Mechanics

Physics 151
Lecture 4
Hamiltons Principle (Chapter 2)

Administravia
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Problem Set #1 due

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Solutions will be posted on the web after this lecture Due next Thursday

Problem Set #2 is here

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Next lecture (Tuesday) will be given by Srinivas and Abdol-Reza

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I will be attending a workshop at Stanford

What We Did Last Time

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Derived Lagranges Eqn from Newtons Eqn

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Using DAlemberts Principle = differential approach Constraints are holonomic " Generalized coordinates Forces of constraints do no work " No frictions Other forces are monogenic " Generalized potential
U d U Qj = + !j q j dt q

Lagranges Equations work if

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Todays Goals
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Discuss Hamiltons Principle

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Derive Lagranges Eqn from Hamiltons Principle Calculus of variation Looks unfamiliar, but not so difficult Using Lagrangian formalism Linear, angular momenta Connection between symmetry, invariance of the Lagrangian, and conservation of generalized momentum

Discuss conservation laws again

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Configuration Space
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Generalized coordinates q1,...,qn fully describe the systems configuration at any moment configuration Imagine an n-dimensional space
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Each point in this space (q1,...,qn) corresponds to one configuration of the system Time evolution of the system " A curve in the configuration space
real space configuration space

space

Action Integral
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A system is moving as q j = q j (t ) j = 1...n ! , t ) = L(q (t ), q ! (t ), t ) = L(t ) Lagrangian is L(q, q

integrate
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I = Ldt
t1

t2

Action, or action integral

Action I depends on the entire path from t1 to t2 Choice of coordinates qj does not matter ! Action is invariant under coordinate transformation

Hamiltons Principle
The action integral of a physical system is stationary for the actual path
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This is equivalent to Lagranges Equations

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We will prove this

We will also define stationary

Three equivalent formulations

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Newtons Eqn depends explicitly on x-y-z coordinates Lagranges Eqn is same for any generalized coordinates Hamiltons Principle refers to no coordinates ! Everything is in the action integral Hamiltons Principle is more fundamental probably...

Stationary
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Consider two paths that are close to each other

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Difference is infinitesimal

configuration space

Stationary means that the difference of the action integrals is zero to the 1st order of q(t)
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t2
q(t ) q (t ) + q (t )

Similar to first derivative = 0

t2 t2 t1 t1

! + q ! , t )dt L(q, q ! , t )dt = 0 I = L( q + q, q

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t1

Almost same as saying minimum

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q(t1 ) = q (t2 ) = 0

It could as well be maximum

Infinitesimal Path Difference

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Whats q(t)?
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configuration space

Its arbitrary sort of It has to be zero at t1 and t2 Its well-behaving Dont worry
too much Continuous, non-singular, continuous 1st and 2nd derivatives

t2 q(t ) q (t ) + q (t ) t1

Have to shrink it to zero

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Trick: write it as q(t ) = (t ) ! is a parameter, which well make " 0 ! (t) is an arbitrary well-behaving function (t1 ) = (t2 ) = 0

Hamilton " Lagrange

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Consider 1 generalized coordinate q

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Add q(t) to q(t), then make q(t) " 0 Do this by q(t ) = (t )

q (t , ) = q(t ) + (t )
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configuration space

t2 q(t ) q (t ) + q (t ) t1
NB: this also depends on (t)

is a parameter " 0 (t) is an arbitrary well-behaving

Continuous, non-singular, continuous ' and ''
t2

function (t1 ) = (t2 ) = 0

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! (t , ), t )dt Lets define I ( ) t L(q(t , ), q

1

Calculus of Variations
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! (t , ), t )dt Lets define I ( ) = t L(q(t , ), q

1

t2

NB: this also depends on (t)

If the action is stationary

t2 L dq ! dI ( ) L dq dt = + t 1 ! d d q d q

dI ( ) =0 d =0

for any (t)

q (t , ) = q(t ) + (t ) = (t ) Arbitrary function

Some work!

t2

t1

L d L dq dt ! d q dt q

Lagranges Equation
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Fundamental lemma
x2

x1

M ( x) ( x)dx = 0 for any ( x)

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M ( x) = 0 for x1 < x < x2

L d L =0 ! q dt q

We got

t2

t1

L d L (t )dt = 0 ! q dt q

Done!

