ENGINEERING LETTERS

The New York Blower Company 7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60521 -5530

NUMBER
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 E G

SUBJECT
System Calculation Fan Laws and System Curves Understanding Fan Performance Curves Temperature and Altitude Affect Fan Selection Fan Performance - The System Effect Increasing Fan Performance Field Testing of Fan Systems Proper Selection of Pressure Blowers Pneumatic Conveying Fans and Blowers for Combustion Process Selection Criteria for Fan Dampers Fan Acoustics Fan Balance and Vibration Stainless Steel Specifications for Fan Equipment Practical Limits of Spark-Resistant Construction Corrosion-Resistant Coatings for Fan Equipment Coating Surface Preparation Specifications Corrosion Resistance of FRP Fans Design and Construction of nyb FRP Fans Accessories and Construction Modifications for FRP Fans Surface Veil for FRP Fans Integral Motors for Centrifugal Fans Electric Motor Codes and Standards Fundamentals of Steam Industrial Steam Heating Systems Miscellaneous Engineering Data Engineering Letter Glossary

Click on a Subject to open the corresponding Engineering Letter

ENGINEERING LETTER
SYSTEM CALCUL ATION
INTRODUCTION A fan system is any combination of ductwork, hoods, filters,louvers, collectors, etc., that relies upon a fan to produce airflow.When the air moves past each of these components, resistance is created which must be considered in system calculations. It is also important to remember that fans are rated independently of a system and that fan performance will vary depending upon the accuracy of the system calculations. This Engineering Letter will explain some of the basic fundamentals of system design and calculation. SYSTEM DESIGN The purpose of the system will dictate the design criteria to be used. Generally they will fall into one of the following two catagories: Velocity is typically the primary consideration in dust collection, dilute pneumatic conveying, fume removal, and contaminant applications. In these applications, a capture velocity is required to redirect the flow of airborne materials into the duct system. In addition, a minimum conveying velocity is necessary to maintain the flow of the materials within the system. Given these velocity requirements, system components can be selected to maintain the appropriate air volume andrequired velocity through the system. Air Mass is the primary consideration in many drying, combustion process, and ventilating applications. These applications generally require a certain amount of air mass, usually measured in pounds of air, to support the application. Because fan manufacturers publish fan capacities in actual cubic feet per minute (ACFM), the mass of air required must be converted from standard cubic feet per minute (SCFM) to ACFM.

The New York Blower Company 7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60527-5530

The velocity through a system can be determined once the ACFM is known. The relationship between velocity and airflow is defined by the equation: Q = VA where: Q = ACFM V = velocity in lineal feet per minute A = cross-sectional area in square feet To determine the airflow requirement, the cross-sectional area is multiplied by the required velocity. System design is really a matter of defining the required work in terms of volume or velocity and then sizing and selecting the necessary system components to accomplish that work. Of course, this must be done within the economic and space constraints of the installation. DETERMINING SYSTEM RESISTANCE System resistance is the sum of the resistance through each component within the system. The system depicted in Figure 1 may appear complex, but dealing with each component separately provides an orderly process for determining the overall resistance. HOOD LOSS To determine hood or entrance losses, resistance calculations must be made for both the acceleration loss and the entry loss. Since the air or atmosphere surrounding the hood must be accelerated from a state of rest, energy will be required to set the air in motion. This energy is equal to the velocity pressure at the entrance to the duct. Assuming the hood in this example empties into a 7" diameter duct, the required 1165 ACFM results in a velocity of 4363 FPM: V=QA where: Q = 1165 CFM

Figure 1 Typical System

A =

(3.5 in. radius)2 x 3.1416 144 in.2 /ft.2

= .267 ft.2
2

therefore: V = 1165 CFM .267 ft. = 4363 FPM The velocity pressure (VP) at 4363 FPM is calculated by: VP =

The hood in this example is most similar to item 2 in Figure 3. Therefore, the entry loss from atmosphere into the hood is .90 times the entering air velocity pressure at 1000 feet per minute or: Entry Loss = .90 x

( Velocity 4005 )

(1000 4005 )

= .06" W.G.

therefore: Acceleration Loss =

( 4363 4005 )

= 1.19" W.G.

The same result can be obtained by interpolating from the data in Figure 2. The entry loss of a hood is a function of its efficiency. The efficiencies of several common entry conditions are shown in Figure 3. The relative efficiencies are expressed as losses in percentage of the duct velocity pressure. Consequently, the lowest percentage is actually the most efficient.
Outlet Velocity Velocity Pressure Outlet Velocity Velocity Pressure Outlet Velocity Velocity Pressure

This loss could have been reduced to .5 VP by simply adding a flange to the bottom edge of the hood as indicated by item 3 in Figure 3. The total hood loss in the example is the acceleration loss added to the entry loss: Hood loss = .06" + 1.19" = 1.25" W.G. PRIMARY BRANCH The duct loss from the hood to the branch junction can be determined by using the equivalent length method. This run of duct includes 62' of 7" diameter duct and one 4 piece 90 elbow of R/D = 2. According to Figure 4, the elbow has a loss equal to 12 diameters of 7" duct, or 7'. Thus, the total equivalent length of straight duct is 69'.

800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600

.040 .063 .090 .122 .160 .202 .250 .302 .360 .422

2800 3000 3200 3400 3600 3800 4000 4200 4400

.489 .560 .638 .721 .808 .900 .998 1.10 1.21

4600 4800 5000 5200 5400 5600 5800 6000 6200

1.32 1.44 1.56 1.69 1.82 1.95 2.10 2.24 2.40

Figure 2 Acceleration Loss

Figure 4 - Loss in 90 elbows of round cross-section Chart I on page 4 indicates a 4.0" loss for every 100' of 7" diameter duct handling 1165 CFM. The loss for this run can be determined as: Duct Loss = 69 ( 100 ) x 4.0 = 2.76" W.G.

Therefore, the total resistance of the hood branch to the junction is: Branch Loss = 1.25" + 2.76" = 4.01" W.G. SECONDARY BRANCH A secondary branch is calculated in the same manner as the main branch. For example, a grinder hood handling 880 CFM through a 6" pipe results in a velocity of 4500 FPM, which has a 1.26" VP. According to item 1 in Figure 3, a grinder hood has a .6 VP loss, so the total hood loss will be:
Figure 3 - Entrance Loss Percentage

Hood Loss = 1.26" + (.60 x 1.26") = 2.02" W.G.

Page 2

The duct branch from the grinder hood to the junction consists of 27' of 6" pipe and (2) 4 piece 90 elbows of R/D = 2. With an equivalent length of 39' (27' + 6' + 6') the duct loss for this run is: Duct Loss = 39 ( 100 ) x 5.2 = 2.03" W.G.

Chart II on page 4 indicates a resistance of 3.3" for every 100' of 9" diameter duct handling 2045 CFM. According to Figure 4 the two elbows are equal to another 18' of duct, so the total equivalent length is 68' between the junction and the fan. Duct Loss = 39 ( 100 ) x 3.3 = 2.24" W.G.

See Chart I on page 4, which indicates a 5.2" loss for every 100' of 6" diameter duct handling 880 CFM. The total resistance of the grinder branch to the junction is: Branch Loss = 2.02" + 2.03" = 4.05" W.G. Note that the resistance in both branches is nearly equal. This is because the pressures in converging branches must be equal during operation or the system will automatically equalize by adjusting the flow different than the design point. If the variation in resistance between any two converging branches exceeds 5%, further design is required to balance the loss in both branches. Where necessary, balancing can be accomplished by altering duct lengths, duct diameters, or air volumes. MAIN DUCT The main duct resistance calculations begin with the selection of the appropriate duct diameter. Assuming a minimum conveying velocity of 4500 FPM and an airflow requirement of 2045 ACFM (880 + 1165) in the main, a 9" diameter duct will suffice with a resulting velocity of 4630 FPM. The junction itself represents a loss due to the mixing effect of the converging branches. The ratio of the CFM in the branch (1165 880 = 1.3) can be used to determine the loss in percent of VP in the main. Interpolating from the data in Figure 5 results in: 4630 2 Junction Loss = .19 = .25" W.G. 4005

Note that all the losses to this point, up to the fan inlet, are expressed as negative pressure. Also that only the branch with the greatest loss is used in determining the total. Therefore: SP inlet = (-4.05") + (-.25") + (-2.24") = -6.54"W.G. Assuming the same size duct from the fan to the collector, the 30 of duct and the one elbow will have a loss equivalent to the following: Duct Loss = 39 ( 100 ) x 3.3 + 1.29" W.G.

The pressure drop across the dust collector, like coils or filters, must be obtained from the manufacturer of the device. Assuming a 2.0" loss for this example, the resistance at the fan outlet is: SP outlet = 1.29" + 2.0" = 3.29" W.G. FAN SELECTION At this point enough information is known about the system to begin fan selection. Because fans are rated independent of a system, their ratings include one VP to account for acceleration. Since the system resistance calculations also consider acceleration, fan static pressure can be accurately determined as follows: Fan SP = SP outlet - SP inlet - VP inlet In this example with 4630 FPM at the fan inlet, and a 1.33" VP Fan SP = 3.29" - (-6.54") - 1.33" = 8.5" W.G. For this example, a fan should be selected for 2045 ACFM at 8.5" SP and have an outlet velocity of at least 4500 FPM to prevent material settling. This presumes a standard airstream density of .075 lbs./ft.3 If the density were other than standard, the system-resistance calculations would have been the same but the resulting fan SP would have been corrected. Refer to Engineering Letter 4 for density correction procedures. This example also assumes that the fan inlet and outlet connections are aerodynamically designed. Fans are sensitive to abrupt changes in airflow directly adjacent to the fan inlet or outlet. The effects of abrupt changes and other system effect problems are discussed in Engineering Letter 5. CONCLUSION It is the responsibility of the system designer to ensure that there are adequate air flows and velocities in the system and that the selection of duct components and fan equipment has been optimized. While computer programs do the bulk of system calculations today, this Engineering Letter should help to provide a common set of methods and terminology to assist in that effort.

LOSS IN MAIN AT JUNCTION WITH BRANCH. (BASED ON 45 TEE & EQUAL MAIN & BRANCH VELOCITIES.)

CFM in Upstream Loss in Main Main CFM in Branch in % of Main V.P. 1 .20 2 .17 3 .15 4 .14 5 .13 6 .12 7 .11 8 .10 9 .10 10 .10 CORRECTION FACTORS FOR OTHER THAN 45 TEE. Tee Angle 45 Loss X Factor 0 0 15 0.1 30 0.5 45 1.0 60 1.7 75 2.5 90 3.4 Figure 5

Page 3

FRICTION OF AIR IN STRAIGHT DUCTS Heating Ventilation Air Conditioning Guide 1950 Copyright 1950 Based on standard air of 0.075 lb. per cu. ft. density flowing through average, clean, round, galvanized metal ducts having approximately 40 joints per 100 ft. No safety factor included. Caution: Do not extrapolate below chart. Chart I Chart II

Fo r m 5 0 7 D J K

ENGINEERING LETTER
FAN LAWS AND SYSTEM CURVES
INTRODUCTION The purpose of this Engineering Letter is to explain the basis and application of the rules used to predict fan performance in a given system. With a basic understanding of these rules, the performance of a fan can be quickly calculated for various conditions. SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS The three fundamental rules governing fan performance are commonly called the fan laws. These rules are only valid within a fixed system with no change in the aerodynamics or airflow characteristics of the system. For the purpose of this discussion, a system is the combination of ductwork, hoods, filters, grills, collectors, etc., through which air is distributed. Therefore, these rules can also be referred to as system laws. VOLUME AND PRESSURE The motion of any mass causes friction with its surroundings. The movement of air through a system causes friction between the air molecules and their surroundings (duct walls, filter media, etc.) and any other air molecules. Energy is required to overcome this friction, or resistance. The faster the air moves the greater the resistance to flow and the more energy is required to push or pull the air through the system. This energy is stated in terms of pressure. The portion of the pressure that results in air velocity is described as velocity pressure (VP). The portion necessary to overcome friction in the air and in the system is described as static pressure (SP). The sum of the two is described as total pressure (TP). The law of physics, for motion, is expressed algebraically as: V= 2gh or V2 = 2gh

The New York Blower Company 7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60521-5530

Figure 1 - System Curve

The same calculation using any number of varying CFM ratings would result in a plotted curve as shown in Figure 1. Regardless of fan type, fan size, or volume of flow through a system, the relationship of CFM to SP will not change unless the system itself is altered in some way. SP always varies as the square of the change in CFM. The only exception to this rule is found in a laminar flow characteristic where VP is of far greater importance than SP. Such circumstances are not typical of fan systems. FAN LAWS In air movement systems, it is the fan wheel that does the work. In a sense, the fan wheel acts like a shovel. As it revolves, it discharges the same volume of air with each revolution. Working within a fixed system, a fan will discharge the same volume of air regardless of air density, (disregarding the effects of compression at high pressures). If the fan RPM is increased, the fan will discharge a greater volume of air in exact proportion to the change in speed. This is the first fan law. 1. CFM varies in direct proportion to change in RPM CFM (new) = RPM (new) x CFM (old) RPM (old)

where V = velocity of flow g = force of gravity h = pressure causing flow As can be seen from the equation, the pressure necessary to cause flow is proportional to the square of the velocity. In a system, this means that SP will vary as the square of the change in velocity or volume expressed in cubic feet per minute (CFM). This makes it possible to predict all possible combinations of SP at the corresponding CFM given any one such calculated relationship of SP and CFM for a fixed system. For example, a system is calculated to require a static pressure equal to 2" water gauge at an airflow rate of 1000 CFM. If it is desired to increase the flow to 1500 CFM without any physical change in the system, the required SP would be: (1500 1000) x 2 = 4.5 SP new ( CFM CFM old )
2
2

SP new SP old

Figure 2 - A fan wheel is a constant volume device.

As shown earlier, in a system, the SP varies as the square of the change in CFM. Since CFM varies directly with RPM, RPM can be substituted for CFM in the system equation. Therefore, SP varies as the square of the change in RPM. This is the second fan law. 2. SP varies in proportion to the change in (RPM) SP (new) =
2

If the fan speed is increased or decreased, the point of operation will move up or down the existing system curve. This is shown in Figure 4. The following are examples of how the fan curve can be used to calculate changes to flow and pressure requirements. Example 1: A fan has been selected to deliver 35,530 CFM at 8" SP. The fan runs at 1230 RPM and requires 61.0 BHP. After installation, it is desired to increase the output 20%. At what RPM must the fan run? What SP will be developed? What BHP is required? 1. CFM varies as RPM (1230) (1.20) = 1476 RPM 2. SP varies as (RPM) 2 2 (1476/1230) (8) = 11.52" SP 3. BHP varies as (RPM) 3 (1476/1230) (61.0) = 105.4 BHP Example 2: A fan was originally installed to deliver 10,300 CFM at 2 1 / 4 " SP and to run at 877 RPM, requiring 5.20 BHP. After installation, it is found that the system only delivers 9,150 CFM at 2 1/2" SP and uses 4.70 BHP. This indicates the original calculations were in error, or that the system was not installed according to plan. What fan RPM and BHP will be necessary to develop the desired 10,300 CFM? What SP should have been figured? 1. CFM varies as RPM (10,300/9,150) (877) = 987 RPM 2. SP varies as (RPM) (987/877) 2 (2.50) = 3.17" SP 3. BHP varies as (RPM)3 3 (987/877) (4.70) = 6.70 BHP CONCLUSION
2 3

RPM (new) RPM (old)

x SP (old)

The efficiency of a fan is a function of its aerodynamic design and point of operation on its SP/CFM curve (see Figure 3). As the fan speed changes, this relative point of operation remains unchanged as long as the system remains unchanged. Thus, the fan brake horsepower varies proportionally as the cube of the change in RPM. This is the third fan law. 3. BHP varies in proportion to the change in (RPM) BHP (new) = (new) ( RPM RPM (old) )
3
3

x BHP (old)

It is important to remember that each of these fan law relationships takes place simultaneously and cannot be considered independently. FAN CURVE AND SYSTEM CURVE As stated previously, a system curve can be plotted to show all possible combinations of SP and CFM for a given fixed system. Any fan used on that system must operate somewhere on that system curve. Fan performance is determined by laboratory testing and is presented graphically in the form of fan curves. Unless it is physically altered in some way, a fan must operate somewhere on its SP/CFM curve. The relative shape of that curve will not change, regardless of fan speed. Because the fan and system can each only operate somewhere on their own respective curves, a fan used on a fixed system can only have one point of operation. The point of operation, as shown in Figure 3, is the intersection of the system curve and the fan SP CFM curve.

Figure 3

Use of the fan laws is based on a fixed system and a nonmodified fan. Adding or deleting system components such as dampers, or incurring density changes, will create completely new system curves. Changing fan accessories such as inlet boxes, evases, or inlet dampers will alter the fans performance curve from standard. These variables must be considered before the fan laws can be applied. During the process of system design, the fan laws can be helpful in determining alternate performance criteria or in developing a minimum/maximum range. If safety factors are applied to system calculations, it should be recognized that a 10% factor on volume will result in an increase in horsepower of 33% according to the third fan law. An evaluation should be made weighing the necessity of the safety factor versus the cost penalty incurred.
Form 60 7 GAW

Figure 4

ENGINEERING LETTER
UNDERSTANDING FAN PERFORMANCE CURVES
INTRODUCTION One of the most important documents customers request from fan manufacturers is performance curves. In addition to graphically depicting the basic fan performance data of CFM, RPM, and SP (on the static pressue curve) and BHP (on the brake horsepower curve), these curves also illustrate the performance characteristics of various fan types, like areas of instability, or the rate of change between flow and pressure. With some basic knowledge of performance curves, decisions can be made concerning fan selection, fan and system alterations, or the advisability of using a fan in a modulating system, for example. Except for very large fans, performance curve information is generated by connecting the fan to a laboratory test chamber. Very specific test procedures are followed as prescribed in the Air Movement and Control Associations Standard 210 to assure uniform and accurate readings. Data points are collected at a given RPM while the flow is slowly modulated from full closed to full open. The information gathered is then used to develop computer selection programs and published capacity tables for use by system designers and end users. STATIC PRESSURE CURVE

The New York Blower Company 7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60521 -5530

Figure 1 - Static Pressure Curve Assuming this same fan was intended to operate at 1200 RPM, the fan laws can be applied to obtain performance at this lower speed. 1. CFM varies as RPM

CFM (new) RPM (new) The static pressure curve provides the basis for all flow and = CFM (old) RPM (old) pressure calculations. This curve is constructed by plotting a series of static pressure points versus specific flow rates at a Therefore: given test speed. While the static pressure curve depicts a fans 1200 performance at a given speed, it can be used to determine the CFM (new) = (8750) 1750 fans pressure capability at any volume. In addition, it is also possible to approximate the fans performance at other speeds by applying the following fan laws: 1. CFM varies as RPM Therefore: 2. SP varies as (RPM)
2 3

= 6000 CFM

2. SP varies as (RPM)2 SP (new) = SP (old)

2 (new) ( RPM ) RPM (old)

SP (new) =

3. BHP varies as (RPM)

2 ( 1200 1750 )

(12) = 5.6 SP

To locate a fans point of operation, first locate the required static pressure on the SP scale at the left of the curve. Then draw a horizontal line to the right, to the point of intersection with the SP curve. Next, draw a vertical line from the point of operation to the CFM scale on the bottom to determine the fans flow capability for that SP at the given speed. As shown in Figure 1, the performance for this fan is 8750 CFM and 12" SP at 1750 RPM.

BRAKE HORSEPOWER CURVE Once the CFM and SP have been determined, a BHP rating can be established. An accurate BHP rating is necessary to properly size the motor or to determine the operating efficiency of one fan as compared to another. Performance curves contain a BHP curve from which the BHP rating can be determined for specific capacities. To determine BHP at a specific point of operation, a horizontal line is drawn to the right from the point of intersection of the vertical CFM line and the BHP curve.

