 - I/2
r1 jx1
r/2 jx/2
r0
I0
E V1 E1 = E/2 V/2 Z/L
jx0
Fig. #4. Equivalent T-circuit model
2.4. Performance of transformers

The performance of a transformer can be measured by two criteria: effectiveness
and efficiency. Effectiveness assesses the extent to which transformer output voltage
measures up to that which is desired by the load it serves. The simplest transformer
effectiveness measure is that which relates the output (secondary terminal) voltage
under no-load conditions to that under full load conditions. This simple measure of
transformer effectiveness is referred to as regulation. Thus, the regulation of a
transformer is the difference between the rated (i.e., no-load) voltage and the full-load
voltage on the output side in operation under rated conditions at a specified power
factor. Transformer efficiency, on the other hand, measures how well the transformer
accomplishes the conversion of input power received at one voltage to output power
delivered at another voltage. The simplest efficiency measure is that which relates the
output power to the input power (i.e., the power loss). All these measures of
transformer performance are described below.
2.4.1. Transformer efficiency

Transformer efficiency is a measure of the ratio of the output power P 2 delivered
to the load connected to its secondary terminals to the total power supplied to the
primary windings, P1 from the supply circuit. The transformer output power P2, which
is the power supplied to the load connected to the secondary terminals, is given by the
expression:
P2 = V2I2cos2 (2.26)
where V2, I2 and cos2 are the secondary (output) voltage, current and power factor,
respectively.
The power supplied to the primary windings from the supply system, P 1 can be
expressed in terms of the power delivered to the load (i.e., output power) and
transformer losses, which consists of winding losses, Pw and core losses, Pc caused
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by both the eddy-currents and hysteresis in the core. In such a case, the efficiency of a
transformer,  may then be given by the expression:
P2 P2 V2 I 2 cos  2
   (2.27)
P1 P2  Pc  Pw V2 I 2 cos  2  Pc  Pw
The winding losses Pw is normally given as the sum of the losses in the primary
and secondary windings: Pw  I 12 R1  I 22 R2 . These losses depend on the loading of the
transformer and are, therefore, appropriately called variable losses.
The core losses depend not on the transformer load, but only on the magnitude
and frequency of the core magnetic flux. These losses are considered constant.
For a transformer operating under load conditions, the secondary voltage may be
taken as equal to its rated value, V2r, and the core losses taken as constant. In practice,
however, during transformer load operations, its secondary winding current may not
always be equal to its rated value, I2r. Therefore, a load factor,  = I2/I2r is normally
introduced when calculating the efficiency. Thus, under load conditions, the
efficiency is determined by the equation:
 .V2 r I 2 r cos  2  .S r cos  2
  (2.28)
 .V2 r I 2 r cos  2   I 2 r R  Pc  .S r cos  2   2 Pw  Pc
2 2
If we depict the above expression as efficiency () versus load factor () function,
then its analysis would show that maximum efficiency results when the
Pc
winding losses are equal to the core losses. That is, if 2Pw = Pc or   .
Pw
The transformer output power is measured using either a combination of an ammeter
and a voltmeter, or a single-phase wattmeter. Core losses can approximately be
determined from transformer no-load test data, while winding losses can be
estimated from the transformer short-circuit test data.
2.4.2. Regulation of a transformer

Regulation (VR) is a transformer effectiveness measure characterising the change in
the terminal voltage of the secondary winding from no load to full load, when
the primary voltage is assumed constant. It is generally expressed as a
percentage or per unit of the no load voltage. In equation form it is
V2, n.l .  V2, f .l .
VR   100 (2.29)
V2, n.l .
where V2,n.l. — secondary no-load voltage, V2,f.l. — secondary full-load
voltage.
To calculate voltage regulation analytically, it is usual to refer the secondary voltage
to the primary side, since the supply voltage is normally assumed to be
constant. By doing this, the secondary no-load voltage practically becomes
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equal to the rated primary voltage, V1,rtd. The expression for regulation is then
written as:
V1, rtd .  V2/
VR   100 (2.30)
V1, rtd
where V2/ is the secondary voltage referred to the primary side.
From the series impedance approximate equivalent transformer circuit and its phasor
diagram it follows that
V1, rtd  V2/  I 1 Req cos  2  X eq sin  2  (2.31)
and the formula for percentage transformer regulation becomes
I 1 Req cos  2  X eq sin  2 
VR %  100 (2.32)
V1, rtd
Just like the transformer efficiency, regulation can also be estimated from
transformer tests data. This can be done by recognising that the products I 1Req and
I1Xeq in the Eq. (2.32) gives the transformer resistive voltage drop Vp and inductive
voltage drop Vq, respectively. Since under short-circuit condition the whole of the
supply voltage is equal to the voltage drop in the transformer windings, then we can
express Vp and Vq in terms of the short-circuit voltage as:
Vp = V1,sc.cossc (2.33)
Vp = V1,sc.sinsc (2.34)
By substituting these voltage drop expressions into Eq. (2.32) and using the
trigonometric identity cos cos + sin sin = cos( - ), we can re-write
Eq. (2.32) in terms of the short-circuit test data as follows:
V1, sc cos sc   2 
VR %  100 (2.35)
V1, rtd
where V1,sc — primary short-circuit voltage; sc — primary short-circuit power
factor angle; 2 — load power factor angle.
From Eqs. (2.32) and (2.35) it follows that, for a transformer of specified short-
circuit parameters, the VR% depends on the type of the load (i.e., resistive, inductive,
or capacitive) and its magnitude. If we depict either of these equations as a %VR vs.
load power factor angle function, it can be established that maximum %VR results
when the load power factor angle is equal to the power factor angle under short-
circuit conditions.
A plot of secondary terminal voltage against the load when the load power factor
angle and primary voltage are assumed constant is called a load or an external
characteristic of a transformer. It is also one more measure of transformer
effectiveness and hence performance.
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The above formula for the voltage regulation is used only when the transformer is
operating at rated load. For any other load determined by the load factor  = P2/P2r,
the regulation of the transformer varies practically in proportion to the load factor.
2.5. Transformer tests and their applications

The significant transformer parameters (winding resistance, winding leakage
reactance, magnetising reactance, and core-loss resistance) appearing in the
above circuit models can be determined reasonably accurately from the results
of the two following simple tests: open-circuit test and short-circuit test. These
two tests also enable the transformer performance measures of efficiency and
the voltage regulation to be calculated without actually loading the transformer
and with an accuracy far higher than is possible by direct measurement of input
and output powers and voltages. Also, the power required to carry out these
tests is very small compared with the full-load output of the transformer.
2.5.1. Open-circuit test

