Joseph Newton 10091488 1

The Ecological Impacts of Ocean Acidification

It has been a long standing theory that human’s carbon

dioxide emissions are responsible for the long term increase in
global temperature. However, what has not been well researched
until quite recently is the other effect the increase in CO2has on the
Earth, and that is the addition of so much carbon dioxide to the
earth’s oceans. Carbon Dioxide forms an acid in water, and so the
pH of the oceans is dropping slowly over time. Many keyorganisms
produce exoskeletons composed of calcium carbonate. This drop in
pH is detrimentally affecting both the organisms and their source of
calcium carbonate. For example, reef-building corals provide the
most fundamental processes of any environment by increasing the
rugosity of a habitat in which all other reef associated organisms
inhabit. Without these, the level of biodiversity and specialization
would probably not exist in the oceans. Many costal communities of
humans rely on the biodiversity of these reefs, catching fish,
arthropods, snails and bivalves, and are also keys in their
livelihoods, and perhaps their survival too.

Carbon Dioxide readily dissolves in water to produce carbonic

acid. One of the hydrogen atoms will then readily dissociate to
produce a hydrogen ion anda bicarbonate ion. This can dissociate
further to produce another H+ ion and a carbonate ion, summarised
below. All reactions are reversible.

CO2 + H2O H2CO3

H2CO3  HCO3- + H+

HCO3-  CO32- + H+

In seawater, 88.9% of carbon compounds occur as HCO3-, with the

entire system being in equilibrium. If there is a large addition of
carbon dioxide, the reactions will shift to the right, producing more
carbonate and bicarbonate ions, and so hydrogen ions. If there is a
significant increase in carbonate ions, then naturally more CO2would
be released by the oceans. Through this process the oceans act as
a buffer, minimising most changes in the system (Pinet. 2006).
However, due to this buffering system, as more carbon dioxide is
being added to the system which is currently happening, the
reaction will be shifting to the right, and the end result is the
increase in H+ ions, decreasing the pH. pH is the measure of the
concentration of free hydrogen ions in solution. It is a logarithmic
scale, from 1 being the most acid (though there can be more
concentrated solutions), to 14 the most basic (alkaline). Therefore a
decrease of 1 on the pH scale relates to a ten-fold increase in
concentration, 10 times the concentration of Hydrogen Ions. As is
demonstrated by the above chemical equations, and is occurring in
our oceans, the addition of carbon dioxide to water results in the

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addition of hydrogen ions to the system. This in turn lowers the pH
of the body of water making it more acidic.

The oceans have taken up around 30% of all the carbon

dioxide released since the industrial revolution, meaning anextra
30% increase in H+ ions in the oceans. This equates to a decrease
in pH of 0.1. It is expected to drop another 0.4 units by the end of
the century. (Feely et al. 2008) It must be noted, as discussed
earlier, that pH is a logarithmic scale. Therefore, in a system that
has regulated itself for millions of years with very few changes, the
organisms are well adapted to current conditions, so a change in pH
of 0.4 could be disastrous. These levels have most probably not
been experience for 20 million years. (Feely et al. 2004)

The effects of this drop in pH affect those organisms of the

worlds coral reefs that rely on calcium carbonate shells and
exoskeletons for protection, such as hermatypic corals, coralline
encrusting algae, bryozoans, molluscs, echinoderms.Many pelagic
organisms are affected too, including pteropods, foraminfera, and
coccolithiophores. All have shown decreasing calcification rates in
laboratory tests. Using pH levels predicted for the year 2100 some
pteropod’s protective shells have been observed dissolving under
laboratory conditions. (Guinotte and Farby, 2008). Recent work by
Jason Hall-Spencer (2008) have revealed that in moving from areas
of relatively high pH (the normal 8.2) to areas of significantly lower
pH (7.4) there is a dramatic decline then absence of coral
communities. These are replaced instead by thriving sea grass
beds.

Coral reefs provide some of the most diverse habitats in the

ocean; there are 2177 documented species on reefs around the
Philippine Islands for example. They allow for a huge variety of
ecological niches. They provide crevices and holes that can be
utilized by the many marine arthropods and fish species, feeding
areas and nurseries for pelagic species, substrate which primary
produces can anchor themselves, and of course are of great
economic importance to humans. They provide revenue through
tourism, fish and construction materials. Another feature of coral
reefs is their ability to remove, to an extent, carbon dioxide from the
ocean by incorporating calcium ions with the carbonates formed
when carbon dioxide dissolves in water. It is estimated that 700
billion kilograms of carbon are removed per year. (Nybakken and
Bertness. 2005)