Figure 2 - Performance Curve

Figure 3 - Performance Curve with System Lines

As shown in Figure 2, the fan operating at 8750 CFM and 12" SP at 1750 RPM is rated at 30 BHP. By employing the third fan law, the BHP rating can be determined for operation at 1200 RPM. 3. BHP varies as (RPM)3 BHP (new) = BHP (old) Therefore: BHP (new) = SYSTEM LINES Since fans are tested and rated independently from any type of system, a means of determining the fans capabilities within a given system must be provided. The fan laws apply equally to any system; therefore, CFM and SP variations within the system are predictable. This enables system lines to be superimposed on performance curves to simplify performance calculations. The system line is nothing more than the sum of all possible CFM and SP combinations within the given system. Any combination of fan and system must operate somewhere along that system line. Because a fan must operate somewhere along its SP curve and since the system has a known system line, their intersection is the point of operation. If the fan speed is changed, the point of operation must move up or down the system line. If the system is changed in some way, the point of operation must move up or down the SP curve. In practice, these principles can be used to check the accuracy of fan performance and system design. USING PERFORMANCE CURVES Figure 3 illustrates the point of operation of a fan selected for 8750 CFM and 12" SP operating at 1750 RPM. Included in Figure 3 are a number of different system lines. If the system does not operate properly upon start-up, measurements can be taken and compared against the available performance curve. (new) ( RPM RPM (old) )
3

( 1200 1750 )

(30) = 9.67 BHP

Lets assume that a tachometer reading indicates the fan is running at 1200 RPM instead of 1750 RPM, because of mistakes in motor speed or drive selection, and an airflow check indicates only 6000 CFM. These readings confirm that the system was calculated correctly and that the fan speed must be corrected to 1750 RPM as originally specified to achieve the desired 8750 CFM. If the tachometer reading indicates the proper speed but the airflow reading is down, additional system resistance beyond that originally calculated is indicated. This additional resistance could be caused by partially closed louvers/dampers, changes in duct sizing from the original design, system effect losses, or just an error in the system-resistance calculations. The deficiency can usually be corrected by either altering the system or increasing the fan speed. Often, performance curves for one speed must be used to determine the performance of a fan for use on systems requiring more air or higher pressures. A performance curve such as Figure 4 can be used to determine fan performance beyond the SP scale shown by using the fan laws to obtain a reference point of operation on the system line. This can be accomplished by applying some suitable factor to the required CFM and the square of that factor to the required SP. For example, the performance curve shown in Figure 4 can be used to determine fan performance requirements for a system calculated at 15,000 CFM and 23.5" SP, even though that point is beyond the curve. By determining a suitable reference capacity using the fan laws, that falls within the curve data, fan performance requirements can be obtained at the curve speed and then projected up to the system requirements using the fan laws once again. The required 15,000 CFM and 23.5" SP is on the same system line as 10,000 CFM at 10.4" SP which intersects the fans SP curve drawn for 1750 RPM and has a corresponding BHP of 33.0 at 1750 RPM. Therefore: RPM (new) = BHP (new) = 15000 (1750) 10000
3 ( 15000 10000 )

= 2625 RPM

(33.0) = 111 BHP

Page 2

FAN PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS The performance characteristics of a fan can be determined from the performance curve at a glance. These characteristics include such things as stability, increasing or non-overloading BHP, and acceptable points of operation. Fan performance is based on certain flow characteristics as the air passes over the fan wheel blades. These flow characteristics are different for each generic fan or wheel type, (i.e. radial, forward-curved, backwardly-inclined, radial-tip, and axial). Thus, the performance characteristics will be different for each of these general fan types. Further, these performance characteristics may vary from one manufacturer to the next depending upon the particular design. The characteristics described in this letter are based on nyb fan equipment. The performance curves presented in Figures 1 through 4 are typical of fans with radial-blade wheels. The SP curve is smooth and stable from wide open to closed off. The BHP curve clearly indicates that the BHP increases steadily with the volume of air being handled as shown in Figure 4. Fans with forward-curved wheels, such as shown in Figure 5, also have a BHP curve that increases with the volume of air being handled. The SP curve differs significantly from the radial since it exhibits a sharp dip to the left of the static pressure peak. This sharp dip (shaded area) indicates unpredictable flow characteristics. Though not technically accurate, this region is often referred to as the the stall region. It indicates that at these combinations of pressure and relatively low volumes, the airflow characteristics across the wheel blades change or break away so that the fan performance point is no longer stable. Any fan with this characteristic SP curve should not be selected for operation in the unstable area. As shown in Figure 6, the SP curve for a backwardly-inclined fan has a sharp dip to the left of the static pressure peak. This indicates an area of instability. However, the backwardlyinclined SP curve is generally steeper than that of the forwardcurved wheel indicating its desirability for use in higher pressure systems. Therefore, variations in system resistance will result in smaller changes in volume for the BI Fan when compared to the FC Fan. Even though New York Blower centrifugal fans with AcoustaFoil wheels are stable in the area left of the peak, the majority of fans with backwardly-inclined wheels exhibit an SP curve similar in appearance to that of the forward-curved fan. The SP curve shown (in Figure 7) for fans using AcoustaFoil (airfoil, backwardly-inclined) wheels exhibits a much smoother depression to the left of the static pressure peak. This indicates that the overall fan design is such that internal flow characteristics remain desirable or predictable even in the region left of peak and that performance in this region is stable.

Static Pressure

Brake Horsepower

CFM in 1,000s Figure 4 Typical Radial-Blade Fan Performance Curve

Static Pressure

Brake Horsepower

CFM Figure 5 Typical FC Fan Performance Curve

Static Pressure

Brake Horsepower

CFM
AcoustaFoil is a trademark of The New York Blower Company.

Figure 6 Typical BI Fan Performance Curve

Page 3

The BHP curve for all backwardly-inclined fans is the major difference between them and all other fan types. As shown in Figures 6 and 7, the BHP curve for backwardly-inclined fans reaches a peak and then drops off as the fans volume increases. With this non-overloading BHP characteristic, it is possible to establish a maximum BHP for a given fan speed and select a motor that can not be overloaded despite any changes or errors in 3 system design. Because BHP varies as (RPM) , this nonoverloading characteristic does not apply to increases in fan speed, but it is very useful for motor protection against errors or changes in system calculations and installation. Figures 5 and 6 indicate certain unacceptable selection areas on the SP curve. Although stability or performance may not be a problem, a point of operation down to the far right on the SP curve should be avoided. Selecting a fan that operates far down to the right, eliminates the flexibility to compensate for future system changes. Also, the fan is less efficient in this area as compared to a larger fan operating at a slower speed. Figure 7 shows the best selection area on the SP curve and the area in which the majority of capacity tables are published. As is evident in Figure 8, the radial-tip fan design combines the backwardly-inclined SP curve characteristics with the radial fans BHP curve. The radial tip is often more efficient than radial fans and typically best applied in high-pressure applications. As a result of its efficiency and dust-handling capabilities, the radial-tip fan can also be applied to lower pressure material conveying systems. The term axial fan is used to describe various propeller, vaneaxial, tubeaxial, and duct fans. The performance curves of these fans are characterized by the ability to deliver large volumes of air in relatively low pressure applications. As can be seen in Figure 9, the axial flow fan is distinguished by a drooping BHP curve that has maximum horsepower at no flow or closed-off conditions. The axial fan SP curve exhibits an area of extreme instability to the left of the hump in the middle of the curve. Depending upon the severity, axial fans are normally only selected to the right of this area. CONCLUSION A good working knowledge of performance curves is necessary to understand the performance characteristics and capabilities of different fan equipment. Use of performance curves in the selection of fan types and sizing will assure stable and efficient operation as well as future flexibility.

CFM Figure 7 Typical AcoustaFoil Fan Performance Curve

CFM Figure 8 Typical Radial-Tip Fan Performance Curve

CFM Figure 9 Typical Axial Fan Performance Curve

Form 60 7 GAW

ENGINEERING LETTER
TEMPERATURE AND ALTITUDE AFFECT FAN SELECTION
INTRODUCTION Fan performance changes with the density of the gas being handled. Therefore, all fans are cataloged at a standard condition defined as: 70F. air, at sea level, with a gas density of .075 3 lb./ft. at a barometric pressure of 29.92" Hg. At any other condition, the fans horsepower requirement and its ability to develop pressure will vary. Therefore, when the density of the 3 gas stream is other than the standard .075 lb./ft. , correction factors must be applied to the catalog ratings in order to select the correct fan, motor, and drive. In addition, the maximum safe speed of a wheel, shaft, or bearing can change due to an alloy becoming too brittle or too pliable at temperatures other than 70F. Temperature derate factors must be applied to the fans catalog maximum safe speed to ensure against overspeed situations. HOW TO CALCULATE ACTUAL FAN PERFORMANCE AT OTHER THAN 70 DEGREES FAHRENHEIT As illustrated in Figure 1, a fan wheel is similar to a shovel. In a given system, it will move the same volume of air regardless of the airs weight. If a fan moves 1000 CFM at 70F., it will also move 1000 CFM at 600F.

The New York Blower Company 7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60521 -5530

Figure 2 - With hot gas, there is less weight to shovel.

Example 1. A fan handling standard density, 70F. air, delivers 12,400 CFM against 6" SP (static pressure) requiring 14.6 BHP (brake horsepower). If the system and fan RPM are not changed, but the inlet airstream temperature is increased to 600F., how will the fan perform? The fan will still deliver 12,400 CFM, but since the air at 600F. weighs half as much as the air at 70F., static pressure and horsepower will be cut in half. The fan will generate only 3" SP and require only 7.3 BHP. A typical fan specification based on hot operating conditions is illustrated in Example 2. Example 2. Required: 11,000 CFM and 6" SP at 600F. (This means the actual, measurable static pressure of the fan at 600F. will be 6 inches of water.) The fans catalog performance tables are based on 70F. air at .075 density. The specified SP must be corrected by the ratio of the standard density to operating density. Since densities are inversely proportional to absolute temperature (degrees F. + 460):

Figure 1 - A fan wheel is like a shovel. However, air at 600F. weighs half as much as it does at 70F. Therefore, the fan requires just half the horsepower. (See Figure 2.) Likewise, since the air weighs half as much, it will create only half the static and velocity pressures. The reduction in static pressure is proportional to the reduction in horsepower, thus the overall fan efficiency will remain unchanged. CFM x Total Pressure 6356 x Brake Horsepower

+ 600 1060 = 6 ( = 12 ( 460 460 + 70 ) 530 )

The fan must be selected from the rating tables for 11,000 CFM at 12" SP. The BHP obtained from the table should be multiplied by the ratio of operating density to standard density in order to obtain the BHP at 600F. If the rating table showed 30.0 BHP, the operating BHP would be 30.0 (530/1060) = 15.0 BHP. In most hot systems, the fan is required to handle cold air until the system reaches temperature. A good example is in oven exhaust systems.

Total Efficiency =

If Example 2 were such a case, the fan would require 30.0 BHP when operating at 70F., and 15.0 BHP when the oven had warmed to 600F. Very often a damper is furnished with the fan so that, during the warming-up period, the fan can be dampered to reduce the horsepower. Without the damper, a 30 HP motor would be needed.

HOW TO CALCULATE ACTUAL FAN PERFORMANCE AT OTHER THAN SEA LEVEL A fan operating at an altitude above sea level is similar to a fan operating at air temperatures higher than 70F.; it handles air less dense than standard. Table 2 gives the ratio of standard air density at sea level to densities of 70F. air at other altitudes.

Confusion can be avoided if the SP is specified at the temperature it was calculated. In Example 2, the specifications should read Example 3. Required: 5800 CFM at 6" SP at 5000 ft. altitude. 70F. air at sea level weighs 1.20 times as much as 70F. air at either: 5000 Ft. Therefore, at sea level, the SP is 1.2 x 6 = 7.20" SP. The fan would need to be selected for 5800 CFM at 7.2" SP at 11,000 CFM and 6" SP at 600F., or 70F. .075 density. 11,000 CFM for operation at 600F. and 12" SP at 70F. Table 1 gives correction factors used to convert from a nonstandard density to a standard density of 70F. air. These factors are merely the ratios of absolute temperatures. Multiply the actual static pressure by the specific temperature/altitude factor so standard catalog rating tables can be used. Divide the brake horsepower from the catalog rating table by the temperature/altitude factor to get BHP at conditions. Table 1 - Corrections for Temperature Air Temperature F. -50 -25 0 +20 40 60 70 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 225 250 Factor 0.77 0.82 0.87 0.91 0.94 0.98 1.00 1.02 1.06 1.09 1.13 1.17 1.21 1.25 1.29 1.34 Air Temperature F. 275 300 325 350 375 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 900 1000 Factor 1.39 1.43 1.48 1.53 1.58 1.62 1.72 1.81 1.91 2.00 2.09 2.19 2.28 2.38 2.56 2.76 When both heat and altitude are combined, the density of the air is modified by each, independently, so that the correction factors can be multiplied together. Example 4. Required: 5800 CFM at 6" SP at 5000 ft. altitude at 600F. Air at 70F. at sea level weighs 2.00 x 1.20 = 2.40 times as much as 600F. air at 5000 ft. altitude. At sea level and 70F., SP = 2.40 x 6 = 14.4" SP. Select a fan for 5800 CFM at 14.4" SP. Divide the brake horsepower in the rating table by 2.40 to obtain horsepower at 600F. and 5000 ft. If the fan is to start cold, it will still be at 5000 ft. altitude. Therefore, to get the cold horsepower requirement, divide by 1.20, the altitude factor only. DENSITY CHANGES FROM OTHER THAN HEAT AND ALTITUDE Fan densities may vary from standard for other reasons than heat and altitude. Moisture, gas, or mixtures of gases (other than air) are a few possibilities. In these cases, it is necessary to obtain the actual density of the airstream gas by some other reference material. A similar factor, as shown in Table 1, is then created using the standard density of air .075 lb. per cubic foot divided by the new density. Factor = .075 lb./ft. special gas density
3

ACFM -SCFM DEFINITION The terms ACFM and SCFM are often used in design work and cannot be used interchangeably. SCFM is Standard Cubic Feet per Minute corrected to standard density conditions. To determine the SCFM of the volume used in Example 2, which was 11,000 CFM at 600F., we would multiply the CFM by the density ratios.

Table 2 - Corrections for Altitude Altitude Feet Above Sea Level 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 Factor 1.00 1.02 1.04 1.06 1.08 1.10 1.12 1.14 1.16 1.18 Altitude Feet Above Sea Level 5000 5500 6000 6500 7000 7500 8000 8500 9000 10000 Factor 1.20 1.22 1.25 1.27 1.30 1.32 1.35 1.37 1.40 1.45

11000 x

.037 = 5500 SCFM .075

This indicates that if the weight of air at 600F. were corrected to standard conditions its volume would be reduced to 5500 CFM ACFM stands for Actual Cubic Feet per Minute. It is the volume of gas flowing through a system and is not dependent upon density. The terms ACFM and SCFM are often used in system design work where both quantities need to be known. It should be remembered, however, that since a fan handles the same volume of air at any density, ACFM should be used when specifying and selecting a fan.

Page 2

FAN SAFE SPEED AND TEMPERATURE Whenever a fan is used to move air at temperatures substantially above or below 70F., care must be taken to ensure that the safe speeds of wheel and shaft are not exceeded, and that bearing temperature and lubrication are satisfactory. The maximum safe speed of a particular fan must be determined by calculations or actual tests. Safe speed depends entirely upon the wheel and shaft assemblys ability to withstand the centrifugal forces created by its own weight. Higher temperatures can affect the wheel and shaft assemblys ability to withstand these forces and therefore must be considered. Most metals become weaker at higher temperatures. This weakness is measurable in terms of yield and creep strength. It can be translated into formulas that accurately determine the safe speed of a wheel and shaft assembly in relation to its tested maximum speed at standard conditions. Manufacturers provide safe speed reductions in their catalogs based on the alloy that was used to manufacture the wheel and/or shaft. Some metals withstand heat better than others. Certain grades of stainless steel can be substituted to increase temperature limits. On the other hand, fan wheels constructed of aluminum should never be operated above 200F. For information regarding fiberglass reinforced plastic fan equipment, consult the appropriate product bulletin. Table 3 gives an indication of the speed derate factors for several different alloys. These are listed for reference purposes only. For a specific fan, consult the appropriate product bulletin. Table 3 - RPM Derate Factors By Material Temperature Mild Steel F. 70 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000 1.0 .97 .95 .94 .93 .92 .80 -Aluminum

Arrangement 4 centrifugal fans, where the fan wheel is mounted on the motor shaft, should not be used above 180F., unless special provisions are made (i.e., a shaft cooler or heat shield) to keep heat radiated from the housing from increasing motor bearing and winding temperatures. When fan bearings are located outside of the airstream, as in Arrangement 1, 8, and 9 centrifugal fans, higher airstream temperatures are possible. Table 4 lists some typical maximum recommended operating temperatures for fans using ball or roller bearings. A conventional fan using standard bearings and standard lubricant can normally be operated to a maximum of approximately 300F. With the addition of a shaft cooler (Figure 3), this temperature limitation can be extended to 650F. The shaft cooler has the effect of absorbing and dissipating heat from the shaft while circulating air over the inboard bearing. Table 4 - Maximum Fan Inlet Temperatures Arrangement 1 and 8 (Overhung Wheel) Standard Construction With Shaft Cooler With Shaft Cooler and Heat Gap With Shaft Cooler, Heat Gap, Stainless Wheel, and Alloy Shaft Standard Construction Arrangement 4 (Wheel on Motor Shaft) Standard Construction Enclosed Bearing Fans (Axial Fans) Arrangement 4 Arrangement 9 With Special V-Belts with 2.0 S.F. Arrangement 9 Duct Fan With Heat-Fan Construction Plenum Fans Arrangement 3 Arrangement 4 105F. 105F. 180F. 300F. 650F. 800F. 1000F.

Arrangement 3 (Wheel Suspended Between Bearings) 200F.

Stainless Steel 304L 1.0 .88 .82 .78 .75 .73 --316L 1.0 .95 .92 .89 .86 .84 .79 .75 347 1.0 .95 .93 .90 .90 .90 .86 .83

1.0 .97 -------

105F. 120F. 200F. 600F.

The limiting temperature on any fan is the highest temperature that any component of the fan assembly will reach during any operating cycle. A fan in a process oven application may handle air several hundred degrees above the highest temperature the oven reaches, especially during start-up. On such applications, a temperature indicator should be located in the fan inlet to control the heat source and to keep the fan within its maximum safe temperature. This is particularly true where burners are located on the inlet side of the fan. In all cases, the fan should remain in operation until the air is cooled to 180F. or less to prevent heat soaking of the fan shaft which could cause sagging. Bearings must be kept cool; otherwise standard lubricants lose their effectiveness and bearing failures are likely. For axial fans, where the bearings are located in the airstream, care must be taken to ensure proper lubrication. Special fan and bearing designs, as well as high temperature lubricants, are available to extend the operating range to higher temperatures.

Figure 3 Shaft Color

Page 3

With the addition of a heat gap (Figure 4) the temperature limitation can be extended to 800F. since the fan pedestal is isolated from the hot fan housing. For specific applications, consult the appropriate product bulletin. Also, recognize that these limitations apply only to bearings and that wheel and shaft limitations must be treated independently. All of the foregoing is based on the use of standard lubricants. When high-temperature lubricants are required, the type of lubricant and the frequency of relubrication are normally much more critical. When the fan shaft is heated to the point that it expands more than the structure to which it is attached, one expansion bearing and one fixed bearing should be furnished. The fixed bearing is located on the drive end of the fan while the floating bearing is located next to the fan. This arrangement, however, is not critical and may vary by manufacturer. When the fan is handling air below 70F., there is the possibility of other problems. Below -30 to -50F., ordinary steel is too brittle. Aluminum wheels or wheels of steel containing at least 5% nickel must be used, and shafts must be made of nickel-

bearing steel. In addition, lubricants become stiff, or even solid in these low-temperature applications. Exact operating conditions should be given to the fan manufacturer to relay to the bearing supplier for proper selection. CALCULATING HOT RESISTANCE FOR SYSTEMS Figure 5 shows a system that operates at the same temperature throughout. If the inlet temperature is known, the fan may be selected from the fan capacity tables and the rated horsepower and static pressure corrected by the temperature correction factor from Table 1. However, what happens to the system that the fan was operating against? If a fixed system, which originally was calculated for standard air, was subjected to the same temperature increase as the fan, then system static pressure will change and be identical to the fan static pressure change. The result is that if a fan and system operate together the flow will remain unchanged. (See Figure 6.) Unfortunately, this example assumes that the entire system is being subjected to the same temperature change, which is not always the case.

Figure 4 4 Heat Gap between Figure Heat Gap betweenfan and bearing. fan and bearing.

Figure 6 Fan-system curve relationship with fan and system at the same temperature.

Figure 5 A system with the same temperature throughout.

Page 4

Figure 7 shows a system in which different temperatures are involved. The fan will not handle the same volume of air when operating hot as it does when cold. If the burner is on, the fan will handle 1430 ACFM against an actual static pressure of 1.2 inches. This is arrived at by adding the filter, burner, and nozzle resistance, neglecting for the sake of simplicity any external resistance from additional ductwork. The fan would be selected from the capacity tables on the basis of 1430 CFM at 1.72 inches static pressure (300F. correction factor times 1.2 inches). If the burner is turned off while the fan continues to operate at the same RPM, it is necessary to determine the system characteristic curve and plot its intersection with the fan to determine how much air the fan would move and at what static pressure. To accomplish this we must assume an arbitrary capacity, such as 1000 CFM at 70F. The filter louver resistance would be the same, cold or hot, at .3 inches 70F. The burner resistance would remain unchanged with temperature since it must

be assumed that air expansion takes place after the high velocity section of the burner. The nozzles will vary in resistance directly as the density changes and inversely as the square of the flow. The nozzle would then have a resistance cold at 1000 CFM of:

.5 x

( 1000 1430 )

x 1.43 = .35

Summing these resistances yields the cold resistance at 1000 CFM of 1 .05"SP. This new system point and corresponding curve are then plotted against a fan curve at standard conditions such that the resulting intersection will be the final operating point of the cold system. Using an actual fan as an example, the resulting flow would be 1220 CFM at 1.5 inches static pressure. (See Figure 8.)