In this test, the transformer primary winding is supplied at normal rated voltage
(V1,rtd) and frequency, with the secondary on open circuit (i.e., no load is
connected across the secondary terminals). The input current I1,o amperes and
power P watts are measured, giving the magnetising (exciting) current, Io and
its power factor, coso. A voltmeter connected to the secondary to measure the
secondary open-circuit voltage V2,o enables the voltage ratio to be determined.
The primary input current on no load is usually less than 5% of the full-load input
current, so that the ohmic loss on no load is less than 1/400 of the primary ohmic loss
on full load and is therefore negligible compared with the core loss. Hence the power
P can be taken as the core loss of the transformer. That is,
P V1, rtd
Rc  ; Xm   sin  o (2.24)
I o2 Io
2.5.2. Short-circuit test
In this test, the secondary terminals are short-circuited and a low voltage (preferably
adjustable to circulate full-load currents in the primary and secondary circuits)
of normal frequency is applied to the primary. The supply voltage V volts, the
input current I amperes, and the input power P watts are measured. Since the
shunt magnetising impedance is so very much higher than the leakage
reactance and resistance of the winding, then the power measured can be taken
as the ohmic losses in the windings. Therefore, the effective resistance,
impedance and leakage reactance can be determined using the formulae:
P V
Req  ; Z eq  ; X eq  Z eq2  Req2 (2.25)
I2 I
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3. DC MACHINES:
3.1 Principles of D.C. Machines:
`
Fig. 3.1
Consider a conductor of length L at right angles to a uniform magnetic field of
density B.
If the conductor moves as shown, the flux linking the conductor will change.
According to Faradays’ law an EMF is induced in a circuit placed in a magnetic field
if either:
1. the flux linking the circuit changes
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2. There is a relative motion between the circuit and the magnetic field such that
the conductors forming the circuit cut across the field lines.
In fig. 3.1, a voltage, e volts will be induced in the conductor and hence circuit
because the conductor cuts the flux. If the conductor moves with a relative velocity V
with respect to the field, then
e  B  l  ..............................3.1
where B – Magnetic flux density, T
l – Conductor length in the field, m
υ– Relative velocity between the field and conductor, m/s and voltage
polarity as indicated.
The polarity is determined using the right hand rule (RHR). According to this rule if
the right hand is held such that the thumb, forefinger and middle finger are mutually
perpendicular, the forefinger points in the direction of the field, B, the thumb in the
direction of the conductor motion with respect to field, the middle finger represents
the direction of the generated EMF, i.e. toward the positive terminal. RHR is also
called the generator rule.
3.1.1 Simple Generators:
Figure 3.2 Brushes and Commutator provides DC voltage
Figure 3.3 Brushes and slip rings provide AC

To keep the torque on a DC motor from reversing every time the coil moves through
the plane perpendicular to the magnetic field, a split-ring device called a commutator
is used to reverse the current at that point. The electrical contacts to the rotating ring
are called "brushes" since copper brush contacts were used in early motors. Modern
motors normally use spring-loaded carbon contacts, but the historical name for the
contacts has persisted.
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Fig 3.4 Commutator
A simple AC Generator is illustrated below. The turning of a coil in a magnetic field

produces motional e.m.f’s in both sides of the coil which add. Since the component
of the velocity perpendicular to the magnetic field changes sinusoidally with the
rotation, the generated voltage is sinusoidal or AC.
Fig 3.5 A simple AC Generator

According to RHR for the clockwise rotation indicated, the direction of the generated
voltage in the coil side under the North Pole will be directed from a to b. Similarly
the direction of voltage induced under the South Pole will be directed from c to d
When the conductor a b moves from under the North Pole to the South Pole, the
direction of the induced EMF will reverse so that the current will flow from b to a.
The current of externally connected load resistor via stationery brushes in contact
with a pair of slip rings A and B will be alternating. The alternating current is not
sinusoidal since the coil rotates in a non uniform field.
The field is more uniform at the conductor side location and the flux density more
even, except for the inter-pole regions, that is, the regions between the poles.
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Fig 3.6
Commutator action
Fig 3.7 Commutator Action

All practical rotating electrical generators generate alternating E.M.F’s. To rectify the
internal ac generated, to direct current, a mechanical rectifier, commutator, is used.
The coil side ab is permanently connected to segment A of the commutator, and the
coil side cd to B. The brushes connect the top and bottom when coil is in the
horizontal position.
Upon clockwise rotation, the split ring rotates with the armature and brushes and the
poles are stationery. At position shown, current will flow through the coil from abcd
to segment B, via the positive brush through the load to the negative brush to segment
A. The current in the external load circuit flows from the lower brush to the upper
brush.
When the armature rotates so that the coil assumes a vertical position, the brushes
will short circuit both segments, but the induced e.m.f is zero.
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When the armature rotates the vertical position, induced EMF in side ab and cd are
reversed respectively, but the commutator segments to which they are connected
simultaneously change positions under the stationery brushes. Hence both polarity of
the brushes and the direction of the current in the load remain fixed. This is called the
commutation process.
fig 3.8 Unidirectional pulse voltage

Armature Windings
The resulting terminal voltage above is not a pure but is pulsating dc. To reduce this
ripple, full armature winding distributed over the entire armature surface.
Fig 3.9 Armature windings

With the armature rotating clockwise, all conductors under the north pole would have
induced voltages directed into the page and all those facing the south pole have
induced voltages directed out of the page.
When all armature conductors are connected to form a continuous winding, the
induced voltages will aid one another in the manner shown.
The conductors generating EMF’s are those that are moving opposite a pole. In each
path the number of conductors simultaneously generating EMF’s remain constant
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from instant to instant and are unaffected by the rotation of the armature, hence the
voltage generated in the terminals is constant.
At one instant in time there are some contacts in the inter-pole region which do not
face either one of the poles mounted on the stationery member, the stator. These
conductors are in neutral zone.
The ends of each armature coil are connected to a multiple segmented commutator.
The commutator is a distinctive element in the construction of the machines. It has
major setbacks of limiting the output power of the dc generators and adding to its
costs.
When multiple coils are joined in series aiding, the terminal voltage will increase.
Consider the relationship between the number of commutator segments and generated
voltage wave.
a) Two segment commutator
Fig 3.10
b) Four segment commutator
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EMM 214
Fig 3.11 a,b

Notice also as the number of segments increases the pulsations will be less
pronounced. Generally when there are a great number of armature coils and
commutator segments, the terminal voltage appearing at the brushes will approach a
smooth unvarying dc voltage.
Gramme Ring Winding
The old Gramme Ring type winding, now obsolete, is shown in Figure 3.12 and its
equivalent circuit in Figure 3.13. It can be seen that there are an equal number of
voltage-generating conductors on each side of the armature and the conductor
voltages are additive from bottom to top on each side. There are two paths between
the positive and negative brushes and the voltage per path is the generated voltage of
the machine. Each path provides half of the current output.
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Fig 3.12 Two Pole Gramme Ring Winding
Fig 3.13 Equivalent Circuit, Two Pole Gramme Ring Winding
Drum Winding
The Drum type winding is made of coils, one of which is illustrated in Figure 3.14.
The straight portions of the coil are the parts rotating through the magnetic field in
which the voltage is induced. Therefore, each single coil has two conductors. This has
the advantage over the Gramme Ring winding where only one side of each coil is
used as an active conductor. There are two classes of drum windings depending upon
how the coils are connected to the commutator.
Fig 3.14 Drum Type Winding Coil

Lap Winding
When the end connections of the coils are brought to adjacent bars as shown in
Figure 3.15, a lap or parallel winding is formed. In this type winding, there are as
many paths through the armature as there are poles on the machine. Therefore, to
obtain full use of this type winding, there must be as many brushes as there are poles,
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alternate brushes being positive and negative. Any winding can be illustrated in one
of two forms, the circular form or the development form. A simplex lap winding is
shown in Figure 3.16 (circular form) and Figure 3.17 (development form.) In this
particular circular form, the flux cutting portions of the conductors are shown as
straight lines radiating from the center and are numbered for convenience in
connecting them to the commutator which is in the center of the diagram. The
outermost connecting lines represent the end connections on the back of the armature
and the inner connecting lines represent the connections on the front or commutator
end of the armature. The development form of winding represents the armature as if it
were split open and rolled out flat. It is somewhat simpler to understand but the
continuity of the winding is broken. The lap winding is best suited for low voltage,
high current ratings because of the number of parallel paths.
Fig 3.15 Lap Winding connected to commutator bars
Figure 3.16 Simplex Lap Winding, Circular Form
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Figure 3.17. Simplex Lap Winding, Development Form