As noted before, hermatypic corals rely on calcium carbonate,

taken as ions from the surrounding seawater, to form protective
exoskeletons. These help reduce predation by grazing fish and
invertebrates. However, increasing levels of H+ ions will lower the
concentration of carbonate ions needed for the corals exoskeleton.
The corals will then have fewer carbonate ions in the surrounding
water to absorb and use for their exoskeleton. Firstly this may result
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 Joseph Newton 10091488 3

in the overall reduction of the removal of CO2 by the reduction of the

concentration ofcarbonate ions, a product of dissolved carbon
dioxide, that the coral absorb. Another result of this that affects the
coral directlyis a slower growth rate and/or weaker skeletons.
(Guinotte and Farby. 2008) More energy will be required to uptake
the same amount of carbonate ions to maintain their skeletons.
Weaker skeletons will also result in faster erosion by environmental
forces, and predation.

If the growth rate does slow, then coral colonies will not be
able to compete with faster growing sessile organisms, such as
algae and sponges. A species of echinoderm, Eciniodea diadema,
that also uses carbonate ions in its body which would therefore be
detrimentally affected by a decrease in pH helps remove algae from
corals would be detrimentally affected by a decrease in pH too. The
faster growing algae and spongeswould then shade the corals from
sunlight, preventing the zooxanthellae from photosynthesising. This
in turn would slow the calcification rate even more for a period,
most likely meaning that the coral colony would not be able to out
grow its situation. If corals are shaded for long periods of time they
die (Nybakken and Bertness. 2005). Another problem presented by
slower growth rates are in relation to the formation of reefs. With
reefs such as atolls, the reef originates on a seamount that is
shallow enough for the right light intensity to allow corals to grow.
The land may then subside, yet the coral grows just quick enough to
counter act this, and stay within the optimal phototrophic region
(Pinet. 2006). However, with slower growth rates, the corals may not
be able to counteract the subsidence, and so sink below the
phototrophic region, dying, and so taking a whole ecosystem with
them. If there were any migratory organisms that used this as a
‘stop over’ point, it could change behaviours that would be
unfavourable in the long run. If humans used the resources of the
area, then

With weaker skeletons, the coral are more vulnerable to

erosion processes. The highest biodiversity of corals are to be found
on the windward side of islands, where strong water movements
aerate the surrounding ocean, and bring many nutrients (Nybakken
and Bertness. 2005). However, the strong forces of the ocean in
these areas would likely break off large piece of branching coral with
weaker skeletons. Weakened skeletons may also cause an increase
in predation by corallivoires. If not too much of the polyps tissue is
removed, the colony can repair itself (Nybakken and Bertness 2005).
However as has been found in large-scale predation, such as that
with Acanthaster planci, coral colonies can be entirely wiped out if
much if not all the living tissue is removed. Removing one of the
key primary produces in one area ultimately reduces diversity, as
many organisms will migrate to more productive areas of a reef. If
this area is fished at all, the size and species of fish will reduce
greatly, so incurring some economic price.
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 The large amounts of carbon dioxide that the sea has
absorbed in an attempt to of the earths natural systems to retain
equilibrium have undoubtedly increased hydrogen concentration in
the oceans. Many of the key organisms of ecosystems are at threat
from becoming a weaker species, in some cases being out
competed, in others becoming extinct due to unsuitable
environmental conditions. There are many such creatures that were
briefly mentioned in this paper. However such creatures such as the
Pteropods have had, or could have whole papers devoted to them.
However, how this will affect the overall ecosystem of the oceans is
unknown. Whether other species better adapted to the changing
conditions take the suffering organism place in food webs, or the
organisms themselves are able to adapt to the changing conditions
in not well understood. What is suggested though, is that it is likely
such changes will have direct effects on humans. Those living on
the coasts, and relying on fishing, of reefs or other such habitats will
be greatly affected, with possible loss of livelihood and revenues.
The change in pH of the oceans will affect all, from coastal
terrestrial systems to marine environments.

Feely, R.A. 2004. Impact of anthropogenic CO2 on CaCO3 systems in

the oceans. Science 305: 362 -366

Feely, R.A. 2008. Present and future changes in sea water chemistry
due to ocean acidification. AGU Monograph

Guinotte, J.M., and Farby, V.J 2008. Ocean Acidification and Its
Potential Effects on Marine Ecosystems. John Wiley and Sons
Ltd 2008

Hall-Spencer, J.M., 2008. Volcanic Carbon Dioxide Vents Show

Ecosystem Effects Of Ocean Acidification. Nature, 454 (1): 96-99

Nybakken, J.W., and Bertness, M.D. 2005. Marine Biology, An

Ecological Approach. Pearson Education, Inc. San Francisco.

Pinet, P.R. 2006. Invitation to Oceanography. Jones and Bartlett

Publishers, Inc.