Figure 8 - Fan-system curve relationship with fan at different temperatures.

Figure 7 - A system with different temperatures.

Page 5

FAN LOCATION IN HOT PROCESS SYSTEMS Figure 9 shows how a fan may be located more economically in one part of a system, as contrasted to another. Suppose 10,000 CFM is to be heated from 70F. to 600F. Obviously, the heater will require the same 3-inch pressure differential whether the fan is to push the air into, or pull the air out of, the heater. A fan pushing air into the heater would be specified to handle 10,000 CFM at 70F. against 3 inches of static pressure at 70F. One possible selection is a fan with a 27-inch wheel diameter, Class I design utilizing a 71 / 2 HP motor. The alternative fan, pulling air from the heater, would be specified to handle 20,000 ACFM at 600F. against 3" SP at 600F. It would be selected from the capacity tables for 20,000 CFM at 6" SP. One suitable choice is a fan with a 3 6 1 / 2 -inch wheel diameter, Class II design utilizing a 15 HP motor. (Note: 26 HP, from the tables, at 70F., divided by temperature correction factor, is 13 HP at 600F.) This example illustrates why it is usually more economical to locate the fan at the coolest part of the system. In this case, the push fan might cost half as much as the pull fan.

Figure 9 - The importance of fan location.

Form 607 G AW

ENGINEERING LETTER
FAN PERFORMANCE - THE SYSTEM EFFECT
INTRODUCTION Fans are typically tested and rated in prescribed test configurations defined by the Air Movement and Control Association. This is done to ensure standardized procedures and ratings so that system designers can make realistic choices among various manufacturers. Beyond the routine system resistance calculations, the location of some common components and their proximity to the fan inlet or outlet can create additional immeasurable losses commonly called System Efect. These losses, if not eliminated or minimized, will necessitate fan speed and horsepower increases to compensate for the performance deficiencies. This Letter will outline some of the common causes for these deficiencies and provide useful guidelines for more efficient and predictable air-handling systems. SYSTEM DESIGN The term system refers to the path through which air is pushed and/or pulled. Since it can be any combination of ducts, coils, filters, etc., through which air flows, a system can range in complexity. The system can be as simple as exhausting air through an opening in the wall of a building, or as involved as a multi-zoned system with varying flows and densities. The calculations for determining the performance requirements are discussed in Engineering Letter 1. The effects of the system design on the actual performance capability of a fan represent separate and equally important considerations. In the typical process of system design, the performance requirements are calculated and then used to select the appropriate fan. However, in many cases the effects of the relationship between the system components and the fan are not considered in the calculation or selection process. For example, the resistance of a given size elbow at a given flow can be easily determined using the equivalent length calculation method. However, if that elbow is located at the fan inlet or outlet, further immeasurable losses will be imposed in addition to the simple loss through the elbow itself. Most importantly, these losses cannot be measured or even detected with field instruments because they are, in fact, a destruction of the fan performance characteristics. Standardized testing and rating methods for fans have been established by the Air Movement and Control Association, (AMCA). The test methods are described in AMCA Standard 210, titled Test Code for Air Moving Devices. Specifying fan equipment tested and rated in strict accordance with AMCA Standard 210 is the best way to ensure accurate fan performance. However, the system effects that alter or limit the ultimate performance remain the most frequent causes of field performance problems. The four most common causes of system-induced performance deficiencies: 1. 2. 3. 4. Eccentric flow into the fan inlet. Spinning flow into the fan inlet. Improper ductwork at the fan outlet. Obstructions at the fan inlet or outlet.

The New York Blower Company 7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60521-5530

ECCENTRIC FLOW Fans perform correctly when air flows straight into the inlet. Air should be drawn into the fan inlet with an evenly distributed velocity profile. As shown in Figure 1, this allows all portions of the fan wheel to handle an equal air load. If the air is not drawn into the fan inlet evenly, performance deficiencies will result from the combined effects of turbulence and uneven air distribution. This is illustrated in Figure 2, where an elbow is installed directly on the fan inlet.

Figure 1 Even Air Loading

Figure 2 Uneven Air Loading

When the system attempts to change the direction of flow, the air hugs the outside of the inlet elbow entering the fan. This causes uneven, turbulent airflow into the fan. Another common cause of non-uniform flow into the fan inlet is a poorly designed inlet box, such as the one shown in Figure 3. It is important to remember that air has mass.

Pre-spinning flow can result from any number of common situations. Two elbows in close proximity to one another can force the air to make consecutive turns in perpendicular planes to form a corkscrew effect. As shown in Figure 5, air converging tangentially into the main duct or plenum can create an obvious spinning effect. Pre-spinning flow can also be induced by such common air cleaning devices as a venturi scrubber or a cyclone as seen in Figure 6. In these cases, it is often the very function of the air cleaning device to create a spinning effect.

Figure 3 Poorly Designed Inlet Box

SPINNING FLOW Unintentionally spinning air into the fan inlet can have the same effect on performance as the intentional pre-spin produced by a vortex-type inlet damper. The direction air is flowing when it enters the fan wheel is very important. In order to produce its rated capacity, the fan works on the air by changing its direction and accelerating its velocity. If the air is spinning in the same direction as the wheel rotation, the fan capacity will be diminished. If the air is spinning in the opposite direction of the wheel rotation, the brake horsepower and noise of the fan will increase. The static pressure of the fan may also increase slightly, but far less than indicated by the increased power consumption. The evaluation and control of pre-spinning flow is more difficult than eccentric flow because of the variety of system connections or components that can contribute to pre-spin. Also, spinning often occurs in combination with eccentric flow such as the case with the inlet box shown in Figure 4.

Figure 5 Spinning Effect

Figure 4 Eccentric Flow with Pre-Spin

Figure 6 - Fan/Cyclone System

Page 2

CORRECTING BAD INLET CONNECTIONS The ideal fan inlet connection creates neither eccentric nor spinning flow. Where an inlet duct is required, the best connection is a long straight duct with straightening vanes. However, it is usually necessary to adapt the system to the available space. When space becomes the limiting factor, two choices are available: 1. Install corrective devices in the duct. 2. Increase fan speed to compensate. The first choice is preferable, but the second is often necessary. In many cases, the corrective devices themselves will represent some resistance to flow. A combination of both choices could be necessary to correct extreme field performance problems. If the fan and system are properly matched, their common point of operation should fall within the recommended range on the fan static-pressure curve. Figure 7 illustrates the recommended range for backwardly-inclined fans. A deleterious system effect could move the point of operation to the left on the pressure curve. This would force the fan to operate at an unstable point. The same situation can occur with any of the basic fan types that exhibit unstable flow characteristics as discussed in Engineering Letter 3. When this happens there are three options: alter the system to allow greater flow without increasing resistance significantly, replace the fan with a smaller one, or replace the fan with one that has a stable curve.

Figure 8 Turning Vanes

To overcome these losses, the fan speed must be increased to the speed shown in the fans rating table at the required volume and a pressure 21% greater than originally calculated: (110% 100%)2 = 1.21 Of course the fans speed should never be increased beyond the cataloged maximum safe speed! It is important to note that the increased resistance will not be observed on the system. The pressure increase is only for the purpose of selecting the fan to compensate for the losses associated with the particular system effect. The fan laws cannot be applied selectively, only simultaneously. According to the fan laws, if the fan speed is increased 10% for a given system, the flow through the system will increase 10%, the system resistance will increase 21%, and the fan BHP will increase 33%. This represents an obvious waste of energy due to an often avoidable system-related deficiency. In most cases, such a change would require the purchase of a larger motor as well as a new drive. If the fan is a direct-connected arrangement, limited to one fixed motor speed, the solution becomes even more expensive. These considerations and horsepower penalties apply to all the major causes of system-induced performance deficiencies. If the available space dictates the need for a turn into the fan inlet, a standardized inlet-box design, with predictable losses, should be used whenever possible. DISCHARGE DUCTWORK

Static Pressure

Brake Horsepower

CFM

Figure 7 - Static Pressure Curve for Backwardly-Inclined Fan

Simple or complex turning vanes, such as those shown in Figure 8, can be used to minimize the effects of both eccentric and/or spinning flow. The egg-crate straightener, such as the one shown in Figure 6, can be used in the available space to stop pre-spin and improve fan inlet conditions.

The connection made to a fan outlet can affect fan performance. An outlet duct ranging in length from 21/2 to 6 fan wheel Most of the inlet connections illustrated, with or without diameters, depending on velocity, is necessary to allow the fan to corrective devices, can produce losses in performance. These develop its full rated pressure. If the outlet duct is omitted losses would be difficult, if not impossible, to predict. Even the inlet completely, a static pressure loss equal to one half the outlet box shown in Figure 8, with all the turning vanes installed, could velocity pressure will result. The system resistance calculation still easily represent losses of 10% to 15% of the required flow. should include this loss as additional required static pressure.
Page 3

Figure 9 - Velocity Profile at Fan Outlet Figure 10 - Poor Fan Outlet Connections Air is not discharged from a fan with a uniform velocity profile. The main reason for this is the fact that air has weight and is thrown to the outside of the scroll. Figure 9 shows a typical velocity profile. In a duct with a uniform cross-section, the average velocity will be the same at all points along the duct. However, where velocity distribution changes (such as the duct adjacent to the fan outlet) the velocities are not typically the same. Since velocity pressure is proportional to velocity squared, the average velocity pressure at the fan outlet will be higher than the average downstream. Since total pressure will be virtually the same, the static pressure cannot be fully developed until some point 21/2 to 6 duct diameters downstream. Although duct turns directly at the fan outlet should be avoided, there are times when they cannot. In such cases, the turns should follow the same direction as the wheel rotation. Turns made in the opposite direction of wheel rotation (such as those shown in Figure 10) can have a pressure drop beyond normal system calculations. Usually the drop is between .5 to 1.5 fan outlet velocity pressures. INLET OR OUTLET OBSTRUCTIONS System obstructions can be as obvious as the cone-shaped stack cap which can have a pressure drop as high as one velocity pressure, or as subtle as the installation of a large fan sheave directly in front of the inlet on an Arrangement 3, double-width, double-inlet fan. One of the most common situations is to place a fan inside a plenum or near some obstruction and fail to account for the effects on the airflow to the fan inlet. The installation shown in Figure 11 is typical of the sort of non-uniform flow that could result in additional losses beyond the normal system calculation. These losses will increase as the velocity increases or as the distance between the obstruction and the fan inlet decreases. CONCLUSION AMCA Publication 201 - Fans and Systems, presents an in-depth discussion of system effect and provides methods for estimating losses associated with many common situations.

Figure 11 - Plenum System If system effect situations cannot be avoided, their impact on performance should be estimated and added to the calculated system resistance prior to sizing or selecting the fan. Ignoring the system effect could lead to difficult field performance problems later. It could be that the installed fan does not have the necessary speed reserve, or the motor is not of sufficient brake horsepower. The cost of correcting such a field performance problem could escalate rapidly. System designers need to carefully consider the system effect values presented in AMCA Publication 201. By accurately defining the true performance requirements of fans in installed systems, field performance problems can be reduced significantly.
Form 60 7 GAW

ENGINEERING LETTER
INCREASING FAN PERFORMANCE
INTRODUCTION Industrial processes and plant-ventilation systems often need more air than originally designed. Increased production requirements, process changes, and facility renovations are a few of the major reasons. Additionally, the lack of adequate maintenance over time can negatively impact system airflows. This letter discusses several procedures that can increase airflow. CHECK THE FANS MECHANICAL CONDITION Often airflow can be increased by adhering to proper fan maintenance procedures as outlined in fan installation and maintenance literature. Properly aligned and tightened V-belt drives. See Figure 1. Fan speed can decrease by as much as 10% to 20% when belts are too loose, with a corresponding loss of airflow.

The New York Blower Company 7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60521-5530

Check wheel and inlet cone alignment. See Figure 3. Components may be out of position due to routine cleaning or painting or the wheel could have shifted during shipment. For backward inclined fans, the relation of wheel to inlet cone is very critical. Even a quarter of an inch can have a major impact. The fans installation and maintenance literature shows the proper positioning of the wheel to the inlet cone (A dimension) or inlet plate.

Figure 3 Wheel to Cone Alignment

Figure 1 - Poor Drive Alignment and Belt Tension

INSPECT THE SYSTEM The design and maintenance of the system plays a large role in achieving the overall desired performance. Visual inspections often reveal some easily rectified problems that can significantly impair performance. Check for clogged filters or coils. If the system has not been properly maintained, clogged filters or obstructed coils will reduce airflow. The greater the obstruction, the greater the loss in airflow. Eliminate System leaks. Any leaks in the ductwork will contribute to reduced performance, especially leaks around plenum bulkheads that can lead to recirculation of air. Worn flexible connectors are a common source of leaks and should be inspected regularly.

Figure 2 Incorrect Wheel Rotation

Clean airstream surfaces. A fan cannot perform as designed if Verify that dampers are installed correctly and operating the air flow surfaces are distorted by contaminants. Even in properly. If the damper linkage is out of adjustment, the large fans, a sixteenth of an inch of build up can reduce damper may not be opening completely, thereby reducing performance. performance. If inlet dampers are used, make sure they are Check fan rotation. See Figure 2. Centrifugal fans will move installed so that the air is pre-spun in the same direction as some air even when running backwards. While some types wheel rotation. See Figure 4. If the air distribution system would use so much horsepower they would trip circuit breakers, employs balancing dampers, make sure they are set properly. other designs could run for years without being detected.

Figure 4 Inlet Damper/Fan Wheel Rotation

Figure 6 The effects on brake horsepower, static pressure and loudness when fan speed is increased.

When increasing fan speed, it is necessary to check the maximum safe speed of the fan and make sure the motor is capable of the horsepower required to run the fan at the new speed. Never run a fan beyond its maximum safe speed. ADD OR REPLACE FAN EQUIPMENT
Figure 5 Fan Inlet Connections

For all dampers, make sure there is sufficient clearance for the blades to open and close completely without hitting the ductwork or other system components. Last, for systems with either pneumatic or electric controls, make sure damper actuators are operating properly. Look for system effect. Sharp changes in the direction of airflow at either the fan inlet or outlet will disrupt the flow through the fan and impair performance. If it is impossible to straighten the ductwork entering and leaving the fan, the use of inlet boxes and turning vanes can minimize performance losses as shown in Figure 5. For a more detailed explanation, refer to Engineering Letter 5, Fan Performance - The System Effect. INCREASE THE FAN SPEED

On a first-cost basis, adding or replacing fan equipment is the most costly alternative. However, on a life-cycle-cost basis, considering operating and maintenance expense, it can be the least expensive, as compared to increasing the speed of an existing fan. Sometimes a second fan may be added, either in series or parallel with the original, although it may be more cost effective to simply upgrade the system with a new fan capable of the required airflow and pressure. Adding another fan in series will increase the airflow because of the additional pressure. The operating point of the new system moves further out/up the system curve. Where duct size is adequate to handle the desired amount of air but the existing fan doesnt provide sufficient pressure, a second fan in series may be the best solution. However, make sure the ductwork can handle the increase in pressure. Adding another fan in parallel with the first will increase airflow due to the combined capacities. Because capacities are being combined instead of pressures, a greater increase in airflow will result for a given system. However, system pressures will also increase and caution is required to avoid the unstable operating area of the combined fan system.

One of the easiest solutions to low airflow problems is speeding up the fan. While airflow is increased by speeding up the fan, so too are static pressure, noise, and power requirements. Figure 6 presents this graphically. Therefore, while increasing the fans speed is an easy procedure with low first cost, the additional operating expense over time makes it the most costly solution. CONCLUSION See Engineering Letter 2 - Fan Laws and System Curves, for When more air is required it is important to investigate the additional information. system on a step-by-step basis, considering the least expensive possibilities first. For existing systems that seem to have lost performance, fan and system maintenance is the place to start. Often, simply improving the efficiency of existing components will suffice. For systems that require greater airflow and/or pressure, increased fan speed is generally the first alternative. However, when large increases in performance are required, there may be no alternative but to purchase a larger fan.
Form 60 7 GAW

60527-5530

7 1

FIELD TESTING OF FAN SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION A fan system may require field testing when the system is thought to be malfunctioning, needs modification or requires balancing of its volume and pressure characteristics. When it has been determined that a field test is required, the test can provide a complete check on fan performance. This includes determination of air volume, fan static pressure and fan brake horsepower. This Engineering Letter details the steps involved in performing a field air test. A field test sheet, which simplifies the recording of test data and the calculation of test results, is provided. A list of safety precautions to be observed while conducting the test is also included. INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED 1. The best method of measuring both air velocity and static pressure in the field is with a Pitot tube and manometer. The absence of moving parts, combined with fundamental simplicity, make this set of instruments accurate and nearly foolproof. Both instruments may be used in nearly any atmosphere and require no adjustments except for zeroing the manometer prior to testing. Figure 1 shows a Pitot tube cross-section. Figure 2 demonstrates how it is connected to the manometer to indicate pressures by measuring the difference in heights of water columns in the U tubes. Most manometers, such as shown in Figure 3, read directly in inches of water column. Some manometers may have velocity graduations marked directly in feet per minute for use where barometric pressure and temperature corrections are normal (i.e., test conditions assumed to be 70 F. and 29.92 inches of mercury). For greater convenience, a more compact Magnehelic pressure gauge may be used with a Pitot tube as a substitute for the manometer mentioned earlier. These gauges, illustrated in Figure 4, are available in a variety of pressure ranges. 2. 3. 4. A clip-on ammeter/voltmeter is used to obtain a reasonable estimate of fan motor horsepower. A calibrated hand tachometer is used to determine the fan RPM. An accurate temperature probe is used to measure temperature at each test location where volume or static pressure readings are taken.

Sometimes there are no accessible test duct locations suitable for use with the Pitot tube. In this case, the air volume can be determined at the system entrance or exit, or through a grille or coil by using an anemometer or velometer. This method, however, is not as accurate and readings should only be taken by experienced service personnel familiar with this type of testing. PERFORMING A PITOT TUBE/MANOMETER TEST: 1. Make a sketch of the system as a record and as a guide for selecting locations for taking test readings. Often this will call attention to poor system-design features. Include dimensions, such as duct diameters or areas, duct length, motor size, motor speed and sheave diameters on belt drive fans.

Figure 1 Pilot Tube Cross-Section

Figure 2 Pilot Tube Connection

Figure 3 Pilot Tube/Manometer Test Kit

2.

Determine the best possible location for obtaining the air volume readings via a Pitot tube traverse (set of readings). The traverse location should not be directly after any turns, transitions or junctions. The traverse should be after a minimum of 2-1/2 duct diameters of straight duct. To obtain the correct air volume, the Pitot tube and manometer or gauge should be connected to display velocity pressures, not velocities (see Figure 5). The location of the test points within each traverse is shown on the field test sheet included with this letter.

3.

Take static pressure readings several duct diameters from the fan inlet and outlet to avoid turbulence (see Figure 6). If the fan has either an open inlet or outlet, assume the static pressure to be zero at the opening. Record the airstream temperatures at each static pressure location. Record the fan speed after measuring it with the tachometer. If a tachometer is unavailable, make sure you record the motor nameplate RPM and sheave diameters from which the fan speed can be calculated. Read the voltage and amperes supplied to the motor and record the values for calculation of fan motor horsepower. Measure the barometric pressure at the fan site with a portable barometer or obtain the pressure from the nearest weather station or airport. Be sure the barometric pressure is correct for your altitude and that it has not been corrected to sea level reference. Determine whether the air being handled contains quantities of moisture, particulates and/or gases other than clean air. If so, obtain the concentrations and densities of the gases or mixture for use in making density corrections. The attached test sheet is used to calculate flow through a fan. For additional information on conducting field tests of fan systems, AMCA Publication 203, Field Performance Measurements of Fan Systems, is recommended.

4.

5. 6.

7.