Wave Winding
When the end connections of the coils are spread apart as shown in Figure 3.18 a
wave or series winding is formed. In a wave winding there are only two paths
regardless of the number of poles. Therefore, this type winding requires only two
brushes but can use as many brushes as poles. The simplex wave winding in Figure
16 (circular) and Figure 17 (development) shows that the connections to the armature
do not lap back toward the coil but progress forward. The coil voltages are
cumulative but it is necessary to travel several times around the armature and to
traverse half the total winding in order to trace the path between the positive and
negative brush. The wave winding is best suited for high voltage low current ratings
since it has only two paths.
Figure 3.18. Wave Winding connected to commutator bars
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Figure 3.19. Simplex Wave Winding, Circular Form
Figure 3.20 Simplex Wave Winding, Development Form

Slots and Coils
The number and size of slots depend upon the generator or motor requirements. The
slot has to be large enough to hold the correct number of conductors but at the same
time, the tooth has to be large enough to pass the necessary magnetic flux. Normally,
in a simple winding, there are as many coils as there are slots. This means that each
slot contains two coil sides, one side of each coil being at the top of a slot and the
other at the bottom of a slot. Each coil may consist of one or more turns depending on
the applied or generated voltage of the unit. A typical arrangement of coil sides and
slots is shown in Figure 3.21. Solid lines represent the front end connections to the
commutator and dotted lines represent the back end connections.
Slot Pitch
Slot pitch refers to the number of slots spanned by each coil. For example, in Figure
3.21, the top of coil in slot 1 has its bottom in slot 4, therefore, the slot pitch is 1-4 or
3. Since the top of the coil is directly under the north pole and the bottom is directly
under the south pole, the winding is known as a full pitch winding. In many cases, for
various reasons, the pitch is reduced to less than full pitch.
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Figure 3.21. Coil Sides in Armature Slots
3.1.2. Generated voltages:


Faraday’s law ( e  N ) tells us that the induced voltage depends on the rate at
t

which the flux is cut , that is .
t
If there are Z conductors on the armature of a P-pole machine the total flux cut by
each of the conductors is   P .
When the rotational speed is n [rev/min] and the Z conductors are connected in a
nP
parallel paths, the voltage generated in each, conductor is .
60
Z
If there are such conductors in series per parallel path, the total generated EMF
a
becomes:
ZP
Ea  n  K G n ………………………….3.2
60a
Where: Ea – Generated EMF
a – Number of parallel paths on armature (determined by type of winding,
lap winding a= P, wave winding a = 2)
n – Speed of rotations, revolutions per minute
ZP
KG  – constant for a specific machine.
60a
Notice that the generated voltage for a specific machine can be controlled by
changing the prime mover speed n by variation of the field strength Ф, by means of
the field excitation current.
3.1.3 Motor Action

The function of a motor is to develop torque. In a dc motor the dc source is supplied
to the brushes.
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Fig 3.22 Production of Torque

When placed in a uniform field, the current carrying conductor tends to distort that
field. The conductor will experience a force tending to move it from the higher to the
lower flux density.
The armature being free to rotate on a shaft will therefore experience a torque that
will produce anticlockwise rotation of the armature.
The force depends on the field B and current I in the armature conductors. Since
every conductor adds to the production of the total force, F must also depend on the
conductor length L. Therefore:
F  B  I  l.......(N ) ………………..3.3
Notice that the relationship between current direction, field direction and the
developed force on the coils may be determined by means of the left hand rule (motor
rule).
LHR: The index finger points in the direction of the field, the second (middle) finger
in the direction of the current and thumb points to the direction of Torque.
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Counter EMF
The developed force on the armature conductor causes the armature to rotate,
resulting in a change of flux linking of those current carrying conductors. Thus, the
motor also acts as a generator.
The motor action is stronger than the generator action because the direction of the
current in the armature winding is forced by the voltage supply.
The generated EMF is opposed to the impressed voltage to such an extent as to limit
the armature current to the value required to drive the shaft load. The generated EMF
is called counter (back) EMF.
Fig 3.23 Counter e.m.f

As the armature rotates, counter EMF’s are generated in the very same conductors,
since they cut the main pole magnetic fluxes which are responsible for motor action.
The direction of the counter EMF’s is determined by RHR.
The alternate current IA is then a function of the difference of the applied line voltage
VL and the counter EMF Ec.
VL  EC
Thus, I A  …………………3.4,
RA
where RA- Resistance of armature winding.
In a dc motor the counter EMF limits the current to the extent dictated by the load
power.
In practical machines, the counter EMF will be usually 80-95% of the terminal
voltage.
The difference between VL and Ec is a measure of the copper loss.
VL  EC  I A R A …………………..3.5
By multiplying the equation above by IA and rearranging we get:1
VL I A  I A R A  EC I A ………………..3.6
2
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or the developed power in volts , EC I A is given by the difference of the impressed

armature power VL I A and the armature copper loss I A 2 RA .
Hence motors with a high percentage of Ec in terms of VL operate at a higher

efficiency.
Torque Relations
Power developed internally by the motor is
Pd  EC I A ……………………….3.7
This power must be sufficient to drive the mechanical load on the motor shaft and
overcome all mechanical losses which include core losses, windage (the resistance to
overcome air friction when rotating) and friction losses in the bearing supporting the
armature.
Since generally, torque T = Fl then;
T  B  I  l  r....[ Nm]
where ………………………..3.8
F  B I l
From generator equation, the generated emf is given by
E  B  l  v ………………………………….3.9
Dividing the torque equation by the generated emf equation gives
E Bl v 
  or EI  T …………………..3.10
T B I l r I
That is, the developed electrical power is equal to the developed mechanical power.
Energy conservation law is thus reinforced: electromechanical energy (electro
mechanics) involves the interchange of energy between and electrical and mechanical
system.
Since,
ZP
Ec  n
60a
then ……………………………………3.11 `
EI A ZP
T  I A  KmI A
 60a  2
Where,
ZP
Km  is the motor constant.
60a  2
IA – armature current
The torque, T, developed by the armature depends on the main pole field strength and
the current in the armature for a specific machine.
Armature Reaction in DC machines