Notation of Variation
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For shorthand, we use for infinitesimal variation

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I.e. -derivative at = 0 t2 d dI ! (t , ), t )dt d I L(q(t , ), q d = t d 1 d =0

q
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dq d = (t )d d =0
L d L qdt = 0 ! q dt q

Hamiltons Principle can be written as

I =
t2 t1

Going Multi-Coordinates
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Trivial to expand q " (q1, q2, , qn)

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See Goldstein Section 2.3

I =

t2

t1

L d L qi dt = 0 !i dt q i qi

= 0 for each i
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Assumption: q1, q2, are arbitrary and independent ! Not true for x-y-z coordinates if there are constraints ! True for generalized coordinates if the system is holonomic

Hamiltons Principle
! , t )dt = 0 I = L ( q, q
t1 t2

Action I describes the entire motion of the system

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It is sufficient to derive the equations of motion

Action I does not depend on the choice of the coordinates

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Lagrange formalism is coordinate invariant It wouldnt affect I Variations are 0 at t1 and t2

dF (q, t ) Arbitrarity of L is obvious L = L + dt

Adding dF/dt to L would add F(t2) F(t1) to I

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Calculus of Variation
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Technique has wider applications

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In general for J = f ( y ( x), y( x), x)dx

x1

x2

dy y dx

J =0
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f d f =0 y dx y

Examples in Goldstein Section 2.2 Most famous: the brachistochrone problem Fastest path via gravity

Conservation Laws
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Weve seen (in Lectures 1&2) conservation of linear, angular momenta and energy in Newtonian mechanics
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How do they work with Lagranges equations? Should better be the same They are, in fact, limitations we ignored so far

Well find a few differences and assumptions

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Momentum Conservation
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Lets consider a simple system

! +y ! +z ! ) mi ( x L = T V = V ( xi , yi , zi , t ) 2 i
2 i 2 i 2 i

Potential does not depend on velocity

Force

L !i = pix = mi x !i x
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Momentum

L V = = Fix xi xi

Momentum pix conserved if V does not depend on xi

Now try to generalize from here

Generalized Momentum
L ! Lets call p j the generalized momentum !j q
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Also known as canonical or conjugate momentum

Equals to usual momentum for simple x-y-z coordinates dp j L =0 ! Lagranges equation becomes dt q j
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pj is conserved if L does not depend explicitly on qj

Such qj is called cyclic (or ignorable)
Linear momentum conservation is a special case

Generalized momentum associated with a cyclic coordinate is conserved

Generalized Momentum
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L pj !j q

Generalized momentum may not look like linear momentum

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Dimension may vary, if qj is not a space coordinate ! pjqj always has the dimension of action (= work time) Form may vary if V depends on velocity ! Example: a particle in EM field 1 ! + qAx L = mv 2 q + qA v px = mx 2
Extra term due to velocitydependent potential

Symmetry
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Linear momentum p = (px, py, pz) is conjugate of (x, y, z) coordinates

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Conserved if Lagrangian does not depend explicitly on position I.e. if Lagrangian is invariant under space translation ( x , y , z ) ( x + x , y + y , z + z ) Such a system is called symmetric under space translation

Symmetry of a system = Invariance of Lagrangian " Conservation of conjugate momentum

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Lets study an example of angular momentum

Angular Momentum
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Consider a multi-particle system

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ri = ri (q1 ,..., qn , t )

Suppose q1 turns the whole system around ! Example: in ri = ( xi , yi , zi ) = ( ri cos , ri sin , zi ) ! n Assume V does not depend on r
i

Conjugate momentum is
L T p = ! !
bit of work

d
zi

= n Li = n L
i

ri ( + d ) ri ( )

Axis of rotation

Total angular momentum

Bit of Work
ri ! n ri r !i = !k + i + q r t k = 2 qk

ri = ri ( , q2 ,..., qn , t )
!i ri r = !

mi !i r !i T = r 2 i
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!i r ri T !i !i = mi r = mi r ! ! i i

dri is perpendicular to both n and ri Size of dri is ri sin d ri = n ri

!i (n ri ) = mi r !i ) = n Li = mi n (ri r
i i i

n
d

ri

dri

Angular Momentum
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Angular momentum is conserved if the system is symmetric under rotation

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How does this relate to the total torque N?

Generalized force
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L Q

This must be zero if is cyclic

T cannot depend on Rotating doesnt change vi2

ri L V = = Fi = Fi ( n ri ) = n ri Fi i i i

Total torque is zero along the axis of symmetry

Torque

Conservation Laws
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Following statements are equivalent:

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System is symmetric wrt a generalized coordinate The coordinate is cyclic (does not appear in Lagrangian) The conjugate generalized momentum is conserved The associated generalized force is zero Spatial translation Distance along an axis Linear Force Rotation Angle around an axis Angular Torque

Symmetry Coordinate Momentum Force

Summary
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Derived Lagranges Eqn from Hamiltons Principle

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Calculus of variation

Discussed conservation laws

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L Generalized (conjugate) momentum p j !j q Symmetry of the system " Invariance of the Lagrangian " Conservation of momentum
Finish up next Tuesday with energy conservation Some applications are in order " Central force problem

We are almost done with the basic concepts

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