Figure 4 Magnehelic Gauge

Figure 5 Air Flow Pressure

Figure 6 Static Pressure Readings

Page 2

CALCULATING FAN PERFORMANCE The following steps explain how to calculate density, CFM, SP, and BHP using the acquired test data. 1. Determine the density of the airflow through the fan during the test by using the dry-bulb temperature at the fan inlet and the barometric pressure. Density in pounds per cubic foot is determined by: Density inlet = 0.075 Pressure ( 460530 ) (Barometric ) + F. 29.92

This method requires power factor and motor efficiency data, which may be difficult to obtain. Another method is to draw an amps versus horsepower curve, (see Figure 7). This is done by plotting a rough horsepower versus amps curve for the motor as follows: a. Establish no-load amps by running the motor disconnected from the fan (point a). b. Draw a dotted line through one-half no-load amps, at zero HP, and nameplate amps at nameplate HP (points b). c. At one-half nameplate HP, mark a point on this line (point c). d. Draw a smooth curve through the three points (a, c, b). e. Determine running HP by plotting running amps. Multiply fan horsepower by the K density correction factor to determine HP at standard conditions. 6. Locate volume, static pressure and horsepower on a performance curve drawn at the fan RPM. Curves can be generated using manufacturers fan-selection software at specific densities, temperature and altitude. The test plot values will probably not fall exactly on the curve. If the fan system has been designed and installed properly, the difference should be small, reflecting test accuracy. If the difference is great, the system should be analyzed as described in the next section. Figure 8 shows a typical fan curve and field test points which fall on the curve.

2. Determine the density of the airflow at the CFM test location (if different from inlet density) by: Density CFM = 0.075

530 460 + F.

)(

Barometric Pressure 29.92

3. Calculate fan inlet air volume in CFM as measured with the Pitot tube and manometer/gauge as follows: First, take the square roots of the individual velocity pressures and compute the average of the square roots. Then: CFM inlet = [ 1096 x test duct area (ft2) ] x

of Sum of VPs x Density CFM (Avg. ( Density Density CFM test ) Inlet ) The above calculation gives air volume in actual cubic feet per minute (ACFM) which is the conventional catalog rating unit for fans. If standard cubic feet per minute is desired, it may be calculated as follows: SCFM = ACFM x Inlet Density ( Actual Standard Density )

4. Determine the fan static pressure (SP) by the following formula: SP fan = SP outlet - SP inlet - VP inlet

Where: VP inlet =

CFM inlet

1096 x inlet area in sq. ft.

) x Density inlet

Figure 7 Amperes versus Horsepower

NOTE: Correct inlet and outlet static pressure to standard values by the following formula before summing. SP standard = SP actual Actual Density ( Standard Density )

5. Fan motor horsepower may be determined in several ways. The best is to read the volts and amperes supplied to the motor and apply the formula:
For single phase motors: Fan BHP = Volts x Amps x Power Factor x Motor Eff. 746 For three phase motors: Fan BHP = Volts x Amps x Power Factor x Motor Eff. x 3 746 Page 3
Figure 8 Typical Fan Curve and Field Test Points

POOR PERFORMANCE TEST RESULTS If the test results indicate poor fan performance, a number of simple steps can be taken that could improve performance. Be sure that any dampers at the fan inlet or outlet are set to the correct position and that no other system dampers such as fire dampers, smoke dampers or balancing dampers have been inadvertently closed. A frequent cause of poor fan performance is the presence of poor inlet connections. Sharp elbows, inlet boxes without turning vanes and duct configurations causing the air to spin upon entering the fan, are examples of undesirable inlet connections. Fan performance is also impacted by poor outlet conditions. Examine the outlet connection, keeping in mind that sharp elbows, rapid expansions, reductions or the absence of an outlet connection all together can reduce fan performance. By connecting the Pitot tube and manometer/gauge to read velocity pressure and inserting the Pitot tube through a hole at the inlet connection (as illustrated in Figure 9), pre-spin can be

determined. Once inserted, slowly twist the tube. The angle at which air is entering the fan can be determined by observing the angle of the tube generating the highest gauge reading. If the angle deviates noticeably from being parallel to the fan shaft, the air entering the fan inlet may be spinning and therefore reducing fan performance. Another reason for poor performance could be stratification of the air entering the fan. By taking four temperature readings ninety degrees apart in the inlet duct near the fan, the possibility of stratification can be determined. A temperature difference of 10 degrees or more in the readings indicates stratification exists. An illustration of stratification is shown in Figure 10. Refer to Engineering Letters 5 and 6 for more detailed explanations of system effect and improving fan performance. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS The included list of safety precautions should be observed whenever testing or servicing fan equipment.

Figure 9 Testing Fan Inlet for Spinning Airflow

Figure 10 Condition Causing Stratification

Form 1007

ENGINEERING LETTER
PROPER SELECTION OF PRESSURE BLOWERS
INTRODUCTION In general terms, a pressure blower provides relatively high pressure at low volume when compared to other types of centrifugal fans. For purposes of this letter, fans with volumes to 10,000 CFM with pressures to 80" WG are considered pressure blowers. Typical applications require constant pressure throughout the systems operating range. A fan outlet damper or system damper is usually used to control air volume. Consequently, a requirement of pressure blowers is that they provide stable performance from full-closed to full-open.

The New York Blower Company 7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60521-5530

POINT OF OPERATION Since typical pressure-blower applications require a constant pressure, selections are normally near the flat peak of the static pressure curve. See Figure 2. Because of the flat nature of the pressure-blower curve, a typical question is, what keeps the fans performance from fluctuating between different points on the fan curve? The answer lies in the relationship between the fans performance curve and the system curve.

Figure 3 Typical Pressure Blower and System Curves

Figure 1 Dual-Tampered Pressure Blower Wheel

Most pressure blowers employ a radial-blade wheel design. New York Blowers research has resulted in a unique wheel design that is not truly radial. The blades are slightly canted backward and dual tapered from the hub to the blade tip. See Figure 1. This design provides better efficiencies and, as a result, significantly lower noise levels. The volume-pressure characteristics remain the same as radial-blade wheels.

At a given RPM, the fan can only operate on its performance curve. The only way to alter this curve is to either increase or decrease the fans speed. Conversely, the system can only operate along one system curve. The only way to change this system curve is to increase or decrease the resistance through the system. Since the two curves can only intersect at one point, the actual performance of the fan can occur only at the intersection of the fan curve and the system curve. This is depicted in Figure 3.

Figure 2 Typical Pressure Blower Performance Curves Note: Broken lines denote typical system curves.

Considering that pressure blowers are often selected near the peak of their pressure curve, dampering usually results in an operation left of the pressure peak. One benefit of radial-blade wheel design is that it delivers stable performance left of peak. Radial wheels bring other advantages to pressure blowers. The radial design delivers greater pressures at a specific RPM than both the radial-tip and backwardly-inclined designs. The inherent strength of the radial wheel allows for the relatively high wheel tip speeds required for the development of high pressures. Remember, pressure is approximately proportional to the square of the change in wheel tip speed. Therefore, a 2 PSI pressure blower must be capable of speeds 1.414 times as fast as a 1 PSI unit. 1.414 2 = 2 SINGLE-STAGE VS. MULTI-STAGE Single-stage pressure blowers are the most common and least expensive of the two designs for the range of flows and pressures noted in the introduction. A single-stage pressure blower consists of a single wheel in a volute-shaped housing design, such as shown in Figure 4.

SELECTION PROCEDURES Selecting pressure blowers or any other type of fan for applications involving relatively high pressure requires some special considerations. Pressure blowers are generally used with the pressure entirely on the inlet or entirely on the outlet. Air is compressed as it passes through the fan, lowering the volume and raising the density. In negative pressure systems, air is rarefied to become less dense. The extent to which the effects of compression and rarefication must be considered depends largely on the degree of accuracy employed in the actual system design and calculation process. During compression there is also a temperature rise associated with the energy expended to overcome the system resistance and fan inefficiency. The rule of thumb is to allow 1F. temperature rise for every 2" static pressure differential. For example: a supply fan with 40" SP at the outlet will develop a 20F. temperature rise at the fan outlet, as compared to the air temperature at the fan inlet. To determine the proper air volume for selection purposes, the effect on density of both compression and temperature must be considered. One notable exception to these rules for performance corrections is the combustion-air-supply application. Burner manufacturers use SCFM ratings to arrive at lbs./hr. of air. The air will be compressed through the fan to a proportional lower volume, yet higher density so that the total weight of air in lbs./hr. remains constant and is sufficient for the combustion process. PERFORMANCE CORRECTIONS Fan performance is based on a standard density of .075 lbs./ft.3 Density corrections for positive or negative pressure are based on changes in absolute pressure. A. B. Standard absolute pressure is 408" WG at sea level. Compressed density for + 40" SP at the fan outlet is: + 40 x .075 = .082 lbs./ft. ( 408 408 ) C.
3

Rarefied density for - 40" SP at the fan inlet is: - 40 x .075 = .0676 lbs./ft. ( 408 408 )
3

Figure 4 - Single- Stage Pressure Blower

Single-stage units are usually far more economical in applications up to about 3 PSI. They are also less complex and easier to maintain than multi-stage pressure blowers. Power consumption is also less because the single-stage blowers are more efficient. It is possible to place two, and sometimes more, single-stage pressure blowers in series to develop pressure as high as 5 PSI and still represent an economical alternative when compared to the multi-stage units for the same performance. There is the added reliability factor of being able to limp along with one unit while the other unit is down for maintenance. When a multi-stage unit is down, the entire system is down. Consult the manufacturer for proper selection and application information when designing pressure blowers for series operation.

Density corrections for temperature changes are based on absolute temperature in degrees Rankin (R). A. Standard absolute temperature is 530R., 70F. (0F. = 460R.) A 20 temperature rise over a fan inlet temperature of 70F. gives the following density: 460 + 70 x .075 = .072 lbs./ft.3 460 + 70 + 20

B.

Also refer to the following sample selections

Page 2

SAMPLE SELECTIONS Example 1: No performance correction due to compression.

C.

Density ratio is: 442.6 460 + 70 x = 1.05 408 460 + 87 Air density at the burner (B) will be: 075 x 1.05 = .079 lbs./ft. 3 ACFM at (B) will be: 2300 1.05 = 2190 ACFM To get 2300 ACFM at (B), the volume of air entering at (A) must be increased by the density ratio: 2300 x 1.05 = 2415 ACFM

D. E. F.

What actually happens in the system? A. 2300 ACFM at 70F. at 408" atmospheric pressure enters the pressure blower inlet (A). B. The pressure reading at (B) is 34.6" gage pressure or 408" + 34.6" = 442.6" absolute. The temperature has increased to 87F.

Select the pressure blower for 2415 CFM at 34.6" WG pressure at .075 lbs./ft.3 density. Example 3: Performance correction due to negative pressure.

( 34.6 2
C. D. E. F.

+ 70

Density ratio is: 442.6 460 + 70 x = 1.05 408 460 + 87 Air density at the burner (B) will be: 3 .075 x 1.05 = .0788 lbs./ft. ACFM at (B) will be: 2300 1.05 = 2190 ACFM The SCFM equivalent at (B) will be: 2190 x .0788 = 172.6 lbs./minute 2300 x .075 = 172.5 lbs./minute Given: draw-thru pneumatic conveying, as illustrated. Required: 4800 SCFM at - 34" WG. What actually happens in the system? A. B.
C.

Note: The changes in volume and density can be ignored in this case because the proper amount of air by weight will still be available at the burner (B). Select the pressure blower for 2300 CFM at 34.6" WG pressure at .075 lbs./ft.3 density. Example 2: Performance correction required due to compression.

Air enters at 70F. at 408" atmospheric pressure at the system inlet (A). The resistance at the pressure blower inlet (D) is - 34" gage pressure or 408" 34" = 374" absolute. Density ratio is:

( 374 408 )
D. E. Air density at (D) will be: 3 .075 x .92 = .069 lbs./ft.

= .92

To get - 34" at (D) at .069 lbs./ft.3 density, the pressure must be increased by the density ratio for proper fan selection: -34" .92 = - 37" WG. Capacity = 4800 .92 = 5217 Select the pressure blower for 5217 ACFM at 37" WG. Operating horsepower would be: .92 x rated BHP, corrected for the lower density.

Given: injector conveying system, as illustrated. Required: 2300 CFM for the velocity required at (B). Resistance is 20 oz. or 34.6" WG. What actually happens in the system? A. B. Air enters at 70F. at 408" atmospheric pressure at the pressure blower inlet (A). The pressure reading at (B) is 34.6" gage pressure or 408" + 34.6" = 442.6" absolute. The temperature has increased to 87F. 34.6 + 70 2

F. G. H.

Note: The actual air volume at the fan outlet will be less than the volume at (A) by the density ratio, but the actual air volume at the fan outlet is not important in this system.

Page 3

NOISE ATTENUATION A rising concern in many of todays industrial applications is OSHAs criteria for noise levels. To meet these requirements, many pressure blowers require sound attenuation. The backward-canted and dual-tapered wheel design can result in an 8-10 db noise reduction over the traditional straight blade design. In some cases, this may eliminate the need for a silencer. If attenuation is required, silencers are readily selected based on their connection to either the inlet or outlet of the pressure blower. The most common connection is directly on the blower, flange to flange. See Figure 5. Silencers are rated in dynamic insertion loss (DIL) in decibels. These values are subtracted from the pressure blower sound power levels eight octave bands. The pressure drop through the silencer must be added to the system requirements, but generally the values are less than 0.2" and are insignificant.

Figure 5 Pressure Blower Silencer

Fo r m 6 0 7 G AW

ENGINEERING LETTER
P N E U M AT I C C O N V E Y I N G
INTRODUCTION A well designed pneumatic conveying system is often a more practical and economical method of transporting materials from one point to another than alternative manual or mechanical systems. This Engineering Letter outlines some of the fundamental principals of pneumatic conveying systems and explains various special considerations for fan selection. TYPES OF PNEUMATIC CONVEYING Pneumatic conveying encompasses numerous different system designs, technologies, and pressure ranges; however, there are only three basic methods for moving material with air. These can be categorized into the following system types: Dilute-phase conveying is the process of pushing or pulling air-suspended materials from one location to another by maintaining a sufficient airstream velocity to capture and convey the suspended particles. Dense-phase conveying relies on a pulse of air to force a slug of material from one location to another. This form of conveying usually requires positive displacement blowers or compressors to generate the necessary pressure of 1.5 to 30 psig or more. Air-film or air-float conveying is a means of moving product along a conveyor on a cushion of air. The use of fans for pneumatic conveying is generally limited to dilute phase conveying and air film conveying. DILUTE-PHASE CONVEYING In this method of conveying, material is suspended in the airstream. Suction or vacuum are not factors in this type of system and fan static pressures are no greater than 60" WG. If the system uses a fan on the exhaust end and the material is collected or separated from the airstream before it reaches the fan, the fan itself can be of a more efficient type such as backwardly inclined. If the system is designed so that the combined material and air mixture passes through the fan, selection is limited to the more rugged but less efficient fan types intended for material laden airstreams. A number of radial-blade wheel designs are available to handle various concentrations, sizes, and types of airborne particles. Radial-tip wheel designs are tolerant of airborne contaminants, but radialtip fans are not generally thought of as bulk material handling designs. In all cases, the fan manufacturer should be consulted to determine the most appropriate fan type available to handle the specific material quantity and type, but it must be understood that the fan manufacturer can neither control the variables in pneumatic conveying systems nor provide any guarantee of the service life of the fan itself. Applications requiring fans for dilute-phase pneumatic conveying fall into one of three basic categories: dust collection, fume removal, or material conveying.
Material 1. Grinding Dust 2. Foundry Dust 3. Sand Blast Dust 4. Wood Flour 5. Sander Dust 6. Shavings, Dry 7. Shavings, Wet 8. Sawdust, Dry 9. Sawdust, Wet 10. Wood Blocks 11. Hog Waste 12. Buffing Lint, Dry 13. Buffing Lint, Wet 14. Metal Turnings 15. Lead Dust 16. Cotton 17. Cotton Lint 18. Wool 19. Jute Lint

The New York Blower Company 7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60521 -5530

DUST COLLECTION AND FUME REMOVAL Dust collection, fume removal, and material conveying systems each have unique characteristics, but all three are similar in their dependence upon proper air velocities. Dust collection and fume removal are generally thought of as housekeeping systems that usually incorporate a hood at the system entry point. There are many types and styles of hoods in common use, and hood design is a subject in itself. Some state and local codes offer hood design criteria, and there are several reference texts, such as Industrial Ventilation - A Manual Of Recommended Practices, that can assist in the selection and design of hoods. In all cases the hood design should minimize turbulence and offer the lowest possible entrance losses. Determining the minimum velocity for dust collection or fume removal is often a matter of practical trial-and-error judgment. State and local codes may dictate minimum velocities for certain materials. Where no codes apply, the velocities shown in Figure 1 can be used as conservative estimates. Since these velocities are conservative, it is often possible to reduce them through experimentation. Reducing the velocity to near the settling point will generate the lowest overall operating cost but raises the risk of system plugging, increased maintenance costs, and lost production. Dust Collecting and Fume Removal Duct Velocities
Velocity in FPM 5000 4500 4000 2000 2000 3000 4000 3000 4000 4500 4500 3000 4000 5000 5000 3000 2000 4000 3000 Material Velocity in FPM 3500 3000 4000 3500 4500 3500 2500 2000 3000 2000 3500 2000 2000 3500 3500

20. Jute Dust 21. Grain Dust 22. Shoe Dust 23. Rubber Dust

24. Rubber Buffings

25. Bakelite Moulding Powder 26. Bakelite Moulding Dust 27. Oven Hood 28. Tail Pipe Exhaust 29. Melting Pot and Furnace 30. Metallizing Booth 31. Soldering Fumes 32. Paint Spray 33. Carbon Black 34. Paper

Figure 1

MATERIAL CONVEYING Although the differences between dilute-phase material conveying systems and dust collection or fume removal systems might appear to be minimal, there are certain distinctions that are critical to the successful operation of material-conveying systems. These differences include the method of introducing the material to the hood, the velocity requirements, the duct configuration, and the fan type. The introduction of material into a material conveying system can be difficult. The most important criterion is to feed the material into the airstream evenly. This can be accomplished by means of gravity or by a mechanical device. A hood or hopper can be used as a gravity feeder. Use of these components is limited to dry, free-flowing materials. It is important to remember that it is the velocity moving around and past the material that induces it to flow. If the entry becomes plugged with material, the required velocity cannot be maintained, significantly impeding air and material flow. A venturi feeder can be used to introduce material into the airstream. Like the hood, it has no moving parts so there is virtually no maintenance. However, the design of the venturi must be tailored to each application and even the best ones can be rather easily blocked if system conditions vary. Typical throat velocities are 2 to 3 times the velocity in the main duct . . . see Figure 2.

Figure 3 Typical Rotary Valve Feeder

Since the purpose of a conveying system is to move quantities of material suspended in air, the ratio of material to air (by weight) is critical. The most common form of reference is to state the ratio according to the combined weight in pounds per hour. A conservative design approach is to keep the ratio of matter-to-air below a 1:2 proportion. However, successful systems have been designed using material loadings of 1:1 or more when the system components are well-designed and eliminate sharp turns, abrupt junctions, or other potential points of binding, clogging, or drop-out and the material being conveyed is well-defined and consistent. Certain minimum conveying velocities must be maintained to keep the material in suspension and flowing. To some extent these velocities are dictated by, or at least related to, the material-to-air ratio. For example, conveying sawdust at a rate of 1800 lbs./hr. through a 6" pipe with a material loading ratio of 1:2 will result in an air velocity of 4073 FPM.

Figure 2 Typical Venturi Feeder

1800 lbs./hr. material = 30 lbs./min. 60 lbs./min. air .075 lbs./ft. std. density = 800 CFM.
3

Rotary valves and screw-type (auger) feeders (see Figure 3) are the most common mechanical devices used to introduce material into the airstream. Both types offer a controllable flow rate and are readily available in a number of standard designs to handle pressures common to dilute phase conveying. However, there are some precautions. Both are typically more expensive than gravity-feed alternatives. Rotary valves can experience internal air recirculation which causes a reduction in material through-put. The screw-type feeder is a relatively high maintenance device. In either case, the manufacturer of the specific feeder should be consulted for selection, equipment recommendations, and system limitations.

6" pipe = .1964 ft.2 area inside. 800 CFM .1964 ft. = 4073 FPM. Figure 4 provides conservative minimum conveying velocities to be used for some common materials. The velocity shown for sawdust is 4000 FPM. If the same 1800 lbs./hr. of sawdust had been introduced to a system with a 1:1 design ratio and there were no other changes to the system, the resulting velocity would only be half and the material would probably settle and clog. To compensate for the lower ratio, the pipe size could be reduced to 4", but this might introduce new problems in feeding the material to the pipe or transitioning to the fan. In this example, the 1:2 ratio would seem to be ideal.
2

Page 2

Material Conveying Duct Velocities

Material 1. Wood Chips 2. Rags 3. Ground Feed 4. Powdered Coal 5. Sand 6. Wood Flour 7. Sawdust 8. Hog Waste 9. Pulp Chips 10. Wood Blocks 11. Cement Velocity in FPM 4500 4500 5000 4000 7500 4000 4000 4500 4500 5000 Material 12. Cotton 13. Wool 14. Jute 15. Hemp 16. Vegetable Pulp, Dry 17. Paper 18. Flour 19. Salt 20. Grain 21. Coffee Beans 22. Sugar Velocity in FPM 4000 4500 4500 4500 4500 5000 3500 6000 5000 3500 6000

FAN SELECTION Just as designing around a velocity that is too low will impede the material conveying capability of the system, unnecessarily high velocities can also be detrimental. System resistance increases as the square of the increase in velocity. Therefore, additional energy is required to overcome that resistance. Also, the abrasive or erosive characteristics of the material being conveyed will increase with an increase in velocity, shortening the service life of all system components. Only the air volume is considered in determining the velocity. The material volume is ignored to compensate for the periods of inconsistent material loading that occur during start-up and shut-down. However, the material content of the overall airstream mixture cannot be ignored when calculating system resistance or when sizing the fan. Fans are constant volume machines that discharge a fixed volume of air at a fixed speed. If a fan is required to handle a given volume of air and a given volume of material, it should be sized to handle the combined volume. Using the previous example, 1800 lbs./hr. of sawdust at an average bulk density of 3 3 11 lbs./ft. results in 164 ft. /hr. or nearly 3 CFM. The fan should be selected to handle 803 CFM (800 + 3). In this example the 3 CFM is negligible. However, in situations where greater material volumes are being handled or when the bulk material density is much lighter, the volume cannot be ignored.