38
EMM 214
When a generator supplies an electrical load, the current carrying armature winding
creates a magnetic field which interacts with the main pole field existing in the
machine. This in turn sets up a resulting distorted field.
Consider a two pole generator:
fig 3.24 Armature reaction in a DC generator
The resultant distribution of flux is a combination of main pole flux and flux set up
by armature current. Over the loading halves of the pole faces the armature flux in
opposition to the main flux, thereby reducing the flux density. Over the trailing
halves the two fluxes are in the same direction, so the flux density is increased.
In a generator, the effect of armature reaction is to distort the field flux in the
direction of rotation. For the motor, the magnetic neutral axis shifts against the
direction of rotation.
Interpoles
During the short time that the commutator segments, to which the armature coils are
connected, are passing under the brush the current must be completely reversed in the
coil.
If this reversal is not complete an arc will occur at the commutator segment that
moves under the brush. Sparking at the brushes causes the commutator to pit,
increasing brush wear and commutator wear.
Illustration
39
EMM 214
coils c b a
Armature motion
Ic Ic Ic Ic
Commutator segments 3 2 1
2Ic
Stationery brush
(a)
c b a
Armature motion
Ic Ic Ic
3 2 1
2Ic
(b)
c b a
Armature motion
Ic Ic Ic Ic
3 2 1
2Ic
(c)
Fig 3.25 a,b,c
The two ends of any coil are connected to adjacent commutator segments.
As the armature rotates, the segments will move over the brush. The time it takes for
the brush to move across the insulation between segments 1 and 2, the current in coil
B must change from Ic in one direction to Ic in the opposite direction.
The process begins as soon as the brush makes contact with segment 2 i.e. when the
brushes are placed on the magnetic neutral because the coil is then not cutting any
flux and no EMF is induced in it.
But the insulated coils are placed in iron, hence their inductance is increased. As a
result with large armature current and short commutation times a large EMF,
reactance voltage, will be induced in the coil undergoing commutation.
40
EMM 214
To overcome this reactance voltage, the brushes may be moved ahead of the neutral
axis in the direction of rotation for a generator and backwards in a motor.
Generally inter poles are used. They are connected such that they alternately have the
same polarity as the following main pole in the direction of rotation for a generator,
or the same polarity as the trailing pole in a motor. Thus an armature coil undergoing
commutation [e.g. position b Fig 3.25] in a generator is cutting flux which is in the
same direction as that of the next main pole. The result is an independent EMF in the
coil that opposes the reactance voltage.
Note also that since the reactance voltage depends on the armature current, the
amount of commutation flux to counteract it is made to vary. In very large machines,
there are also compensating winding which consist of a few turns placed in the main
pole faces. The resulting field produced by this winding is opposite to that produced
by the current in the armature conductors, hence helping to counteract the effect of
armature reaction.
Fig 3.26 Inter poles in a Two-pole DC generator

3.2 D.C GENERATORS
D.C generators are used for specified application and locals do power generation.
This limitation is due to the commutator required to rectify the internal generated
AC voltage, thereby making large-scale do power generators not feasible.
3.2.1 Voltage Regulation
The generated EMF is proportional to both the flux per pole and the speed at
which the generator is driven, namely, EG  K G n .
When n=const, EG depends directly on the flux, Ф.
The flux in turn depends on the amount of field current flowing since the
number of turns on the field winding is constant.
41
EMM 214
This relation is non linear due to magnetic saturation after the field current
reaches a certain value. The plot EG verses If is known as open-current characteristic
of a generator.
Fig 3.27 Open-circuit characteristic of a separately excited D.C. Machine.

When If=0, that is, with the field open circuited a small voltage Er is measured,
due to residual magnetism. As the field current increases the generated EMF
increases linear up to the knee of the magnetization curve. Beyond this point,
increasing the field current still further causes saturation of the magnetic structure to
set in.
If measurements of EG are taken during progressively decreasing value of If, a
similar curve will be obtained but slightly above the existing one, due to Hysteresis.
Upon loading a generator the terminal voltage will decrease due to the resistance of
the armature winding and due to the armature reaction. The curve that shows the
value of terminal voltage for various load currents is called the load or external
characteristic of the generator.
Fig 3.28 Load or external characteristic of a separately excited generator
42
EMM 214
IA
+
If + IL
E
G V
t
R
A
-
-
IA=IL
Fig 3.29 Circuit diagram of a separately excited DC generator
Generally,
Vt  EG  I A R A ……………………………………3.11
Where Vt – terminal voltage
IA – armature current (or load current)
Voltage regulation is the measure of how much the terminal voltage and
changes from no-load condition and is given by
VNL  VFL
VR  100% ……………………………..3.12
VFL
Where VNL – No-load terminal voltage
VFL – Full load terminal voltage
It is important to note that the generated voltage, EG, is not a constant voltage for with
increasing loads on the generator armature reaction sets in and the drop in the
armature winding resistance.
3.2.2 Types Of D.C Generators

By the method employed to connect the field and armature winding generators
can be divided into
1. Separately
2. Self- excited generators.
In the separately excited generators the field winding is connected to a separate
D.C. supply. It has the disadvantage of requiring an external do source and hence
is used where a wide range of terminal voltages is required.
Under the self-excited generators we have shunt generators. These have a shunt
field winding connected in parallel with armature so that the machine provides its
own excitation.
43
EMM 214
IL
If IA
+
E
G V
t
R
A
IA=IL+If
Fig 3.30 Circuit diagram of Shunt generator
Connecting the field for self exultation the small voltage in the generators due to
remnant magnetism will be applied to the shunt field and drive a small current
through the field circuit.
If this resulting small current in the shunt field is of a direction that it weakens the
residual flux, the voltage remains near zero and there is not Vt build up, that is, the
weak main pole opposes the residual flux. But if the weak main pole aids the residual
flux the induced voltage will become larger. This in turn means more voltage applied
to the main field and the terminal voltage increases rapidly to a large constant value.
In the steady state the generated voltage causes a field current to flow that is just
sufficient to develop a flux required for the generated EMF that causes the field
current to flow.
The circuit carries only DC current, hence the field current depends only on the
field circuit resistance. This may consist of a field winding resistance Rf plus a field
rheostat resistance R in series with it.
For a given value of field circuit resistance RF, the field depends on the
generated voltage in accordance to Ohm’s law.
44
EMM 214
Rf>Rf3>Rf2>Rf1
Rf3=Rcritical
Fig 3.32
When the field circuit resistance is increased to Rf2 it changes the slope of the
field resistance line and thereby the terminal voltage. The terminal voltage can thus
be controlled by adjusting the field current.
The following can be noted as causes preventing the building up of the generated
voltage:
1. In case of a new machine or an old machine where the residual flux is lost,
magnetism is created by connecting a field winding to a separate DC source
for a few seconds a process called flashing the field.
2. The value of EMF is extremely sensitive to variation of field resistance. The
resistance Rf3 is called critical resistance and exceeding this Rf3 = Rcritical results
in failure of the generated voltage to build up.
3. Low armature speed will prevent the generator voltage to build up. At a
reduced speed the magnetization curve is adjusted according to the speed.
4. If the resulting small current in the shunt field is of a direction that it weakens
the residual flux, the voltage remains near zero and there is not Vt build up, that
is, the weak main pole opposes the residual flux.
The variation of terminal voltage with load current for a shunt generators is
greater than that of the separately excited generators.
This is because apart from the voltage drop due to the armature resistance and
armature reaction effect is there is an additional drop due to the flux decreasing with
increased loading which in turn decreases the terminal voltage.
45
EMM 214
Fig 3.31 Load characteristic of a shunt generator
3.3 DC MOTORS
3.3.1 General review and introduction
Fig 3.32 Motor Operation
46
EMM 214
Fig 3.33 Production of torque in a DC motor
D.C motors is similar to a DC generator. The only difference is that generators the
EMF is greater then the terminal voltage, whereas in a motor the generated EMF
counter EMF is less then the terminal voltage. The power flow is thus reversed, that
is, the motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
DC motors are better suited for many industrial process that demand a high
degree of flexibility in the control of speed and torque.
DC motor can provide high starting torque as well as high decelerating torque for
application requiring quick stoppage or reversals.
3.3.2 Classification Of DC Motors.