6000

Figure 4

Sufficient velocities must be maintained throughout the conveying system to avoid material settling. All airborne materials, except the finest of dusts or fumes, can settle in a system or even in the fan itself. When settling occurs in the horizontal plane, it is known as salt ation. When settling occurs in the vertical plane, it is called choking. Saltation is probably the most difficult to avoid because even the smallest ridge or duct seam can begin the process. Whenever possible, it is advantageous to employ the aid of gravity to minimize potential build-up by designing the piping or ductwork with a downward slope. This is particularly true with fine granular materials. Choking in downward movement often occurs in the vertical line as a direct result of saltation in the adjacent horizontal line. Upward movement is often easier to control because all that is needed is sufficient momentum (velocity) to keep the material in suspension. All falling materials simply drop back into the airstream. However, choking in the upward flow directly above the fan discharge poses additional problems. If enough material is forced back into the fan where it recirculates, the fan will exhibit premature wear due to excessive loading. To minimize the potential for saltation or choking, it is recommended that some provision be included in the system for bleeding in excess air through adjustable vents or dampers. See Figure 3. This excess air will effectively increase velocities in the system to assist material transportation. It is important to remember that the fan selection must account for the maximum potential excess air, and that handling more air then the minimum system requirements will result in increased power consumption.

The effects of the material on system resistance must be considered. Since most materials usually exhibit a lower coefficient of friction than air, a simple density correction based on the combined weight and volume of the air/material mixture would result in an unnecessarily high correction. No dependable methods of determining the flow resistance of air/material mixtures have been proven, so only reasonable estimates are available. Some researchers have theorized that the bulk material content merely acts to reduce the effective area of the pipe or duct and so ignore the density effect by calculating air resistance through the resulting smaller pipe diameter. The best method for determining the resistance of the air/material mixture is through pilot-plant testing or experimentation. Figure 5 provides correction factors that can be used as reasonable starting points for estimating resistance.

FRICTION MULTIPLIER

MULTIPLY FRICTION FOR CLEAN AIR BY MULTIPLIER

CUBIC FEET OF AIR PER MINUTE PER POUND OF MATERIAL

Figure 5 Resistance Factors Page 3

Even though the air/material mixture does not follow the traditional laws of fluid flow as they apply to friction or resistance, it is suggested that the fan brake horsepower (BHP) will increase according to the bulk density of the mixture. The combined weight and total volume can be used to determine the maximum airstream density for selecting a motor that will handle the fan BHP at the bulk density. Where, 1800 lbs./hr. material + 3600 lbs./hr. air = 5400 lbs./hr. 5400 60 = 90 lbs./min. 90 803 CFM = .112 lbs./ft.3 bulk density To determine the approximate BHP for this example, multiply the rated BHP at standard density of .075 lbs./ft.3 by 1.5. (.112 .075) = 1.5 It is sometimes thought that a larger fan is naturally better than a smaller one. This is far from correct since material is just as liable to settle in a fan as in a duct. If the inlet and outlet velocities of a fan are at least as high as the minimum conveying velocity, no settling should occur in the fan. This is true for both dust collection and conveying. AIR-FILM CONVEYING This method of pneumatic conveying uses a film or cushion of air to move items such as cans, boxes, or plastic containers through a plant. Used primarily in the packaging industry, air film conveying usually requires fan static pressures of no more than 8" WG. In most cases, the system utilizes several smaller fans as opposed to one large fan. Because the air is clean, various fan types can be used in these systems, including backwardly inclined and radial-bladed designs. Selection is based on pressure and flow, but configuration is equally important.

Either positive pressure or vacuum can be used to move the containers. In a pressurized system, air is directed through a drilled or slotted surface, where the air is discharged at a slight angle in the direction of flow. The greater the discharge angle, the higher the velocity from one station to the next. Vacuum elevators are used to raise or lower containers to different levels in the system by holding them to a moving, perforated belt. Vacuum transfer devises allow fallen or damaged product to drop out of the system, thereby reducing downtime and maintaining efficient high-speed processing. Both techniques may be employed in different portions of complex conveying systems. The benefits of air film conveying over conventional mechanical conveying include: Increased process speed. Lower maintenance costs (fewer moving parts). Reduced energy consumption. Reduced noise and safety hazards. Reduced downtime from jamming. Gentler handling of the product.

Many companies in the packaging industry use a combination of air and mechanical conveying systems in their manufacturing processes. CONCLUSION Pneumatic conveying systems have limitations, and alternate manual or mechanical means cannot be ruled out. However, pneumatic conveying systems usually require less plant space, can be easily installed in the available or wasted space, can be easily automated, can usually be easily altered for future change, and usually carry a lower capital cost. Beyond these economic advantages, pneumatic conveying systems can also be useful in controlling or minimizing product loss, improving dust control, and thus improving overall plant conditions.
Fo r m 6 0 7 G AW

ENGINEERING LETTER 10
The New York Blower Company 7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60521 -5530

FANS AND BLOWERS FOR COMBUSTION PROCESS

INTRODUCTION The burning of gas, oil, coal, or other combustible material requires air. When the end result of the burning is to be an efficient combustion process, in compliance with Federal and State Clean Air Act requirements, the volume of supply air must be reliably controlled. Insufficient air volume will result in wasted fuel and excessive particulate along with potentially explosive gases in the exhaust system. Too much air increases the amount of heat carried up the stack by the excess draft. Either extreme increases the cost and difficulty of controlling exhaust emissions. NATURAL AND MECHANICAL DRAFT Air can be supplied to the combustion process by natural or mechanical draft. Natural draft simply refers to the use of a chimney or stack to induce an upward flow of air. The stack effect pulls air into the combustion chamber, as shown in Figure 1. The amount of airflow depends on the stacks height and diameter, the prevailing wind velocity, and the resistance of the burner mechanism or fuel bed itself. The demand for air-cleaning apparatus on combustion systems, particularly oil and coal, has increased the overall system resistance to such an extent that natural draft alone is seldom sufficient. Mechanical draft is accomplished in one of two ways: when air is blown or forced into the combustion chamber it is known as forced draft . . . see Figure 2; when the air is drawn through the combustion chamber it is called induced draft . . see Figure 3. When both forced and induced draft are used, the system is termed a balanced-draft system.

Figure 2 Forced Draft

Figure 3 Induced Draft

Figure 1 Natural Draft

Mechanical draft refers to the use of fans or blowers to create airflow through the combustion area. When mechanical draft is incorporated, the chimney or stack is used primarily to direct the exhaust gases up and away where they will not be a nuisance. Because wind velocity and direction are less important, the combustion process can be much more carefully controlled.

Generally, the fans or blowers used for induced-draft applications are larger and more expensive than those used for similar forced-draft applications. The combustion process itself creates gases and elevated temperatures that expand the exhaust airstream, requiring fans with greater volumetric capacity than would be required on the supply side of the combustion process to supply clean, ambient air. Also, the hot exhaust serves to lower the density of the airstream, so density corrections must be applied to the fan static pressure (SP) to overcome the actual system resistance. The fact that the exhaust or flue gases are hot often requires induced-draft fans to be of a construction suitable for higher temperatures.

The first induced-draft fans were applied to hand-fired, solid-fuel boilers where the combustion chamber had to be at a negative pressure to permit the operator to shovel in fuel. When oil and gas became primary fuel sources, boiler designers were able to seal the combustion chambers. As a result, forceddraft fans became popular. The advantages were lower fan power and fans handling clean air (no corrosion or abrasion) at ambient conditions. These factors encouraged the use of airfoil fans, further reducing power consumption. This led to the almost universal use of pressurized firing in gas, oil, and pulverized coal boilers by the mid 1950s. However, by the late 1 960s the combustion process industry had learned through experience that it was impossible to maintain an airtight quality in large (approximately 150,000 lbs./hr. and larger) industrial and power boilers. These units (some over 100 feet high) simply had too much thermal expansion. Fly ash and noxious and corrosive fumes were creating tremendous maintenance and personnel problems. This led to the development of balanced-draft systems, in which both forced-draft and induced-draft fans are used. (See Figure 4)

Figure 5 Pressure Blower

Figure 6 shows a typical backwardly-inclined airfoil wheel commonly used for forced-draft fans on balanced-draft boilers. This type of fan is preferable because it typically is high volume, medium pressure and is usually the most efficient fan selection. Some airfoils, such as the nyb AcoustaFoil, are capable of stable operation throughout a complete, dampered range from wide-open to closed-off so the combustion rates can be closely controlled with inlet or outlet dampers. On boilers that use hot, dirty gases for combustion supply, the gas recirculation fan most frequently selected is a radial-blade type. This type of wheel is considered to be the most rugged and will run at lower tip speeds. It is therefore less subject to abrasion than radial-tip or backwardly-inclined wheels. (See Figure 7)

Figure 4 - Balanced Draft - Forced and Induced

Forced-draft fans and blowers are common for cast iron firetube and small water tube boilers. The fan or blower serves to provide the air and the velocity necessary for the fuel-to-air mixture to enter the actual combustion chamber. When used in conjunction with induced draft, the forced-draft fan is often called the primary air fan since it provides the primary combustion supply air. The induced-draft fan provides the airflow necessary to overcome system resistance and exhaust the flue gases. Some combustion systems draw hot, perhaps dirty air from other processes. Forced-draft fans for such systems are called gas recircula tion fans, and must be selected for the rigorous conditions under which they will operate. ALTERNATIVE FAN DESIGNS Figure 5 shows a typical Pressure Blower for forced-draft application. This type of unit is normally direct connected to a 3600 RPM motor and develops pressure sufficient to overcome the total system resistance on small combustion systems. To minimize motor bearing load and starting current, the wheel is normally fabricated of high-strength aluminum. It is therefore limited to handling clean, often filtered air. Pressure Blowers are commonly used on small firetube boilers.

Figure 6 Backwardly-Inclined Airfoil Wheel

Figure 7 General Industrial Wheel (Radial)

Page 2

Radial-blade fans were at one time commonly used for induceddraft service. However, as pollution requirements have become more stringent and control devices have been added to reduce flue gas particulates (ahead of the induced-draft fan), radial-tip blade or even backwardly-inclined fans have become popular due to their higher efficiencies and higher volumetric characteristics. (See Figures 8 and 9) The exception to this is where high efficiency scrubbers are used and the pressure requirements are increased to where the radial-bladed fans are more suited.

explosive gases in the exhaust system. From this viewpoint it is better to include excess air volume. Some typical excess air percentages are shown in Figure 11 for reference only. The amount of air required for theoretically perfect combustion is based on the portion of the combustible substances carbon (C), hydrogen (H 2), oxygen (O2), and sulfur (S) contained in fuel. These are the only combustibles found in common fuels. Air Required for Combustion Combustible Substance C H2 O2 S Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Sulfur
Figure 10

Lbs. of Air Per Lb. of Combustible 11.5 34.3 -4.3

Figure 8 Radial Tip Wheel

The ratio of air required for perfect combustion to a pound of each element in the fuel is shown in Figure 10. This ratio should be multiplied times the percentage of the element in the fuel, times the weight of the fuel to get the required weight of air, and then excess air must be added and the result must be corrected to the corresponding air volume per minute. For example: Assume a fuel oil with 86.1% C, 13.8% H2 , 0.1% S, and negligible free oxygen. The fuel oil weighs 6.8 lbs./gallon and will be consumed at a rate of 5 gallons each hour. .861 C x 11.5 x 6.8 = 67.3 lbs. air .138H2 x 34.3 x 6.8 = 32.2 lbs. air .001 S x 4.3 x 6.8 = .03 lbs. air Total = 99.53 lbs. air

Figure 9 Flat Blade Backwardly-Inclined Wheel

99.53 lbs. x 1.10 excess x 5 = 547.4 lbs./hr. air 547.4 60 = 9.12 lbs./min. air In a combustion supply application handling standard density 3 air, this equates to (9.12 lbs./min. .075 lbs./ft. = 121.6 CFM). Although there are a number of accepted methods for determining combustion air requirements . . . some rules of thumb, some exact calculations . . . they all rely on the actual portion of combustion constituents found in the fuel in question. Figure 11 lists some typical examples, but a full, accurate list would be impractical as there are hundreds of unique coal grades. In practice, the combustion system designer should determine the actual air volume requirements and the excess air margin based on an analysis of the fuel in question. In addition to the fundamental volume specifications, combustion process fans, particularly larger fans, are often specified for two conditions . . . actual and test block. The actual condition is the calculated volume (including excess air) and pressure requirements. The test block condition is a theoretical duty that includes some safety factor beyond the actual volume and pressure requirements. The fan selection for the application should be capable of meeting both conditions with good efficiency, economy, and stability. Whenever possible, the actual condition should represent the most efficient point of operation for the fan selected for the application.

The combustion of coal and most fuel oils will release sulfur fumes into the flue gas. If a wet scrubbing or cleaning apparatus is used, water vapor will combine with the sulfur to form sulfuric acid. This can place severe constraints on the fan types available to handle this highly corrosive gas stream. For this very reason, flue-gas-desulfurization (FGD) equipment is designed into the pollution control systems of many combustion processes. Another alternative to reduce the potential for sulfuric acid in the exhaust system is to mix lime or crushed limestone in a fluidized bed combustion process so the lime will neutralize the sulfur and stabilize the pH of the exhaust gases. FAN SELECTION Ideally, the fan in any combustion process will supply just enough air to completely burn all the fuel, and no more. This will help keep heated, but unused, air from going up the stack. Actually, this idea is approachable with gas burners but impractical with wood- or coal-fired combustion. Thus, nearly all air volume requirements for combustion processes are calculated to include some margin of excess air. As stated in the introduction, insufficient air volume will result in wasted fuel and excessive particulate along with potentially

Page 3

Fuel Fuel Oil No. 1 No. 2 No. 4 No. 5 No. 6 Natural Gas Wood, Pine Coal (ref. only) Coke

Typical Excess Air Range (% Volume) 5-20

Typical P e r c e n t a g e o f C o m b u s t i b l e s (% Weight) Carbon 86.3 87.2 87.9 87.9 88.4 70.6 54.3 85.0 80.0 Hydrogen 13.7 12.9 11.8 11.3 10.8 22.7 5.6 5.4 0.3 Oxygen -----1.4 37.9 5.8 0.5 Sulfur 0.3 0.5 1.1 1.8 2.1 0.3 0.1 1.5 0.6

5-15 10-25 10-60 10-30

Figure 11 - Typical fuel analysis of excess air requirements and amount of combustibles.

Typically, direct-drive fans are preferred to belt-drive fans. Direct-drive fan arrangements used are 4, 7, and 8. To reduce volume and pressure to meet the actual design or reduced load conditions, inlet dampers or variable frequency drives are used. Variable speed offers the most efficient means of performance reduction, although the initial cost and equipment maintenance is greater than that of dampers. These must be evaluated on an individual job basis to determine whether the power savings will offset the greater initial price differential and added maintenance costs. Belt-drive fans, Arrangements 1, 3, 9, and 10, can be selected for the most efficient operation at the actual operating conditions. It is usually enough that belted units simply have sufficient speed reserve to meet the speeds necessary to fulfill the test block condition by means of a change in drive sheaves. The criteria for selecting the fan motor is usually specified per job. Often, the motor is sized to handle the hot test block conditions so the fan can be dampered for low load periods such as start-up or shut-down. This reduces the dampering, or turndown, range required under actual conditions. FAN CONSTRUCTION Fans used in combustion processes, whether forced or induced draft, should be capable of meeting the following minimum requirements: 1. The fan pressure curves should be stable throughout the entire operating range of the system (actual and test block). Certain fans, such as most radials, the nyb Pressure Blower, and the nyb AcoustaFoil, are stable from wide-open to completely closed-off to offer the broadest possible control range. The fan and all its components should be designed to meet even the test block condition without passing through the first critical frequency of the rotating parts. A common specification calls for the fan shafts first critical speed to be 125% of the maximum operating speed.

3.

The entire fan assembly should be rugged to withstand industrial service. Catalogs or drawings should contain complete material specifications. Whenever possible the entire fan, motor, and drive assembly should be factory assembled, aligned, and test run to ensure smooth operation. The fan manufacturer should be capable of test running complete assemblies.

4.

Induced-draft fans have further special requirements: 5. Where fan airstream temperature exceeds 300F., the fan should include a shaft cooler and the bearing base should be separated from the fan housing. The fan should be selected to handle the maximum particulate loading. nyb offers radial, radial-tip, and backwardly-inclined designs in a variety of alloys to handle a wide range of contaminated airstreams. Fans handling particulate-laden airstreams should be furnished with shaft seals to protect the inboard bearings. Ceramic-felt shaft seals usually provide the best protection in these applications. Fans handling particulate-laden airstreams should be furnished with a cleanout door and a drain to facilitate periodic cleaning. Various quick-opening, bolted, and raised, bolted cleanout doors and drain connections are generally available. Blade liners, housing liners, and hard surfacing of blades and/or inlet cones may be desirable, depending on the particulate loading.

6.

7.

8.

9.

CONCLUSION 2. The proper specification and selection of fans for combustion processes require a careful communication between the system designer and the fan manufacturer. Given a clear understanding of the specification, the fan manufacturer can offer the appropriate fan type and accessories for the application.
Form 60 7 GAW

ENGINEERING LETTER 11
The New York Blower Company 7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60521-5530

SELECTION CRITERIA FOR FAN DAMPERS

INTRODUCTION Dampers are the most common volume control device used in fan systems. Low in cost, dampers require little maintenance, easily adjust airflow during operation, and need little space. For these reasons, they are often selected over more complex control systems such as variable frequency drives. To select the best damper for a particular application, it is necessary to understand the requirements of the application as well as the capabilities of different damper systems. Since dampers may be placed on either side of the fan, they are classified as either inlet or outlet. Both reduce airflow in predictable amounts, but by different means. Outlet dampers control the air after it has passed through the fan by changing the resistance the fan is working against. Figure 1 shows the effects of various outlet damper settings on a backwardly-inclined fan. It illustrates how the damper controls CFM, static pressure, and its impact on fan BHP. As the outlet damper is closed, the point of operation moves to the left of the selection point along the fans static pressure curve. Adding resistance with the outlet damper also moves the fan horsepower to the left on its curve. With radial-blade and forward curved-fans, the dampered horsepower will be less than the wide open horsepower as the fan moves to the left on the BHP curves. With backwardly inclined fans, the dampered horsepower may be less, the same, or more than its wide open horsepower, depending on the original point of operation. For more information see Engineering Letter 3. Inlet dampers affect the air before it enters the fan. External, internal, or inlet box inlet dampers cause the entering air to spin in the same direction as the fan rotation. Because of this, the fan wheel can not develop full output. This results in lower volume and reduced BHP. When a backwardly inclined fan has an inlet damper, it reacts as shown in Figure 2 as the damper vane angle is changed. For each new damper vane position, new SP and BHP curves are generated. The new point of operation is defined by the system in which the fan is installed. The end result is similar to the change that occurs when slowing down an undampered fan. The horsepower and electrical power savings of this damper make it attractive for systems required to operate at reduced flow rates for extended periods, such as in variable-air-volume systems. While Figure 2 illustrates an inlet dampers effects on a backwardly inclined fan, the same general results are achieved using inlet dampers on any type of centrifugal fan.

Figure 1 - Static pressure and brake horsepower curves for backwardly-inclined fan with outlet
damper. As the damper closes, the point of operation - brake horsepower and static pressure - moves to the left of the original fan selection point to the 90 -degrees (wide open) damper setting.

Figure 2 - Effect of applying inlet dampers to the fan in Figure 1. Separate SP and BHP curves are developed for each vane setting. Fan operating points at these settings are determined by system resistance (points where system curve intersects SP and BHP fan curves).

TYPES OF OUTLET DAMPERS The parallel blade arrangement shown in Figure 3 is the simplest, most economical, and most popular type of outlet damper. The cross-sectional area of a wide-open damper is not greatly reduced until the blades have been moved to the 30 degree open position. Consequently, the outlet damper control arm swings through a relatively large arc to reduce fan capacity a small amount. This makes the parallel-blade outlet damper particularly useful when installed on a continuous process system where sensitive control of air volume between wide open and 70% or 80% of wide-open is desired. The large control arm swing also allows predetermined settings of airflow to be repeated accurately. This damper, being the least expensive of the various designs, also makes it the usual selection for systems that require two position damper operation (either full-open or full-closed). Another common application involves cold starts on a hot system requiring a reduction in airflow to reduce BHP until the system reaches temperature. Opposed-blade outlet dampers, as pictured in Figure 4, are used when a straight line relationship between fan volume and control arm swing is desired. In this design, alternate blades turn in opposite directions. Therefore, the change in volume, with respect to the damper position, is proportional to control arm swing. The opposed-blade damper is usually selected when it is necessary to maintain an even distribution of air immediately downstream from the damper. Figure 5 illustrates the downstream air pattern of an opposed-blade versus a parallelblade damper. Opposed-blade dampers cost more than parallelblade models of the same size due to the increased complexity of the linkage required to provide the opposed-blade motion.

Figure 5 - Airflow Patterns through Dampers

TYPES OF INLET DAMPERS Inlet dampers can provide a substantial horsepower savings for fans that are operated at reduced capacity for extended periods of time. Concerns for energy conservation and reduced operating expense make this feature desirable and often mandatory when designing a system. A good example of how inlet dampers are used to accomplish energy savings can be seen in a typical variable volume heatingcooling ventilation system. In this application much less air is needed for winter heating than for summer cooling. In addition, during summer operation, less air is needed for cooling during the nighttime hours than during the peak daytime hours. Yet, the fan system must be selected for the worst condition/highest air flow. The inlet damper offers the greatest long term savings in VAV applications due to reduced horsepower requirements at reduced volumes. External inlet dampers, as shown in Figure 6, are mounted external of the fan structure. The configuration is circular with the damper vanes connected to a central hub through pivot bearings. The control linkage is also circular and exposed for easy inspection and maintenance. Generally, this is the most expensive damper configuration. It is also capable of handling higher velocities and pressures than the internal inlet damper.

Figure 3 - Parallel-Blade Outlet Damper

Figure 4 Opposed - Blade Outlet Damper

Figure 6 External Inlet Damper

Page 2

Figure 7 Internal Inlet Damper

Figure 8 Inlet - Box Damper Mounted To Inlet Box

The internal inlet damper, pictured in Figure 7, is similar to the external inlet damper with respect to controlling fan performance. The most significant difference is that the internal damper is a self-contained unit furnished as an integral part of the fan inlet cone. This provides considerable space savings and eases installation. The internal inlet-damper design, however, may tend to create some resistance at wide-open, due to the control vanes being in the high velocity region of the fan inlet. Therefore, appropriate airflow reduction factors, as listed in a separate engineering supplement, must be used when sizing a fan with this type of damper. In addition, the damper control linkage is in the airstream on the inside of the fan housing and must be serviced through a cleanout door in the housing. Inlet-box dampers (Figure 8) are parallel-blade rectangular dampers mounted on an inlet box in such a way that the airflow from the damper produces a vortex at the fan inlet. Inlet-box dampers are generally preferable on fans equipped with inlet boxes and have the same general control requirements as standard inlet dampers. Because the bearings are not in the airstream, inlet-box dampers are often used in airstreams that contain some particulate. Predicting the exact flow reduction with damper angle varies with damper types and products. Normally this is not a requirement since flow should be established using manual reference or feedback from automatic control systems. For all inlet-vane dampers, vane angle versus flow relationship will change when dampers are applied to wheels that have been narrowed to establish specific capacities at direct drive speeds.

Inlet dampers typically improve the stability of most products because they control the flow through the fan inlet. At extreme dampering, about 30 open, inlet dampers can no longer create a vortex and become essentially a blocking damper. This causes the fan to operate far to the left on its curve. When this happens, a fan is subject to the same problems of instability as if the point of rating was established by an outlet damper or other system changes. COMBINED INLET AND OUTLET DAMPERS Occasionally it is desirable to save more power at reduced capacity while maintaining very sensitive control. In this case, the fan may be equipped with both inlet and parallel-blade outlet dampers. With the outlet damper set at wide-open, the inlet damper is set to give just slightly more air than needed. Exact air delivery is obtained by adjusting the outlet damper. Because the outlet damper vanes require a lot of movement to achieve a slight change in air delivery, sensitive control is achieved. PERFORMANCE COMPARISON Figure 9 shows the effects of damper settings on airflow and brake horsepower for parallel and opposed-blade outlet dampers, and inlet and inlet-box dampers. These plots represent generalizations of damper effect on fan performance and can be used to compare one type to another.

Figure 9

Effect of vane setting on airflow and power for various damper types. When a parallel-blade outlet damper is set for 80 percent of wide-open capacity, the damper setting is 40 degrees, and the fan operates at 85 percent of wide-open horsepower. However, with an inlet damper, operation at 80 percent of wide-open requires a 53 degree damper setting and 72 percent of wide-open horse-power. Note: These curves are representative, not precise. See text.

Page 3

Parallel-Blade Outlet Damper 1. Cost Least costly.

Opposed-Blade Outlet Damper 1.1 to 1.2 times as much as parallel blade.

External and Internal Inlet Dampers Internal - 1.5 to 2.5 times as much as parallelblade. External - 3 to 4 times as much as parallel-blade.

Inlet-Box Damper 1.3 to 1.4 times as much as parallel-blade; combined with inlet box 3 to 4 times as much as parallel-blade. Used on fan inlet box. Can be used with some particulate in airstream.

2. Control

Best for full-open or closed requirements or for fine control between 80% to 100% full-flow.

Best for systems where Same as opposed-blade air volume is changed outlet damper. over a wide range and a straight line relationship of volume to control arm swing is desired. Power consumption at reduced air volumes is less than with outlet dampers. No effect.

3. Horsepower

Depends upon characteristic BHP curve; Backwardly inclined - same, more, or less than wide-open, FC and Radial less than wideopen. Throws air to one side. Distributes air evenly.

Same as inlet damper

4. Air flow after fan

No effect.

Figure 10 - Comparison of Inlet and Outlet Dampers SUMMARY Each system has its own requirements with respect to the control of air volume. System designers must be aware of not only first cost considerations but, more importantly, of the long term operating savings that can be achieved by a properly engineered system. Each system also imposes limits on which dampers can be used with respect to fumes, control sensitivity, and temperature. No one damper design is best for all applications. Figure 10 provides a comparison to help the designer recognize some of the factors to be considered in damper selection.
Form 60 7 GAW

ENGINEERING LETTER 12
The New York Blower Company 7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60521-5530

AN INTRODUCTION TO FAN ACOUSTICS

INTRODUCTION Fan Acoustics is an important consideration in the industrial environment and with commercial ventilation systems. The sound generated by some fans can be a potential hazard to personnel in close proximity to the fan, and the sound can be transmitted, via the ductwork connected to the fan, to all areas serviced by the fan. Because of these concerns, fan manufacturers publish sound ratings for their products to serve as a guide for selecting fans to meet sound specifications, and to assist acoustical consultants in predicting the total noise levels in specific environments. This Letter provides basic information to help understand fan sound ratings and how to apply them. WHY FANS MAKE NOISE
Like any mechanical device, fans generate sound, which

The next factor to consider is the fan design. Generally a fan operating at peak mechanical efficiency will produce less noise, because high efficiencies result from minimal air turbulence within the fan. There are four basic centrifugal fan wheel designs - forward curved, backwardly inclined, radial, and radial tip - and a variety of axial flow wheel designs (see Figure 2). Each wheel design has unique sound characteristics due to the way they handle air, and the efficiencies they can achieve. Fan speed does not always determine which fan will be quieter. For example, centrifugal fans have higher amplitudes at lower frequencies, while axial fans exhibit higher amplitudes at the higher frequencies. The amplitude of the blade pass frequency on an axial fan is higher and more pronounced than on backwardly-inclined fans, and commonly will have amplitude peaks at multiples of this frequency.

emanates naturally from the turbulence of moving air, the mechanics of moving parts of the fan, and from vibration.
AIR TURBULENCE

Air turbulence within the fan increases the sound coming from the air movement. The noise resulting from air turbulence is a major factor in the sound levels of a fan in a specific application. Further, duct work can transmit this turbulent noise to all areas serviced by the fan. Factors contributing to air turbulence include the resistance to flow, flow separation along fan surfaces, and shock related to abrupt changes in the direction of airflow, pressure, or velocity. The principal areas where such turbulence is encountered within a fan are shown in Figure 1. A lower noise level can be achieved by reducing air turbulence. This can be done by considering several factors related to air movement when selecting fans. The first factor to consider is the fans blade pass frequency, which is a pure tone produced when the blades of the fan wheel (impeller) rotate past the housing cut-off sheet in centrifugal fans, or the turning vanes, in axial fans. The blade pass frequency is calculated by multiplying the number of blades times the rotating speed in revolutions per minute. If this frequency matches the natural frequency of the ductwork, it can excite the ductwork, which can cause it to resonate, thereby increasing the noise level. Because of this possible increase in sound, and because certain pure tones are irritating to people, the sound output of the blade pass frequency should be investigated when sound reduction is desired.

Figure 1 - Typical Areas of Turbulence

Figure 2 Various Wheel Types

Of the four centrifugal designs, the backwardly-inclined fans are the most efficient, and therefore, the quietest. Those with airfoil-shaped blades offer the highest efficiencies, for clean air environments, while those with single-thickness blades can be used in applications where light dust or moisture is present, although the efficiencies are somewhat lower. Certain types of axial fans offer the next highest efficiencies. An excellent example is the nyb Vaneaxial fan that uses airfoil shaped blades in an in-line flow design. This fan is used to handle high volumes of clean air at low pressures, which is a typical ventilation application. Radial fans are typically low efficiency, open designs for special purpose applications, such as bulk material handling, or exhausting/supplying lower volumes of air at higher pressures. An exception to this is the nyb DH design (Figure 3), which has superior efficiencies for a radial wheel and relatively low sound levels. A radial fan will be much louder than a backwardly-inclined fan operating under the same volume and pressure conditions. Radial-tip fans, commonly used to handle larger volumes of air that contains particles or material, exhibit sound characteristics similar to the radial fans. The sound spectra of radial and radial-tip fans contain amplitude spikes at various frequencies, and a noticeable spike at the blade pass frequency. The forward-curved fan design operates at speeds that are much slower than the other fan types, which results in lower noise levels from mechanical operation and vibration. However, because of its modest efficiencies, a forward-curved fan may be noisier than a backwardly-inclined fan when operating at comparable volume and pressure. The sound spectrum of the forward-curved fan shows a slower rate of reduction in amplitudes than the other centrifugal types, and because of the large number of blades, the blade pass frequency occurs much later in the spectrum and is not predominant.
MECHANICAL NOISE

Figure 3 DH Wheel

components are in the airstream. Motor sound will vary with speed, enclosure, electrical characteristics, and even the manufacturer. Antifriction bearings can be used to reduce bearing noise, and proper drive selection will reduce the likelihood of belt hop, or slap. Of course, proper maintenance must be employed to keep the moving parts running smoothly, and quietly.
VIBRATION

Excessive vibration can significantly add to the overall noise level of an installation. This will occur if the fan or any of its components are not adequately balanced, if the fan is installed on an insufficient foundation, or if the fan is not properly isolated from other system components. For example, it is not uncommon for the fans support structure or ductwork to have a natural frequency at the fans operating speed or blade pass frequency, either of which can cause the system to resonate at that frequency, increasing the sound levels, and the possibility of damaging the installation. These risks can be eliminated by changing the speed of the fan, installing appropriate isolation, and/or detuning of the fan or affected system components. NOISE MEASUREMENT Overall noise levels can be measured at any installation using a variety of portable sound level meters, or more sophisticated equipment like a frequency analyzer (Figure 4).

The moving components of the fan - the motor, bearings, and drive - produce sound. This too can be transmitted through the system via the fan structure or shaft, or when these

Page 2

Sound Pressure (Lp), is an atmospheric pressure change that is

audible to the human ear, and is measured from a point in space where the microphone or listening device is located. The human ear can perceive a broad range of sound pressures, from the threshold of hearing (2 x 10 - 7 microbar) to the threshold of pain (1 microbar). The threshold of pain is five million times louder than the threshold of hearing. The decibel is used in acoustical work to indicate sound pressure levels because it condenses this tremendous range of values to a workable range of from 10 dB to 130 dB. A decibel (dB) is a logarithmic ratio of some measured value to some reference value. It is standard international practice to use the sound pressure at the threshold of hearing as the reference value for the sound pressure level scale. Figure 5 shows the relationship between the sound pressure measured in microbar, and the sound pressure levels measured in decibels.

Often a single sound pressure value is used to represent the total sound spectrum. This is expressed as dBA, indicating that the sound pressure, in decibels, has been adjusted to reflect a single number value for a sound pressure, weighted by the A scale. The A scale weighting reduces the effect of lower frequencies, with the intent to establish a value more proportional to the human ear frequency response. dBA is used by OSHA to set maximum allowable noise levels, prescribing a maximum dBA limit for an 8 hour exposure. dBA can be measured with a sound level meter, or calculated by applying the weighted values to the eight octave bands encompassing the range of hearing. Better definition of sound pressure levels is gained by breaking the sound spectrum into discreet ranges. The standard practice is to divide the audio spectrum into eight octave bands identified by the center frequency of each band. Figure 6 shows the octave bands of the audio spectrum as defined by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Standard S 1.6, series 2. Series 2 ANSI S1.6 From (Hz) 45 90 180 355 710 1400 2800 5600 To (Hz) 90 180 355 710 1400 2800 5600 11200 Center Frequency (Hz) 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
Figure 6

Band Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Figure 4 Frequency Analyzer

Fan manufacturers generally test and rate fan noise according to Air Movement and Control Association (AMCA) Publication 300 - Test Code for Sound Rating Air Moving Devices, and Publication 301 - Methods for Calculating Fan Sound Ratings from Laboratory Test Data. This testing procedure requires a reverberant or semi-reverberant room with a calibrated reference sound source to determine the room characteristics, and is known as the substitution method. Sound data is acquired in the octave bands shown in Figure 6. The measured sound pressure of a test fan is mathematically converted to a sound power level using predetermined microphone locations. MEASURING FAN NOISE dBA is a useful measurement for evaluating the overall noise level at a particular location, but this measurement takes into account all of the sound sources affecting that particular location, which include the sounds from all equipment in the area, natural sounds of the environment, and from other environmental factors. Some of these factors are the current physical properties of the air such as temperature, humidity, and pressure, whether the location is outside or inside, the size and material of the room. All of these affect the sound

Figure 5 Sound Pressure Measurements

Page 3

pressure experienced by the listener, and recorded by the sound level meter. Because of this, it is impossible for the fan manufacturer to guarantee sound pressure levels or dBA values. For several years fan manufacturer,s and other makers of industrial equipment, have used Sound Power (Lw) values to test and rate fans. Sound power has been chosen because it is independent of the acoustical environment in which the fan is installed. It is the only value that is specific to the particular fan.
Sound power is the total energy emitted from a fan which is a

Total sound power can be broken up to inlet sound power and outlet sound power. For all functional purposes, the sound power that is radiated from the inlet and outlet of a fan is equal to each other. Because a fan manufacturer can present its sound information in the form of inlet, outlet, and total sound power, it is important to clarify the identity of the rating before any comparisons and calculations are made. In general, a fan manufacturers sound ratings are at peak point of efficiency as shown in Figure 8. As stated earlier, fan efficiency and air turbulence contribute to changes in noise levels. Consequently, if a fan is operating at a point of operation outside its maximum efficiency range, the user will have to correct the manufacturers sound ratings as shown in the table on page 5.

function of the fans speed and point of operation, and is independent of the fans installation and surrounding environment. A sound power level is the acoustical power expressed in dB radiating from a sound source. It is defined as: Sound Power (Lw) = 10 log (Watts) -12 (10 )

Sound power levels can be converted into predictable sound pressure levels once the acoustical environment surrounding the fan is defined. Sound pressure for a given fan changes with a change in air volume, pressure, or efficiency. Because of this, fans must be tested at several speeds and efficiency points. After a fans sound power level has been determined at different speeds and points of operation, it is important to remember that these levels will always be the same unless the fan is physically altered. If a fan line is geometrically proportional, the sound power for other fan sizes can be accurately projected from the base fan. AMCA Publication 301 defines methods for acquiring such data. FAN SOUND RATINGS The sample table shown in Figure 7 shows a listing of total sound power for a particular fan size and type at several speeds in each octave band. Sound power ratings can also be presented graphically. Fan RPM 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2200 2600 3000 3400 3800 4200 4600 5000 Octave Bands 3 4 5 68 62 59 75 67 63 78 71 67 81 75 70 83 78 73 86 82 76 86 88 80 88 90 83 90 94 87 94 96 90 97 98 93 99 99 97 102 100 101
Figure 7 Figure 8

1 73 79 85 90 93 96 99 101 105 107 109 111 113

2 72 74 77 80 83 86 90 93 98 102 106 109 112

6 58 62 66 69 71 74 77 79 82 85 88 91 93

7 51 57 62 66 69 72 75 78 81 83 86 88 90

8 45 50 54 58 61 66 70 74 78 81 84 86 88

Figure 8 shows a fan's point of operation at the intersection of the static pressure and volume range on the curve. Since air volume can be defined by a velocity or velocity pressure through the fans outlet area, the fans point of operation can be defined by stating the ratio of velocity pressure to static pressure, or VP/SP. By using a chart such as the one shown in Figure 9, the user can make the necessary sound corrections for fan operations outside the maximum efficiency range. Published fan sound power ratings and corrections only reflect noise created by air turbulence within the fan. Because of the infinite variables, mechanical noise and vibration noise are impossible to accurately predict, and are not included in the rating. Another rating method is described in AMCA Publication 302 Application of Sone Ratings for Non-Ducted Air Moving Devices. A Sone is a ratio of loudness between two sounds. The Sone scale is linear, ranging from soft to loud. Unlike the decibel, two Sones are twice as loud as one Sone. This method will produce reasonably accurate estimates of sound pressure in a free-field condition, and is used by manufacturers of roof ventilators and other non-ducted commercial ventilation products, but is not suitable for analytical purposes.

Page 4

Fan Speed up to 2500

VP/SP 0 to .03 .03 to .10 .10 to .30 .30 and up 0 to .03 .03 to .10 .10 to .30 .30 and up

over 2500

1 2 3 Peak SP 5 3 0 Peak ME 0 0 0 1/2 Peak SP 4 2 0 Near Wide Open 2 2 2 Peak SP 3 4 5 Peak ME 0 0 0 1/2 Peak SP 4 2 0 Near Wide Open 3 3 1 Figure 9 - Typical dB Corrections for Point of Operation

Point of Fan Operation

Octave Bands 4 1 0 0 1 4 0 3 3 5 1 0 2 3 0 0 3 4 6 0 0 1 3 0 0 3 5 7 -3 0 2 2 0 0 2 3 8 -1 0 2 3 -2 0 1 4

APPLYING SOUND POWER When the sound power for a fan has been calculated at a fixed speed and known point of operation, the sound pressure can be estimated. It should be remembered that sound pressure or dBA predictions are only estimates based on certain known conditions or assumptions regarding the location of the fan and the physical installation. The Short Form for Sound Calculations shown on page 8 is one way to calculate sound pressure. This is a step-by-step method for estimating sound pressure levels or dBA for a specific installation. The short form only applies to outdoor installations or to indoor installations where the listener is relatively close to the fan and the room is relatively large. Such installations may be termed free field. Even given these assumptions, reflecting surfaces, inadequate support structures, high-loss ductwork, or flexible duct connections could seriously alter the outcome.

Line 4 - enter the appropriate correction for the type of fan installation. If neither the inlet nor outlet are ducted, no correction is necessary. If either the inlet or outlet is ducted away from the listening location deduct 3 dB. This 3 dB reduction accounts for the assumption that the amplitude of inlet and outlet noise is approximately equal and half the noise is ducted away. Figure 10 provides a graphic depiction of the effects of adding or subtracting noises of similar or like amplitude.