In general there are three types of DC motors:
1. Series motors,
2. Shunt motors,
3. Compound motors.
The series motor is widely used because of its excellent starting – torque
characteristic. The series machine has a field winding in series with the armature
winding.
47
EMM 214
S
1 S2 IL
+
A1
V
L
IA
A2
IL=IA
Fig 3.34
If the field is connected in parallel with the armature winding, we obtain a shunt
machine.
IL
+
A1
S
1
V
L
If IA
S2
A2
IL=IA+If
Fig 3.35
The compound motor has both field windings. These field windings may be
connected so that the fields aid one another giving rise to a cumulative compound
motor.
Alternatively they may be connected so that the resulting fluxes oppose, as in the
differentially compound motor.
A compound motor may have a long shunt or a small shunt connection depending
on whether the shunt field is connected before or after the series field winding.
48
EMM 214
S S2 IL
1 +
IS
A1
F
1
V
L
If IA
F2
A2
IS=IA
IL=IA+If
Fig 3.36
Starting Dc Motors
At the instant of start up the counter EMF Ec is zero because the armature is not
rotating. The counter EMF serves to limit the current in the armature winding to a
value just sufficient to take care of the developed power needed to drive the load.
Hence if we start motor directly across a supply line, it draws a large current that
would cause mechanical shock to the armature and blow the fuse in the mains. For
instance connecting directly to a 230 v mains line, a motor with an armature
resistance equal to 0.25Ω, it would draw an armature current equivalent to;
230
IA   920 A
0.25
To avoid this from occurring, a resistance is connected in series with the armature to
off set the absence of the counter EMF. As the motor comes up to speed, this
resistance is taken out in steps because the counter EMF rises as the motor comes up
to full speed.
49
EMM 214
Manual starter for a shunt motor.
Fig 3.37 Manual starter for a shunt motor.
To start the motor, the main switch is closed and the starter arm is moved to contact
1. The motor starts. After the armature has accelerated sufficiently on the first contact
the starter arm is slowly moved to the following contacts until the iron keeper on the
starter arm is held by the holding coil electromagnet. This occurs in a few seconds.
In the final position no added resistance is in the armature circuit.
When there is power failure or if the field circuit should be opened accidentally, the
spring will return the starter arm to the off position, thereby shutting down the motor.
IA
I1 1 2 3 4 Contact numbers
I2
Steady State
Start up t1 t t3 t4 t
2
Fig 3.38
50
EMM 214
When the starter arm is on contact 1, the armature current;

Vsup ply
I1  …………………….3.13
R A  Rstarter
Since the torque is proportional to the current and flux, maximum torque is available
at start up to accelerate the armature.
During acceleration period the counter EMF, Ec, and the armature current, IA
decreases. When the current I1 has fallen to some pre-selected value I2 the starter arm
is moved to contact 2, cutting down the resistance hence allowing rise of current to I1
again. The process is continued until the last contact is reached and the motor
assumes steady state speed and current.
3.3.4 Speed Characteristics Of Dc Motors.

When the mechanical load is removed from the motor, the motor speed, n, will
increase. The amount by which it increases depends on the type of motor.
Generally;
VL  Kn
IA  ………………………..3.14
RA
From the above equation we can derive the formula for motor speed as;
VL  I A R A
n ………………………..3.15
K
In shunt motors, the flux Ф is only slightly affected by the armature current,
while the IA RA drop rarely exceeds 5% of the line voltage. Therefore the maximum
change in speed must be of the same order as IA and is about 8%.
In a compound motor, the armature current IA and the flux Ф affect the speed.
The effect of the series field is removed under no load conditions, thereby weakening
the overall field flux. The result is then a larger increase in speed, since the speed is
inversely proportional to the flux. The change is about 15- 20%.
In the case of series motor, speed rises rapidly because at no–load condition only
residual magnetism flux is left. Hence series motors are not used in instance where
the load can be disconnected accidentally.
The general relationship between the speed and the load current for various motor
types is shown below.
Speed,
rpm, n
Shunt motor
Compound motor
Series motor
Load current, I
L
51
EMM 214
Fig 3.39
Torque – Load characteristic.

T= KФIA…………………..3.16
The torque of a shunt motor depends only on the armature current. The graph is
hence a straight line. In the compound motor (Cumulative type) the series field
increases with loading, aiding the shunt field.
In a series motor, neglecting saturation, the developed torque depends on the load
current squared, because the flux in turn depends on the current.
Hence T= KФIA=k(k1IA)IA=K’IA2 ………………3.17
Torque
Series motor Compound motor
Shunt motor
Armature current, I
A
Fig 3.40
For current exceeding rated current a series motor develops the largest torque.
The speed regulation is given by;

n NL  n FL
SR  100% …………………….3.18
n FL
where nNL- speed at no load in revolutions per minute
nFL- speed at full load in revolutions per minute.
3.3.4 Speed Control Of Dc Motors.
VL  I A R A
From the equation n  there are 3 parameters RA, Ф and VL which can
K
be used to control and / or change the speed.
1. Increasing armatures circuit resistance.

In this method, increasing the armature resistance RA, results in a reduction of
the steady–state speed, except for no-load condition. The field current is kept
constant in this method.
It is a relatively simple and cheap method of speed control.
52
EMM 214
Fig 3.41
Disadvantages
1. By adding R, the speed of the motor, compared to that without connecting
any resistance, is always lower.
2. Method is ineffective at no load
3. Adding a resistance means increased power losses, I2R.
4. Constant- speed characteristic of the motor is lost.
Speed control is limited to 50% of rated speed.
2. Changing The Flux Ф

This is done by adding a field rheostat in the excitation windings. This
decreases the field current and thus the flux Ф. Reduction of the flux, Ф
increases the speed.
Rf2>Rf1>Rf
Fig 3.42
Disadvantages
1. We can only raise the speed at which the motor normally runs at a
particular load.
2. The speed is increased without a corresponding reduction in shaft load
leading to overloading of the motor,
53
EMM 214
At light loads or under no-load conditions speed can be varied about 300%
above normal operating speeds.
3. Changing the terminal voltage VL of the motor.
Voltage control method lowers the speed in a similar fashion as the
armature circuit resistance speed control method.
The no-load speed and full load speed can be reduced to zero.
Torque
V2 V1 Vrated
Speed
V2<V1<Vrated
Fig 3.43
The most effective way of speed control as seen from above will be a
combination of at least two methods.
54
EMM 214
4. THREE PHASE MACHINES

4.1 Three phase systems
####################
4.2 Induction Motors
4.2.1 Design Features of Induction Motors
The induction motor with a squirrel café rotor is the most commonly used.
The starter is composed of lamination of high grading steel with slotted inner
surface to accommodate 3 phase winding.
The squire cage rotor consist of solid copper allow or aluminium bare
embedded in rotor slots; each bar is short-circuited by end rings.
Fig 4.1
There are no slip rings or carton brushes, making the constitution virtually
maintenance free.
4.2.2 Induction Motor Operation

The operation of the 3 phase motor depends on the transformer effect on the
rotor winding by the field set up by the stator. Torque is developed by the
interrelation between the stator field and the field produced by the current in the rotor
conductor. The rotor current is produced by transformer effect. There is no electrical
connection between the rotor and the stator or between the rotor and the supply. All
electrical energy in the rotor is due to electromagnetic linkage between stator and
rotor.
4.2.3 Rotating Magnetic Field

When a three-phase winding is connected to a three-phase power supply
current will flow in each of the phase winding. The will be displaced from each other
by 120 electrical degrees.
55
EMM 214
Fig 4.2
Axis of
phase b
+ a
Axis of
. .
-b -c
phase a
+ +
c b
. -a
Axis of
phase c
=0
Fig 4.3 A simplified two pole three phase stator winding
A phase winding a when carrying a positive current will produce a resulting