Figure 10

For example, the fan corresponding to Figures 7 and 9 might be required to operate at 1500 RPM:
Octave Band Center Frequency 1. Fan Total Sound Power @1500 RPM 2. VP/SP Correction 3. Fan Sound Power (1) + (2) 4. Correction for Installation (inlet or outlet) 5. Corrected Sound Power at Fan (3) + (4) 6. End Reflection Values 7. Corrected Sound Power (5) - (6) 8. Conversion for Sound Pressure, Q=2 9. Sound Pressure at 15 feet 1 63 85 5 90 -3 87 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000 77 3 80 -3 77 78 0 78 -3 75 4.5 71 1 72 -3 69 1.5 67 1 68 -3 65 0 66 0 66 -3 63 0 63 20 43 62 -3 59 -3 56 0 56 20 36 54 -1 53 -3 50 0 50 20 30

If the inlet and outlet are both ducted away from the listening location, only the sound power radiated through the fan housing will remain. The appropriate reduction will vary from one fan to another depending upon the specific housing thickness and reinforcements and their attendant transmission loss. Refer to the manufacturers rating tables for the appropriate reduction for a specific fan type. For this example, assume only the outlet noise is ducted to the listening location. Line 5 - enter the algebraic sum of lines 3 and 4. Line 6 - End reflection is a phenomenon that takes place when a sound wave reaches an abrupt expansion such as the end of an open duct. At this point some of the sound waves are actually reflected back into the duct so that the resultant sound power level is reduced. The effects are more pronounced in lower frequency ranges and in smaller duct diameters as shown in Chart III, page 8. For applications where noise level emitted from the inlet or outlet duct concerns the listening location, the duct diameter must be determined and the appropriate values subtracted from the fan sound power. For this example, assume only outlet ducted noise is available at the listening location and the duct is 15" in diameter. (See Chart III on page 8.) Line 7 - enter the difference between lines 5 and 6. Line 8 - enter the correction for directivity and distance.

14.5 9.0 72.5 20 52.5

68 70.5 67.5 65 20 20 20 20

48 50.5 47.5 45

Line 1 - enter the published sound power for each octave band corresponding to the required speed. Line 2 - enter the appropriate VP/SP correction. For this example, assume VP/SP = .025. Line 3 - enter the algebraic sum of lines 1 and 2.

Page 5

As mentioned previously, the amplitude of a noise level will vary depending upon the installations and the distance between the source and the listening location. The number of reflecting surfaces also determines the sound wave radiation pattern. These patterns are known as directivity factors (Q) and indicate the type of radiation from the number of reflecting surfaces. AMCA Publication 303 - Application of Sound Power Level Ratings describes Q = 1 as having spherical radiation with no reflecting surfaces. An example would be an axial fan located in a stack. Q = 2 is used for hemispherical radiation where one reflecting surface is present such as a fan on the floor in the middle of a room. For each additional reflecting surface, the directivity factor is doubled. For example, a fan mounted on the floor directly adjacent to a wall would have a Q = 4 factor. The appropriate directivity factor must be used in conjunction with the distance from the noise source to the listening location to obtain the reduction factor (Lw - Lp) to convert sound power to an estimated sound pressure. Using Chart I on page 8, the listening distance from the source must be plotted on the bottom horizontal graph and a vertical line should be drawn at that point. A horizontal line drawn from this vertical line at its intersection with the appropriate directivity line will indicate the (Lw - Lp) reduction. These estimates apply to a listeners position from the noise source and do not consider outside influences from other machinery or unpredictable obstructions, but produce reasonably accurate estimates of sound pressure in a free field condition or outside installations. For this example, assume a Q = 2 directivity factor at a distance of 15 feet. (See Chart I on page 8.) Line 9 - deduct line 8 from line 7 and enter the result. The sound power levels represent the final estimate based on all the stated conditions. The one remaining step is to determine the proper dBA value.
Sound Pressure From Line 9 52.5 48 50.5 47.5 45 43 36 30 Correction dBA For Value A by Weighted Octave Network Band -25.5 27.5 -15.5 32.5 -8.5 42 -3.0 44.5 0 45 +1.0 44 +1.0 37 -1.0 29

The dBA value is the sound pressure level corrected to the A weighting network. This is accomplished by deducting the proper A weighting value from each of the eight octave bands, then using the graph from Figure 10 to combine the results to obtain a single number dBA value that represents the fan and its particular installation. Because decibels are logarithmic values, simple addition cannot be used. A simpler method of approximating dBA values can be found on Chart II on page 8. Using the scale on the left hand side of the graph, plot the sound pressure levels from line 9 directly on to the graph for each octave band. Then the maximum dBA can be derived by finding the band number (center frequency) that exceeds the highest octave band level by the most decibels. In our example, band number 5 (1000Hz) exceeded the octave band level 40 dBA by 8 dB. This was greater than any other band number. Therefore, the dBA level for this fan would be approximately 48 dBA at 15 feet based on a Q-2 directivity. Another method is to combine decibels such that a logarithmic addition can be employed in lieu of the tabular method shown in Chart II. Logarithmic addition involves calculating the antilog of each decibel to be added, summing the antilogs, finding the logarithmic sum, and multiplying by 10. This method and the formula are given in AMCA Publication 303. TROUBLESHOOTING To avoid undesirable noise levels in the final installation, the system designer needs to consider many factors. First, an acceptable noise level criteria must be established, based on the activity in the area, the nature of the noise, the relationship of the listening location, noise-criterion curves, and the OSHA permissible noise exposure regulations. Properly selecting a fan type and operating it at peak mechanical efficiency will assure the quietest possible operation. It is not always possible to select a fan that does not exhibit a predominant blade pass frequency, but an awareness of this will help in selecting acoustical attenuation when necessary.
Factor From III. #10 1.2 1.9 2.5 .7 Factor + Higher Value 33.7 Factor Factor From + Diff. III. Higher #10 Value Factor Single From Number Diff. III. dBA #10 Value

Octave Band 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Diff.

-5.0 -2.5 -1.0 -8.0

-2.7
46.4

.2

46.6 -1.6 2.3 50.5

47.5

-7.8
37.7

.7

48.2

Page 6

Location of the fan with respect to the listener is very important. The greater the distance, the lower the noise level. The use of absorptive and reflective materials as well as isolation usually control excessive noise. If the final installation seems excessively noisy, an octave band sound analyzer should be employed to measure the noise level. Because it analyzes the spectrum by octaves, it is helpful in isolating components within the spectrum that are major contributors to the noise problem. Often, the fan is not the major source of the noise; many times it is nearby machinery or the surrounding environment that is louder than the fan. After identifying the noise source, its reduction can be approached from two directions: 1. Reduce the noise at the source. 2. Reduce the noise at the listening location. The first approach is usually the most cost effective. To reduce fan acoustical noise, a reduction in sound energy is important. Lining ductwork with sound absorbing material or adding duct silencers will reduce airborne noise within the duct system. Flexible connectors between the fan inlet, outlet, and connecting ductwork will aid in reducing both vibration noise and mechanical noise that may be transmitted through the entire system. Fan noise produced by vibratory forces can be induced by a number of components. Sometimes the source is easily detected from experience and at other times measuring instruments are required. The solution to vibratory noise will depend on where it occurs. Reducing the amount of the vibration, eliminating it by substitution, isolating it, or changing the frequency are all possible solutions.

For example, unbalance is a chief cause of vibratory noise. Consequently, balancing the rotor will reduce the vibration caused by imbalance. Replacing a noisy bearing or drive component will eliminate the source. Installing rubber or spring isolators will prevent transmission of the noise to the mounting structure. Detuning natural frequencies of a structure by changing the fan speed or the natural frequency may eliminate this problem. Using the second approach, the noise level at the listening location can be reduced by increasing the distance of the sound path. This can be accomplished by moving either the fan or the listener or by rotating the fan so that the noise is directed away from the listener. Changing the characteristics of the room by adding sound absorbing material will help reduce noise However, the effectiveness of sound absorbing material drops off rapidly at frequencies below 250 Hz.; consequently, this approach is somewhat limited. Enclosing the fan in a sound absorbing room, for example, will aid in reducing noise transmitted from the fan structure but will do nothing about noise within the duct system. Erecting sound barriers or employing some type of ear protection are also alternative solutions. These troubleshooting tips only cover a few possible alternatives. Volumes of reference material are available on the subject, and acoustic consultants are available to assist in the areas of noise abatement and acoustical control. Fan manufacturers can provide assistance in resolving noise issues related to the specific fan but normally do not perform overall acoustical engineering consulting.

Page 7

SHORT FORM FOR SOUND CALCULATIONS This form is to be used for the approximate sound pressure level calculation of a fan, assuming that the listeners position is in the dominant free field. In most cases this can be considered no more than 5 feet in an enclosed room, or an outside installation free from reflecting surfaces. OCTAVE BANDS CENTER FREQUENCIES 1. Fan Sound Power Rating at __________RPM 2. VP/SP Correction 3. Fan Sound Power (1) + (2) 4. Correction for Installation (Inlet, Outlet) 5. Corrected Sound Power at Fan (3) + (4) 6. End Reflection Value (Chart III) 7. Corrected Sound Power (5) - (6) 8. Conversion to Sound Pressure (Chart I) 9. Sound Pressure at ___________ ft. (7) - (8) 1 63 2 125 3 250 4 500 5 1000 6 2000 7 4000 8 8000

The estimated dBA value is _______ at _______ ft. (Chart II) CHART I DIRECTIVITY/DISTANCE REDUCTION CHART II SOUND PRESSURE TO DBA CONVERSION

[Given directivity and distance, Sound Power is converted to Sound Pressure.] Q-1 Q-2 Q-4 UNIFORM SPHERICAL RADIATION with no reflecting surface. Example: Stack discharge. UNIFORM HEMISPHERICAL RADIATION with one reflecting surface. Example: Floor mounted fan. UNIFORM RADIATION over 1/4 SPHERE with two reflecting surfaces. Example: Fan mounted on floor near interior wall. CHART III END REFLECTION VALUES (Decibels) Octave Band 1 2 3 4 5 6 Hz 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 5 23.5 17.5 12.0 7.0 2.5 .5 10 17.5 12.0 7.0 3.0 1.0 -Duct 15 14.5 9.0 4.5 1.5 --Diameter 20 12.0 7.0 3.0 1.0 --Inches 30 9.0 4.5 1.5 .5 --40 6.5 2.5 1.0 ----

7 4000 -------

8 8000 ------Form 60 7 GAW

ENGINEERING LETTER 13
The New York Blower Company 7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60527 - 5530

FAN BALANCE AND VIBRATION

INTRODUCTION

Vibration always has been a good indicator of how well a piece of equipment was designed, installed, and maintained. With sophisticated, computerized, preventative maintenance programs, vibration can now also be used as a precursor of future maintenance requirements. Fans are subject to vibration because they have a high ratio of rotating mass to total mass and operate at relatively high speeds. Unlike most mechanical equipment, there are two major causes for vibration in fan equipment. These are aerodynamic, having to do with airflow, and mechanical, having to do with rotating components, fasteners, and structural support. This Engineering Letter will discuss both causes of vibration and provide guidelines for their reduction.
AERODYNAMIC VIBRATION

Because of their inherent wheel geometry, some fans are more susceptible to pulsation when operating to the left of the peak on their static pressure curve. Centrifugal fans utilizing forwardcurved or flat, backwardly-inclined blades are particularly subject to this phenomenon. However, fans with backwardly inclined airfoil blades, such as the AcoustaFoil wheel, are designed to be stable left-of-peak. Figure 2 illustrates this area of unstable operation in a typical fan performance table (crosshatch area). These points of operation indicate fan instability. Operation left-of-peak may be due to an error in system pressure calculations, less than optimal system installation, or poor maintenance practice. The fans point of operation may have also changed because the process/system has been modified since installation. For example, a drying system may have initially been designed to pull air through a 2" bed of material. Subsequent system changes now require a 6" bed of material with a significantly higher pressure drop. This will cause the fan to operate at a different point on its curve which may be left-of-peak. Refer to Engineering Letter 7 to better understand how to take system measurements to determine a fans point of operation. If it is determined that the vibration is aerodynamic, there are several steps that can be taken to restore the fan to an acceptable operating point. If some type of blockage is causing the problem, dampers can be opened, filters and coils cleaned, and the process can be restored to a configuration more closely resembling the initial design. More expensive alternatives include increasing duct sizes, reducing duct lengths, and eliminating abrupt turns.
CFM 1240 1550 1860 2170 2480 3100 3720 4340 4960 5580 6200

Aerodynamic vibration, also referred to as aerodynamic pulsation, is one cause of fan-system vibration. It occurs when a fan operates to the left of its peak static pressure point. The vibration frequency, when checked with instruments, is at a frequency other than the wheel rotation speed. This area of operation is illustrated in Figure 1. In this region the fan wheel does not move enough air to fill the blade passages. Aerodynamic vibration is most easily identified by increasing the volume of air flowing through the fan, thereby moving the fans point of operation to the right. If the cause is aerodynamic, the vibration will usually disappear or be reduced significantly. Increasing the airflow is accomplished by opening dampers, cleaning filters and coils, or as a test, removing a section of duct near the fan. These actions will reduce system pressure and, correspondingly, increase the airflow.

OV
800 1000 1200 1400 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200 3600 4000

1 SP
1207 1355 1517 1690 1867 2239 2620 3007 3401 3797 4196 0.17 0.23 0.32 0.42 0.56 0.91 1.40 2.06 2.92 4.01 5.35

2 SP
1516 1620 1757 1904 2065 2405 2765 3138 3518 3902 4292 .032 0.41 0.52 0.65 0.81 1.22 1.78 2.51 3.44 4.58 5.99

3 SP
--2178 2288 2415 2708 3032 3378 3736 4104 4476 --0.97 1.15 1.35 1.87 2.54 3.40 4..45 5.74 7.26 ----

4 SP
---1.70 1.94 2.55 3.32 4.29 5.47 6.85 8.52

RPM BHP RPM BHP RPM BHP RPM BHP

2633 2732 2983 3276 3600 3939 4286 4647

Figure 1 Typical Fan Static Pressure Curve Cross- Hatch Indicates Areas of Instability
AcoustaFoil is a trademark of The New York Blower Company

Figure 2 Typical Fan Performance Table Cross-Hatch Indicates Area of Instability

There are a number of causes for wheel unbalance: Construction - in new fan wheels unbalance exists because of the nature of the fabrication and assembly process. Part and assembly tolerances, material density variations, and warpage during welding all contribute to non-concentric wheel assembly. Balancing compensates for these factors. Material build-up - even a thin layer of dirt can cause a surprising amount of wheel unbalance. Using solvent, wire brushes, scrapers, etc., wheels can typically be cleaned and restored to a balanced condition. Abrasion/corrosion - in material conveying applications or applications handling corrosive fumes, abrasion or corrosion of the wheel will cause unbalance. For safety reasons, this condition is more serious than simple vibration and the fan manufacturers representative should be contacted for repair recommendations, up to and including wheel replacement. Drive components - sheaves, belts, couplings, and motors can have their own unbalance resulting in fan vibration. Check components for alignment, examine the grooves of sheaves, and check the surfaces of belts. Replace worn components. Couplings can shift even a few thousandths of an inch in shipment, causing misalignment and vibration. Several drive components can be easily checked to determine if they are the cause of vibration. Disconnect the drive or coupling and run the motor with one sheave or half-coupling in place. If this assembly runs rough, remove the sheave or halfcoupling and run the motor alone. It is much more difficult to determine if the fan wheel or the driven sheave/coupling is causing the vibration without removing it and sending it to a balancing facility. Sheaves and couplings should have been dynamically balanced originally. Unless it is important to determine whether the wheel or drive component is out of balance, it is probably best to balance the wheel, shaft, and drive component as an assembly. Fasteners -wheel and drive component setscrews, bearing bolts, and the fan base mounting hardware are all subject to loosening, especially when some vibration is present. Without attention, loose components will add to the overall fan vibration magnitude. Structural support - too frequently, fans are mounted on supports that have a natural vibration frequency near that of the fan. At this frequency, the structure will tend to continue to vibrate once it has been set in motion. Under such conditions it is almost impossible to balance all of the rotating components finely enough to prevent an objectionable amount of vibration. Adding mass or stiffeners will move the structures natural frequency out of the range of the operating fan. Optimum mounting structures include thick concrete slabs, steel bases supported by isolators, or heavy, all-welded steel structures. Structures must have adequate sway bracing, with no long, unsupported spans. They should be designed to be heavier than if they were designed merely to support a static load. All vertical supports should be directly underneath the fan and the fan should not be located in the middle of beam spans.

Figure 3 Induced Air Recirculation

If a redesign of the system is not practical but current air volume is adequate and the fan in question is a centrifugal, it may be possible to eliminate or reduce pulsation by adjusting the fan wheel toward the inlet cone. As shown in Figure 3, by adjusting the wheel so the edge of the cone is inside the wheel front plate, additional air will recirculate in the fan. The fan wheel will now receive a sufficient volume of air, allowing it to perform without pulsating; however, the efficiency of the fan will be reduced. In general, increasing the overlap by a distance equal to 2% of the wheel diameter will eliminate pulsation. Aerodynamic vibration may also be caused by poor inlet connections to the fan. Inlet boxes and inlet elbows should be vaned to reduce losses. When air is forced to flow through a sharp turn as it enters the fan, it tends to load just a portion of the fan wheel. The result is always decreased performance but many times pulsation as well. The same phenomenon can also develop, though generally to a lesser degree, at the discharge of the fan. Fans do not discharge air at an even velocity across their entire outlet. They generally operate best when the air is discharged into a long, straight duct, the minimum being three duct diameters beyond the outlet of the fan. MECHANICAL VIBRATION Mechanical vibration is the most common type of fan vibration. It is caused by unbalanced wheels or other rotating fan components. Its negative impact is increased with loose fasteners and poor structural support. Two terms are important in understanding mechanical vibration. Balance primarily refers to the fan wheel or other rotating components. The procedure of balancing involves adding or removing weight in an attempt to move the center of gravity toward the axis of rotation. Vibration primarily refers to the complete fan. Fan vibration is measured during a run test and is the vibration amplitude at the fan bearings expressed in units of displacement or velocity. The vibration level for new fan equipment is a result of the design and construction by the fan manufacturer. For operating fan equipment, the installation and subsequent maintenance practices can have a major effect on fan vibration.

Page 2

Bent shaft - can cause significant vibration which usually results in a vibration magnitude that is proportional to the amount by which the shaft is bent. Using a simple dial indicator, the shaft can be checked for trueness. It should not be out more than one or two thousandths of an inch on a short shaft or two or three thousandths on a longer shaft. If the shaft is bent, it can straightened, replaced, or compensated for trueness by balancing. BALANCE CRITERIA Major fan manufacturers balance fan wheels prior to assembly on precision balancing machines (see Figure 4). The balancing procedure involves detection of and compensation for ounceinches of unbalance. For most HVAC, agricultural, and industrial applications, an ISO balance quality grade of G6.3 is adequate. Using this balance grade, the permissible residual unbalance is calculated as follows: Uper Where: Uper = permissible unbalance per balance quality grade (oz.-in.) = wheel weight (lbs.) = wheel operating speed (RPM). = balance quality grade (6.3) = 6.01 x G x W N

For example, using a Size 264 Series 20 DH wheel: Where: W N G = 78 lbs. = 2280 RPM = 6.3 6.01 x 6.3 x 78 2280

Uper =

Uper = 1.3 oz. in. VIBRATION CRITERIA After wheel installation, assembled fans are trim balanced as a complete unit before shipment (see Figure 5). Manufacturers have some limitations on what fans can be run tested based on electrical requirements, test speeds, and customer furnished components. To perform a vibration run test, the fan is mounted on a rigid base. The base may be more or less rigid than that which the customer will use. Because of this difference, vibration limits determined from the factory vibration run test cannot be used as a guarantee of the minimum level of vibration once the fan is installed in the system. To account for this difference in vibration sensitive applications, more and more fans are being mounted on vibration absorption bases. These bases contain springs or rubber-in-shear isolation and may or may not be filled with concrete for additional mass. The purpose of these bases is to allow the fan to vibrate without transmitting the vibration to the building structure.

W N G

Figure 4 Fan Wheel Balance

Figure 5 Fan Vibration Run Test

Page 3

Figure 6 Three Axis of Measurement

Fan assembly vibration is typically measured in the horizontal direction with filter in. Filter in refers to the vibration being measured only at the frequency of interest. This method provides an accurate measure of wheel unbalance. Transducer orientation may vary by product and/or test stand configuration at the discretion of the manufacturer (see Figure 6). Major fan manufacturers have seismic vibration standards as part of their manufacturing/quality procedures. These limits will vary depending upon the fan manufacturers test facilities, balancing equipment, and fan type and size. As a guideline for fans in HVAC, agriculture, and industrial applications, a peak velocity of 0.15 inches/second at the factory test speed is usually adequate. For those more familiar with using displacement as a measure of vibration, displacement units can be converted to velocity units using the following equation: V = Where: V = velocity (in./sec.) F = frequency in revolutions per second (RPM/60) D = displacement, peak-to -peak, (mils) (1 mil = .001 inch) xFxD 1000

CONCLUSION

System designers and specifiers should observe the following specifications to ensure minimum, acceptable levels of fan vibration: 1. Wheels should be dynamically balanced prior to installation in the fan assembly to ISO 1940/ANSI S2.19 Quality grade G-6.3. Fans should be given a run test and trim balance after wheel installation at the fan manufacturers plant to decrease vibratio n caused by other fan components and the overall assembly process whenever the fan configuration permits it. Mounting structures must be rigid and sufficiently heavy to properly support the fan. Structures must have a natural frequency that is well out of the fans operating range. For vibration sensitive applications, special consideration should be given to spring or rubber-inshear isolation, or inertia bases. Utilizing computerized fan selection programs and the manufacturers representative, fans should be selected to avoid unstable operating points and resulting aerodynamic pulsation. Alterations to the overall system design should include consideration of changes in the fans point of operation and possible aerodynamic pulsation. Proper maintenance practice, including periodic wheel i n s p e c t i o n s and i n s p e c t i o n of drive components and fasteners, will assure reduced vibration levels.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6. Example: Convert .6 mils displacement to velocity in in./sec. with the fan running at 1200 RPM. V = 3.1416 x 1200 x .6 60 x 1000

7.