MMF in the positive direction of its magnetic axis as determined by the screw rule.
The positive current is assumed to enter the winding at a, b and c and is directed into
the page. When for example current ia becomes negative the current direction
reverses and the MMF direction is reversed.
Now let us consider the four instances t1, t2, t3 and t4:
At t=t1
Current ia is positive maximum while ib and ic are negative and equal to one –
half their respective maximum amplitudes.
The MMFs due to these currents will have the corresponding magnitudes and
directions determined by RHR where by F=1.5*Fa.
56
EMM 214
+ a
Fc
+ +
-b -c
F Fa
. Fb
.
c b
. -a
Fig 4.4
At time t =t2
| ia|=| ib| and are equal to one half of their respective maximum values and are
positive. ic has maximum amplitude but is negative.
F
+ a
F
c
. Fb
+
-b -c
Fa
. +
b
c
. -a
Fig 4.5
The total MMF, F is rotated 60 mechanical degrees which follows the time increment
from t1 to t2.
At time t=t3
| ia|=| ic| and are equal to one half of their respective maximum values and are
negative. ib has maximum positive amplitude.
57
EMM 214
. a Fb
. Fc
+
-b -c
F
a
. +
b
c
+ -a
Fig 4.6
The total MMF,F is rotated an additional 60 mechanical degree clockwise, which
follows the time increment from t2 to t3.
At time t=t4
| ic|=| ib| and are equal to one half of their respective maximum values and are
positive. ia has maximum amplitude but is negative.
.a
. F
b
.
-b -c
F
F
a
+ +
F b
c c
+ -a
Fig 4.7
The resulting total MMF, F, is rotated by 180 mechanical degrees by the time the
ia changes from maximum positive amplitude to maximum negative amplitude after
half a cycle.
Thus the field will revolve a distance covered by 2 poles for each cycle of the supply
frequency. The speed of the rotating field is inversely proportional to the number of
pole pairs and proportional to the frequency of the supply f.
nS 
P

120 f rev
min
……………………..(4.1)
58
EMM 214
Reversing the phase sequence of the supply by interchanging any of the two currents
will cause the field to rotate in the counter clockwise direction.
Hence, in practise, reversing the direction of rotation of an induction motor is done by
interchanging any two line connections at the motor terminals.
4.2.4 Slip And Rotate Speed

The rotor of an induction rotates in the same direction as that of the revolving field
but not at the synchronous speed.
Fig 4.8
As the field sweeps through a coil (a-a’) on the rotor it will induce an EMF in it. An
induced current is created in this coil flowing in the direction show determined by
Lenz’s law. The developed torque on a-a’ is determined by LHR, following the main
field. There must be relative motion between rotating field and the rotor: otherwise
there will be no induced rotor current to develop the torque.
The difference between the synchronous speed ns and the rotor speed nr is called the
slip S and is expressed as a percentage of the synchronous speed.
ns  nr
s  100
ns
or

nr  (1  s )  n s ... rev
min
…………………….(4.2)
where
.sdecimal 
4.2.5 Rotor Induced Voltage And Frequency
When nr=0, the rotating field sweeps the rotor bars at its maximum rate, and the
generated voltage in the rotor circuit will be maximum and determined by the number
of turns on the rotor.
59
EMM 214
As the field revolves a back EMF is generated in the stator winding which is nearly
equal to the impressed voltage, and the flux sweeps the stator turns at the same rate as
those in the motor.
The induced voltages in the rotor and stator turns on a per phase basis are related by
the turns ratio. The frequency of the rotor induced voltage equals the line frequency
when nr=0 (s=1).
As the slip decreases, the rate at which the flux sweeps across the conductors
decreases proportionately and the rotor EMF becomes
E R  s  E BR
rotor.. frequency ………………………….(4.3)
fR  s  f
Where ER – rotor induced voltage at slip
EBR – blocked rotor – induced voltage per phase (nr=0)
fR – Rotor frequency.
4.2.6 Rotor Circuit
The induced rotor voltage per phase sEBR acts in the short circuited rotor winding,
setting up currents that will be only limited by the rotor impedance.
Rotor impedance consists of:
1. Rotor resistance RR
2. Leakage reactance, sXBR, where XBR is the rotor reactance at stand still (nr=0)
Hence,
sEBR sEBR
IR   …………………(4.4)
RR2  ( sX BR ) 2 2
 RR   X 2
 s
 
BR
Applying mathematical manipulation we can derive the equivalent circuit from the
above equation.
Let
RR 1  1 s
 RR  RR  RR  RR  RR   1  RR  RR ……………….(4.5)
s s s  s
From equation 4.5 we get the equivalent rotor circuit to be:
RR IR XBR
EBR RR 1-s
s
Fig 4.9
If we multiply equation 4.4 by IR2 we get:

1 s
I R2  RR  I R2  RR  I R2  RR ……………………………………(4.6)
s s
That is, the total power input of rotor is composed of two components:
a) power dissipated as copper loss in rotor circuit IR2RR…..(4.6(a))
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EMM 214
b) Electric power that is converted into mechanical power (developed power)

1 s
Pd  I R2  RR …………….……………………4.6(b)
s
Generally, rotor developed power is given by
Pd   R  T …………………………………………….(4.7)
and the developed torque by the rotor will therefore be
I R2  RR (1  s)
Td  ……………………………………(4.8)
R  s
where,
2  n R
R  ………………………………(4.9)
60
nR - rotor speed
4.2.7 Complete Circuit Diagram Of An Induction Motor

In order to complete the circuit diagram of an induction motor the stator circuit is
included.
The stator phase winding has a resistance RS, a leakage reactance XS and a
magnetizing branch.
Stator circuit can be modelled as follows:
RS XS
Im
V1 E1
Fig 4.10
For both circuits to be compatible the rotor parameters are referred to the stator side.
Hence we achieve the complete circuit diagram as shown below:
I1 RS RR IR XR +XS
Im
V1 RR 1-s
Xm s
Fig 4.11
61
EMM 214
From the above complete model circuit of an induction motor:

V1
I 'R  ………………………(4.10)
 R  R' R   j  X  X ' 
 S s 

S R
The magnetizing current Im

V1
Im  …………………………………………..(4.11)
jX m
Motor line current
I1= Im + I`R…………………………………………(4.12)
Copper stator loss
Pcu.loss  3 I1 RS ……………………………………(4.13)
2
Out put torque

Pd  mechanical ..loss
Tout  ………………………….(4.14)
R
Mechanical losses include friction, windage and core losses.
It is important to note that induction motors at light loads operate under poor
1 s
power factors (small). At light loads (small slip value) the value of R' R is large.
s
Hence the rotor current IR is relatively low compared to the magnetizing current Im
and the circuit behaves largely inducting, Xm being the dominating element, thus the
power factor is hence small.
1 s
With increased loading, the value of R' R increases rapidly with increasing
s
1 s
s. R' R becomes the dominating element in the circuit hence p.f. increases with
s
increasing loads.
4.2.8 Torque – Speed Characteristic.
#######
4.2.9 Speed Control of 3 phase Induction motors: Squirrel cage motors
nr  (1  s)  ns  (1  s) 
P

120 f rev
... min
……………………4.15
Equation (4.15) reveals that the speed nr of an induction motor can he varied by
changing:
a) supply frequency f
b) number of poles P on the stator and
c) slip s.
The change of frequency is generally not possible because the commercial
supplies have constant frequency. Therefore, the practical methods of speed control
are either to change the number of stator poles or the motor slip.
The speed of a squirrel cage motor is changed by changing the number of stator
poles. Only two or four speeds are possible by this method. Two-speed motor has
one stator winding that may be switched through suitable control equipment to
provide two speeds, one of which is half of the other. For instance, the winding may
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EMM 214
be connected for either 4 or 8 poles, giving synchronous speeds of 1500 and 750
r.p.m, Four speed motors are equipped with two separate stator windings each of
which provides two speeds.
The disadvantages of this method are :
(i) It is not possible to obtain gradual continuous speed control.
(ii) Because of the complications in the design and switching of the
interconnections of the stator winding, this method can provide a
maximum of four different synchronous speeds for any one motor.
4.2.10 Methods of Starting Squirrel Cage Motors
The following four methods arc available for starting squirrel cage motors :
(i) Direct on line starting.
In this method the motor is started by connecting it directly to 3-phase supply. The
impedance of the motor at standstill is relatively low and when it is directly
connected to the supply system, the starting current will be high (4 to 10 times
the full-load current) and at a low power factor.
Consequently, this method of starting is only suitable for relatively small (upto
7.5kW) machines.
(ii) Stator resistance starting.
In this method, external resistances are connected in series with each phase of stator
winding during starting. This causes voltage to drop across the resistances so that
voltage available across the motor terminals is reduced and hence the reducing the
starting current. The starting resistances are gradually cut out in steps from the stator
circuit as the motor picks up speed. When the motor attains rated speed, the
resistances are completely cut out and full line voltage is applied to the motor.
Fig 4.12
Disadvantages
1. The reduced voltage applied to the motor during the starting period lowers
the starting torque and hence increases the accelerating time.
2. A lot of power is wasted in the starting resistances.
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(iii) Auto transformer starting.

This method also aims at connecting the induction motor to a reduced supply at
starting and then connecting it to the full voltage as the motor picks up sufficient
speed. Fig. 4.13 shows the circuit arrangement for auto transformer starting. The
tapping on the auto transformer is so set that when it is in the circuit, 65% to 80%
of line voltage is applied to the motor.
Fig 4.13
At the instant of starting, the change-over switch is thrown to "start" position. This
puts the auto transformer in the circuit and thus reduced voltage is applied to the
circuit. The starting current is limited to a safe value. When the motor attains about
80% of normal speed, the change-over switch is thrown to "run" position. This takes
out the auto-transformer from the circuit and puts the motor to full line voltage.
Advantages
1. low power loss,
2. low starting current and
3. less radiated heat.
(iv) Star-delta starting.

The stator winding of the motor is designed for delta operation and is connected in
star during the starting period. When the machine is up to speed, the connections
are changed to delta. The circuit arrangement for star delta starting is shown in
Fig. 4.14
Fig 4.14
The six leads of the stator windings are connected to the change-over switch as
shown. At the instant of starting, the change-over switch is thrown to "start" position
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which connects the stator windings in star. Therefore, each stator phase gets V
3
volts where V is the line voltage. This reduces the starting current. When the motor
picks up speed, the change-over switch is thrown to "Run" position which connects
the stator windings in delta. Now each stator phase gets full line voltage V.
The disadvantages of this method are:
1. with star connection, stator phase voltage is 1 times the line voltage and
3
 
2
thus the starting torque is  1   1 times the value it would have been

 3 3
with delta connection. ( low starting torque)
2. the reduction in voltage is fixed.
4.2.11 Conclusion
Most industrial electric machine are three-phase squirrel cage induction motors.
Advantages
1 Are relatively cheap
2 Required very little maintenance
3 Speed is nearly constant.
4 High efficiency and reasonably good power factor
5 Has self starting torque
Disadvantages
1 Speed is not easily controlled
2 They run at low leading power factors when lightly loaded.
3 Starting current is usually five to seven times full load rated current.
4 Starting torque is inferior to that of the shunt motor.
4.3 Synchronous Motors

4.3.1 Construction
The three-phase armature winding is on the stator and is wound for the same number
of poles as the rotor.
The required DC excitation source for the rotor field in a synchronous motor is
provided by a small DC generator called an exciter. The exciter can be mounted on
the end of the synchronous motor.
Another arrangement for excitation is to use a solid-state power supply (rectifier)
energized by the terminal voltage.
Usually synchronous motors have slip and brushes on the rotor.
The rotor of synchronous motor can be of the salient pole or cylindrical-pole type of
construction.
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a) Salient pole machine b) Cylindrical pole machine
Fig 4.15
The armature winding is identical to that of the indication motor, hence when a three-
phase voltage source is applied to the armature winding, a rotating field of constant
magnitude is produced in the air gap. The speed of the rotating field depends on the
line frequency, f, and the number of poles, P, hence:
nS 
P

120 f rev
min

ns =synchronous speed in rev/min
Unlike the induction motor a synchronous motor receives its excitation from two
different voltage sources, that is, three phase AC source to the stator winding and a
DC source for the rotor winding.
The interaction of the two fields in the air gap produce torque, provided those fields
revolve at the same speed.
4.3.2 Principle Of Operation.
A three-phase supply of constant frequency is connected to the armature winding. If a
field is provided with de excitation is provided to the rotor torque is developed.
Torque is developed at only one speed, the synchronous speed. At any other speed the
average developed torque is zero.
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Fig 4.16
A three-phase AC voltage is applied to the stator winding and a DC source supplies
the rotor field. The rotor is assumed stationary. The stator field rotates at synchronous
speed but rotor field is stationary since we have made that assumption. It can be seen
that in order to develop a continuous torque the two fields must be stationery with
respect to one another. This occurs only when the rotor is also rotating at
synchronous speed, whereby the stator and rotor fields ―lock in‖.
Fig 4.17
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There may be momentary fluctuations in speed, but on the average the speed is
constant. If the average speed of the rotor is different from ns, even by a small
amount the poles lose their grip and the machine will come to a stand still.
The bond between the stator and rotor poles is then lost which is the essential
criterion for the developed of torque.
4.3.3 Loading Synchronous Motors
Consider a two-pole machine.
Fig 4.18 a).
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Fig 4.18 b).
With no-load on the motor shaft the rotor poles lock in with the opposite stator poles.
The whole arrangement rotates at synchronous speed and the torque angle δ is zero.
When a mechanical load is applied to the shaft the rotor tends to slow down, but the
entire arrangement at synchronous speed. The magnetic bond between rotor and
stator field is still maintained except that the rotor is displaced by the torque angle δ.
The developed torque, Td, depends on the angle δ and must be sufficient to overcome
the shaft torque applied Tload.
Synchronous motor runs at absolutely constant average speed regardless of the load.
The following fundamental difference in behaviour will be considered:
1. Counter EMF for a synchronous motor does not necessarily have to be
smaller then applied voltage.
2. The phase relation between Counter EMF and terminal voltage is not fixed
o
at 180 , that is, they are not directly opposite,
3. The armature current, IA, lags behind the resultant voltage by 90o.
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Fig 4.19
Two salient poles are shown at an instant when they are opposite two conductors in
the stator. The counter EMF induced in the conductor is as shown being maximum
when that conductor is opposite the pole center and zero when midway in between.
Upon applying the increased load to the motor shaft a momentary slowing down of
the rotor is the result, since it takes time for a motor to take increased power from line
source. Hence, the rotor through rotating at ns will have slipped back in space as a
result of increased loading.
In phasor form the above may be represented as follows:
Fig 4.20
By using the analogy of dc shunt motor:
V  ( EC )
IA 
ZS
Zs – Impedance per phase for shunt winding.
The equivalent circuit diagram following the above equation will be:
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Fig 4.21
By loading the machine the rotor assumes an angular position back from its no-load
position. This causes the motor to take increased power from line to compensate for
the increased shaft load, without changing its average speed.
Total power supplied to motor per phase is,
P  VI A cos 
where;
V – phase voltage in volts
Θ – angle between V and IA
Total mechanical power, (that is, the total air-gap power or developed power) is
Pd  EC I A cos 
where; α – phase angle between EC and IA
The difference between the total power supplied and the total mechanical power is
the copper power loss;
P  Pd  I A R A
2
The net shaft power is less then Pd by an amount equalling the frictional, rotational
and core losses;
Pout  Pshaft  Pd  Pmech.losses
4.3.4 Adjusting The Field Excitation
When the dc excitation current is increased the speed of the synchronous motor
remains constant, but its induced EMF EC must increase because of the strengthened
rotor field.
The induced EMF becomes equal to or greater then the line voltage. In this condition
the motor operates overexcited with the result that it takes power from the line with a
leading power factor.
Let us consider three excitation positions:
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Fig 4.22
(a) Motor is adjusted such that it is operating at unity power factor, that is, IA is
in phase with the line voltage V. In this case, the armature current is
proportional to the vector sum of the line voltage V And EC limited by an
impedance ZS.
(b) Increasing the field excitation increases EC. Since ZS is constant, being the
same machine windings, IA must increase. However the load power is
constant, which implies that the phase angle must change in such a manner
that the in-phase component of the armature current with the V is constant.
This can be accomplished only if the armature current assumes a leading
position.
(c) A decrease in field excitation causes the counter EMF EC to become
smaller. The in phase component of IA, IA cos Θ, with V must remain the
same since the power delivered is constant. The vector sum of V and Ec
becomes larger. The IA will increase depending on the voltage sum increase
and can only do this by changing its power factor to a lagging angle.
4.3.5 Self starting of a Synchronous Motor
A synchronous motor cannot start by itself. In order to make the motor self-
starting, a squirrel cage winding (also called damper winding) is provided on the
rotor. The damper winding consists of copper bars embedded in the pole faces of the
salient poles of the rotor as shown in Fig. 4.23. The bars are short-circuited at the
ends to form in effect a partial squirrel cage winding. The damper winding serves to
start the motor.
Fig 4.23
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(i) To start with, 3-phase supply is given to the stator winding while the rotor field
winding is left unenergised. The rotating stator field induces currents in the damper or
squirrel cage winding and the motor starts as an induction motor.
(ii) As the motor approaches the synchronous speed, the rotor is excited with direct
current. Now the resulting poles on the rotor face poles of opposite polarity on the
stator and a strong magnetic attraction is set up between them. The rotor poles lock in
with the poles of rotating flux. Consequently, the rotor revolves at the same speed as
the stator field ns.
(iii) Because the bars of squirrel cage portion of the rotor now rotate at the same
speed as the rotating stator field, these bars do not cut any flux and, therefore, have
no induced currents in them. Hence squirrel cage portion of the rotor is, in effect,
removed from the operation of the motor.
Due to magnetic interlocking between the stator and rotor poles, a synchronous
motor can only run at synchronous speed. At any other speed, this magnetic
interlocking (i.e., rotor poles facing opposite polarity stator poles) ceases and the
average torque becomes zero. Consequently, the motor comes to a halt with a severe
disturbance on the line.
4.3.6 Power Flow In Synchronous Motors

In synchronous motors, the terminal voltage V of the machine leads the counter EMF
EC and is independent of the power factor at which the motor is operating.
It can be proved that the developed power is given by:
ECV
P sin 
XS
The relationship between P and δ also called the power angle is shown below;
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Fig 4.24
The maximum power or pull out power, Pmax, occurs when sin δ=1.0 (δ=90)
Beyond Pmax the motor looses synchronism. Losing synchronism implies that
the magnetic bond between stator and rotor fields is lost. The rotor will skip
poles and tries to run as an induction motor if the starting winding can support
this load. This continues until the excessive load is removed.
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EMM 214

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EMM 214 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING II DR C.

Textbooks (Reading list):

1.2 Conversion process in a machine

(a) Forces Of Alignment.

i) By attraction of poles towards one another

(b) Force of alignment in a reluctance motor

1.3 The Magnetic Aspects

Since magnetic circuit can be represented by analogous electric circuit,

1.4.1 Fringing and leakage fluxes:

i. Hysteresis And Eddy Current Losses In Magnetic Circuits.

1. For a volume V of magnetic material going through f cycles of

Generally Hysteresis loop area is proportional to the power lost in that

2 For calculation of eddy current losses, Pe, an empirical equation is used:

1.5 Magnetic Forces Between Iron Surfaces

1) Assuming no fringing of flux the uniform flux density of the air-gap is

2.2. Operating Principles

Modern transformers consist of various constructional elements: magnetic core,

2.3. Transformer Equations & Equivalent Circuit Models

(a) Determining proper set of dot markings.

(b) Consideration of polarity dots in writing circuit equations.

The magnitude of the mutually-induced voltage or EMF in the windings can be

E s1   jI1 X 1 ; E s 2   jI2 X 2 (2.9)

Fig. #4. Equivalent T-circuit model

2.4. Performance of transformers

2.4.1. Transformer efficiency

2.4.2. Regulation of a transformer

2.5. Transformer tests and their applications

2.5.1. Open-circuit test

3.1.1 Simple Generators:

Figure 3.2 Brushes and Commutator provides DC voltage

Figure 3.3 Brushes and slip rings provide AC

Fig 3.4 Commutator

A simple AC Generator is illustrated below. The turning of a coil in a magnetic field

Fig 3.5 A simple AC Generator

Fig 3.7 Commutator Action

fig 3.8 Unidirectional pulse voltage

Fig 3.9 Armature windings

a) Two segment commutator

Fig 3.11 a,b

Fig 3.12 Two Pole Gramme Ring Winding

Fig 3.13 Equivalent Circuit, Two Pole Gramme Ring Winding

Fig 3.14 Drum Type Winding Coil

Fig 3.15 Lap Winding connected to commutator bars

Figure 3.16 Simplex Lap Winding, Circular Form

Figure 3.17. Simplex Lap Winding, Development Form

Figure 3.18. Wave Winding connected to commutator bars

Figure 3.19. Simplex Wave Winding, Circular Form

Figure 3.20 Simplex Wave Winding, Development Form

Figure 3.21. Coil Sides in Armature Slots

3.1.2. Generated voltages:

3.1.3 Motor Action

Fig 3.22 Production of Torque

Fig 3.23 Counter e.m.f

or the developed power in volts , EC I A is given by the difference of the impressed

Hence motors with a high percentage of Ec in terms of VL operate at a higher

Armature Reaction in DC machines

fig 3.24 Armature reaction in a DC generator

Fig 3.26 Inter poles in a Two-pole DC generator

Fig 3.27 Open-circuit characteristic of a separately excited D.C. Machine.

Fig 3.28 Load or external characteristic of a separately excited generator

3.2.2 Types Of D.C Generators

Fig 3.31 Load characteristic of a shunt generator

Fig 3.32 Motor Operation