V = .0377 in./sec.

Form 50 7 DJK

ENGINEERING LETTER 14
The New York Blower Company 7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60527-5530

STAINLESS STEEL SPECIFICATIONS FOR FAN EQUIPMENT

INTRODUCTION Specifiers and users of air-moving equipment are often faced with the presence of corrosive, abrasive, or high temperature conditions which may be detrimental to the service life of standard mild steel fan equipment. Recognizing the limitless variety of stainless steel alloys or polyester resin-based materials of which fan components can be fabricated, and considering the multitude of special purpose paints and coatings currently marketed for such applications, the specification and selection of the single best combination can be a difficult task. The purpose of this Engineering Letter is to provide some general guidelines to assist in the process. Refer to Engineering Letters 16 and 18 for similar guidelines on corrosion-resistant coatings and fiberglass-reinforced plastic (FRP) fan construction. STAINLESS STEEL ALTERNATIVES Often, low first cost plays an important role in the selection of a particular type of corrosion-resistant construction; specialty coatings usually offer the lowest initial cost, followed by stainless steel alloy construction, and finally FRP construction. However, this method of selection does not take into account life cycle costing that could result in the least expense over the service life of the product. Stainless steel and FRP are generally superior to specialty paints or coatings when it comes to corrosion resistance. FRP will usually exhibit the best corrosion-resistant characteristics and will handle certain corrosive agents or reagents that stainless steel will not, and in some sizes is as economical as stainless alloys. However, stainless steel alloys are capable of higher temperatures and will stand up much better to the impact of non-abrasive materials. Also, fabrication methods tend to limit the availability of FRP fan equipment and certain performance requirements may force the consideration of stainless steel alloy construction as an alternate to the superior corrosion-resistant qualities of FRP. Neither FRP fan construction nor special duty paints or coatings applied to mild steel construction will provide any measure of prolonged service life in an abrasive application when compared to mild steel. Even stainless steel alloys with their seemingly tough close textured surface finish provide negligible improvement over mild steel in abrasive applications. There are, however, special alloy steels classified in the abrasion resistant or AR grouping. Such AR steels are usually made to a minimum 321 brinell hardness specification where, for example, 304 stainless steel is rated at only 124 to 147 brinell hardness while 316 stainless steel is only slightly harder. TEMPERATURE CONSIDERATIONS Typically, mild steels strength decreases rapidly at elevated temperatures, affecting the maximum safe operating speed of the fan wheel and consequently reducing the effective performance range of the fan. Beyond 800F., mild steel and even 304 stainless steel are not well suited for rotating parts. At temperatures up to 1000F., 316 stainless steel should be considered first because of its cost and availability. Only where 316 stainless steel does not allow adequate speeds at the required temperature should 347 stainless steel wheel construction be specified. Refer to each fan lines bulletin for speed derate factors. In all cases, the suitability of a particular fan to operate at the required temperature is solely dependent upon the individual fan design and construction. Maximum safe operating temperatures for fan equipment range to 1000F. but are also dependent upon the proximity of motors or bearings to hot airstream surfaces. Only where the product literature expressly acknowledges the suitability of the basic fan construction for operation at the required temperature can stainless steel construction be used to obtain the required safe speeds. STAINLESS STEEL TYPES Assuming that stainless steel is needed for a specific application, the next step is to determine the best stainless alloy to use. There currently exist more than 100 registered grades of stainless steel. Certainly, not all of these various alloys can be made available for all of the different sizes and types of fan equipment. To facilitate selection, specification, and production, the availability of stainless steel alloys for fan equipment must be selectively limited.

Basically, stainless steel can be divided into three categories; Martensitics - 12% chromium and iron with carbon in balanced proportion. Ferritics - with higher chromium content and carbon content held low. Austenitics - with nickel added. . . often referred to as 18-8 stainless which is approximately 18% chromium content and 8% nickel content. Martensitics have the least tendency to work harden. The application of this alloy grouping is usually limited to that of precision parts such as surgical instruments, shear blades, and dies. Ferritics exhibit the greatest degree of corrosion resistance in this grouping but work harden quite readily and are usually limited to decorative applications such as interior architectural trim, kitchen trim or utensils, and fasteners. Austenitics provide the best combination of corrosion resistance and ductility. The suitability of these alloys for welding and fabrication methods common to the fan industry reflect the standardization by fan manufacturers. The Summary of Austenitic Stainless Steel Types on page 3 presents alloy composition, strength characteristics, and typical applications for the various stainless steel alloys in the Austenitic category. Of the Austenitic alloys shown, some further limitations are placed on the fan manufacturer due to material availability, inventory needs and costs, and specific production methods. Refer to Engineering Letters 16 and 18 for condensed guides to the corrosion-resistant characteristics of stainless steel alloys. Note that these are condensed references and do not present the full extent of the corrosion-resistant characteristics of any grade. Since the information is based on chemically pure reagents, customer in-plant testing of a particular stainless alloy in the actual environment is recommended to determine suitability. MANUFACTURING CONSIDERATIONS The typical fan manufacturer rarely has the opportunity to purchase an adequate quantity of duplicate parts in the same stainless alloy construction that would warrant direct purchases from the mill. Instead, per job purchases limit the fan manufacturer to those alloys which are most readily available from steel distributors. Because of the dissimilar physical and mechanical properties of the stainless alloys, equipment fabrication methods often vary from the standards established for mild steel construction. For example, production equipment capable of handling 1/4" carbon steel may only be capable of handling 3/16" thick stainless. Likewise, the basic fan construction may involve heavy gauge components cut to size on standard flame burning equipment, but when stainless steel is required plasma-arc cutting equipment becomes necessary. Typically, fan

construction involves spun-inlet venturi sections or spun wheel components. It may be more economical to furnish all such spinnings of one grade of stainless steel, allowing an interchangeable inventory. Similarly, castings may be furnished of one grade of stainless instead of maintaining 3 or 4 various grades and incurring added inventory expense. Of the Austenitic alloys shown in the summary on page 4, 304, 304L, 316, 316L, and 347 stainless steels provide an adequate variety of corrosion resistance and strength characteristics and are readily available from steel distributor stock. These specific stainless steel alloys can be consolidated into versatile 304, 316, and 347 stainless steel construction groupings. Recognizing the availability of these various stainless steel construction classifications, a determination can be made regarding the suitability of a particular group for a given application based on the following: 304 stainless steel - good corrosion resistance at a minimum price. Under this alloy grade, machined parts such as shafting could be furnished from 304 stainless steel. However, in order to optimize production, nyb only offers 316 stainless steel shafting. Welded parts such as housings or wheels must be fabricated from 304L stainless steel. Beyond 800F., the strength characteristics of 304 stainless steel are not sufficient to warrant recommendation. 316 stainless steel - better corrosion resistance than 304 and good strength characteristics at elevated temperatures. Though higher in price, this alloy grade is the most versatile. Welded components must be fabricated from 316L stainless steel which is a low carbon grade stabilized for welding. 347 stainless steel - corrosion-resistant characteristics similar to 304 stainless steel but with the highest strength characteristics at elevated temperatures. Since it is the highest in initial cost and most difficult to obtain, 347 stainless steel should only be used where rotating speeds and elevated temperatures demand its use for wheel construction. The corrosion-resistance guide on page 3 provides a reference to the corrosion-resistance characteristics of 304 and 316 stainless steel alloys. For the purposes of this guide, the corrosion-resistance of 347 stainless steel is considered similar to 304 stainless steel and should only be used if high temperature is a factor. Note that this is a condensed reference and does not represent the full extent of the corrosion-resistance characteristics of any grade. Because this information is based on chemically pure reagents, customer in-plant testing of a particular stainless alloy in the actual operating environment is recommended to determine suitability.

Page 2

CORROSION-RESISTANCE GUIDE Corrosive Agent Acetic Acid Acetic Anhydride Acetone Acetylene Aluminum Acetate Aluminum Chloride (dry) Ammonia (dry) Ammonia (wet) Ammonium Sulfite Aniline Barium Chloride Benzene Boric Acid Bromine Water Butane Calcium Chloride Carbon Tetrachloride (dry) Chlorine Gas (dry) Chlorobenzene Citric Acid Copper Sulfate Cyclohexaone Ethyl Acetate Ethyl Alcohol Ethylene Dichloride Ethylene Oxide Ferric Chloride Ferric Nitrate Fluorine Gas (dry) Formaldehyde Formic Acid Gasoline Glycerine Hydrochloric Acid Hyfrofluoric Acid Hydrogen Peroxide Hydrogen Sulfide (dry) Hydrogen Sulfide (wet) Iodine E = Excellent Stainless Steel Alloy 304* S S E E E N E E S E E E E N E S S S S E E S S E E S N E E E S E E N N E S N N S = Satisfactory 316 E E E E E S E E E E E E E N E S E S S E E S E E E S N E E E E E E N N E E S N Lactic Acid Magnesium Carbonate Mercuric Chloride Methyl Alcohol Methyl Ethyl Ketone Mineral Oil Moisture Naptha Nitric Acid Ozone Perchloric Acid Phenol Phosphoric Acid Polyvinyl Acetate Potassium Chloride Potassium Cyanide Potassium Dichromate Potassium Hydroxide Pyridine Salt Spray Silver Nitrate Sodium Bicarbonate Sodium Chloride Sodium Cyanide Sodium Dichromate Sodium Hydroxide Sodium Hypochlorite Sodium Sulfate Steam Vapor Sulfamic Acid Sulfur Dioxide (dry) Sulfur Dioxide (wet) Sulfuric Acid Tannic Acid Toluene Trichloroethylene Xylene Zinc Chloride Zinc Sulfate N = Not Recommended Corrosive Agent Stainless Steel Alloy 304* S E N E E E E E E S N E S E S E E E S S E E S E S E N E E T S N N S E S E N E 316 E E N E E E E E E S N E E E E E E E S S E E E E S E N E E S E S S E E S E S E

T = Test data not available

* 347 stainless steel is considered to have the same corrosion-resistance characteristics as 304 stainless steel. SPARK RESISTANCE A common misapplication of stainless steel is in areas requiring non-sparking materials. Since stainless steels are basically alloys of chromium and iron, or of chromium, iron, and nickel, they are considered ferrous and sparking. As a result, the availability of SRC with stainless steel construction is very limited. In some cases, a Monel shaft and/or Monel buffers may be furnished to allow for some types of SRC construction. However, in other cases, all that is available are steps short of SRC construction which can be added to the fan to minimize the potential for generating sparks. The specific modifications vary depending upon the product, so consult nyb for availability.

Page 3

SPECIAL ALLOYS Under the general description of stainless steel, there are many other special alloys; some more corrosion resistant, and some more abrasion resistant. These specialized alloys require careful considerations of costs, availability, design suitability, and fabrication methods. Therefore, their selection and specification should be left to specific applications. SUMMARY Any equipment is only as good as its weakest component. If the corrosive gas stream requires that 316 stainless steel be specified, 304 or 347 stainless steel should not be substituted because of limited corrosion resistance. If 304 stainless steel is all that is necessary to combat the corrosion and 316 stainless steel wheel construction is adequate to obtain the safe speed at the required temperature, there is no reason to substitute the more expensive 347 stainless steel alloy. The 347 stainless steel alloy grade should never be specified based solely upon its corrosion-resistant characteristics; its only advantage over 316 is higher rotating speeds at elevated temperatures.

SUMMARY OF AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEEL TYPES

Type 301. A 17% Cr., 7% Ni. grade used primarily in structural applications and where high strength plus high ductility is required. Corrosion resistance is slightly less than Type 302. Type 302. The basic 18% Cr. 8% Ni. possesses excellent corrosion resistance to many organic and inorganic acids and their salts at ordinary temperatures. Also has good resistance to oxidation at elevated temperatures. Can be readily fabricated by all methods usually employed with carbon steels. Cr-Ni grades are nonmagnetic in the fully annealed condition and cannot be hardened by conventional heat treatment. Type 302 is subject to carbide precipitation due to welding. Type 303. The basic 18-8 composition with the addition of one or more other elements, usually phosphorus, sulfur and/or selenium to improve machinability. Also used when minimum galling and seizing is desired. Corrosion resistance under certain conditions may be somewhat lower than Type 302. Special precautions are necessary in welding Type 303. Type 304. Similar to Type 302 in chemical analysis except carbon is .8% max. The lower carbon decreases susceptibility to carbide precipitation in the 800F. to 1550F. temperature range, making it useful over a wider range of corrosive conditions than Type 302. Type 304L. An extra low carbon analysis similar to Type 304 except carbon is .3% max. Carbide precipitation does not occur if material is not held over two hours in the 800F. to 1550F. temperature range. Thus corrosion resistance is not affected by normal welding and stress relieving applications. Type 305. A modified Type 304 grade of lower chromium, higher nickel content to reduce tendency to work harden when severely cold worked. Particularly well suited for difficult forming, perforating, etc., where rapid work hardening makes fabrication difficult. Type 308. A 20% Cr. 10% Ni. grade providing somewhat better corrosion resistance than the 18-8 grades. Because of its higher alloy content, it is less susceptible to carbide precipitation than Type 304.

Type 309. A 24% Cr. 12% Ni. steel combining excellent resistance to oxidation with high tensile and creep strength at elevated temperatures. It resists oxidation at temperatures up to 2000F. under normal conditions. Type 310. A 25% Cr. 20% Ni. analysis having slightly higher oxidation resistance and creep values than Type 309. Lower Coefficient of Expansion gives less tendency to warp and throw scale in fluctuating temperatures. Type 314. Essentially Type 310 with the addition of approximately 2.50% silicon to increase resistance to oxidation and to retard carburization. Type 316. A modified 18-8 grade containing approximately 2.50% molybdenum. It is more resistant to corrosive action of most chemicals, especially sulfuric acid and fatty acids. Type 316 is less susceptible to pitting and pin hole corrosion by acetic acid vapors, chloride solutions, etc. The tensile and creep strength at elevated temperatures are also superior to the other Cr-Ni types. Type 316 is subject to carbide precipitation due to welding. Type 316L. Similar to Type 316 in analysis except carbon is .3% max. It is immune to harmful intergranual corrosion providing it is not held in the 800F. - 1550F. temperature range for over two hours. Type 317. A modified 18-8 stainless containing approximately 3.50% molybdenum. Resistance to corrosion is somewhat better and susceptibility to carbide precipitation is slightly less than Type 316. Type 321. A modified 18-8 analysis with titanium (five times carbon content minimum) added to make it immune to harmful carbide precipitation. The corrosion resistance of Type 321 is the same as Types 347 and 304. Type 347. A modified 18-8 formulation with columbium (two times carbon content minimum) added to make it immune to harmful intergranular corrosion. The corrosion resistance of Type 347 is the same as Type 304.

For m 60 7 GAW

ENGINEERING LETTER 15
The New York Blower Company 7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60521 -5530

PRACTICAL LIMITS OF SPARK-RESISTANT CONSTRUCTION

INTRODUCTION Fan applications with airstreams of explosive or flammable particles or gases require spark-resistant system components for the safe handling of such airstreams. This includes components such as ductwork, dampers, filter devices, heating or cooling coils, and fans. This Engineering Letter presents practical considerations and methods of providing fans with varying types of Spark-Resistant Construction (SRC). THE AMCA STANDARD The Air Movement and Control Association (AMCA) established a standard set of Classifications for Spark-Resistant Construction. For reference, that Standard is shown here in its entirety.

AMCA STANDARD 99-0401-86 Classification for Spark-Resistant Construction Fan applications may involve the handling of potentially explosive or flammable particles, fumes, or vapors. Such applications require careful consideration of all system components to ensure the safe handling of such gas streams. This AMCA Standard deals only with the fan unit installed in that system. The Standard contains guidelines which are to be used by both the manufacturer and user as a means of establishing general methods of construction. The exact method of construction and choice of alloys is the responsibility of the manufacturer; however, the customer must accept both the type and design with full recognition of the potential hazard and the degree of protection required. TYPE A CONSTRUCTION All parts of the fan in contact with the air or gas being handled shall be made of nonferrous material. Steps must also be taken to assure that the impeller, bearings, and shaft are adequately attached and/or restrained to prevent a lateral or axial shift in these components. The fan shall have a nonferrous impeller and nonferrous ring about the opening through which the shaft passes. Ferrous hubs, shafts, and hardware are allowed, provided construction is such that a shift of impeller or shaft will not permit two ferrous parts of the fan to rub or strike. Steps must also be taken to assure that the impeller, bearings, and shaft are adequately attached and/or restrained to prevent a lateral or axial shift in these components. The fan shall be so constructed that a shift of the impeller or shaft will not permit two ferrous parts of the fan to rub or strike. No bearings, drive components, or electrical devices shall be placed in the air or gas stream unless they are constructed or enclosed in such a manner that failure of that component cannot ignite the surrounding gas stream. The user shall electrically ground all fan parts. For this Standard, nonferrous material shall be any material with less than 5% iron or any other material with demonstrated ability to be spark resistant. The use of aluminum or aluminum alloys in the presence of steel which has been allowed to rust requires special consideration. Research by the U.S. Bureau of Mines and others has shown that aluminum impellers rubbing on rusty steel may cause high-intensity sparking.

C Notes 1. 2. 3. 4.

The use of the above Standard in no way implies a guarantee of safety for any level of spark resistance. Spark-resistant construction also does not protect against ignition of explosive gases caused by catastrophic failure or from any airstream material that may be present in a system. This Standard applies to: Centrifugal Fans; Axial and Propeller Fans; Power Roof Ventilators. This Standard applies to ferrous and nonferrous metals. The potential questions which may be associated with fans constructed of FRP, PVC, or any other plastic compound were not addressed.

THE LIMITATIONS OF SRC The AMCA standard provides the system designer with a uniform way to specify the system requirements and provides fan manufacturers with general guidelines. The fan manufacturer must still develop unique designs to deal with the physical and practical limitations of fan equipment when developing construction methods to comply with AMCA. A major limitation is the practical availability of truly nonferrous alloys that really can be used in fan construction. There are certain alloys or noble metals than are truly nonferrous, alloys that contain no iron, but for the most part they are extremely expensive and/or difficult to obtain in forms and strengths necessary for fan construction. For most purposes, the fan manufacturer uses more readily available alloys that are considered nominally nonferrous and which have strength and work properties suited to fan construction. The New York Blower Companys list of usable alloys is shown in Figure 1. Alloy % FE (iron) Aluminum 5052* 0.45 Aluminum 6061* 0.70 Brass CDA 360 0.00 Bronze CDA 958 4.75 Copper CDA 110 or 122 0.00 Monel 400 Shafting 2.50 Note: Alternate alloys may be substituted; not to exceed 5% iron content. Hardware, such as setscrews or keys, may have an iron content greater than 5% provided they are recessed and relatively inaccessible. * Iron content in most aluminum alloys is actually a random contamination and not a predicted element of the alloy.
Figure 1 - Spark- Resistant Alloys used by nyb

fastening the wheel to the shaft and locking the shaft in the bearings are sufficient. However, the degree of hazard in these situations dictates that extraordinary precautions to more securely prevent such shifting are in order, so further methods of attachment or restraint are required. The following types of SRC are furnished by The New York Blower Company. These types meet the AMCA Standard, but go a step further by explaining the specific construction methods used to achieve SRC. NEW YORK BLOWER SRC STANDARDS AIRSTREAM-TYPE SRC - (AMCA Standard 99-0401-86, Type A) to include all airstream parts constructed of a sparkresistant alloy. Bearing stop blocks and/or an aluminum shaft sleeve shall be provided to prevent contact of the shaft with the housing at the shaft opening. Shaft set collars shall be provided to prevent axial movement of the shaft through the bearings. The fan wheel shall be secured to the shaft in such a manner that it cannot shift axially on the shaft. WHEEL-TYPE SRC - (AMCA Standard 99-0401-86, Type B) to include the wheel constructed of a spark-resistant alloy, and a buffer around the housing shaft opening. Bearing stop blocks and/or an aluminum shaft sleeve (in lieu of buffer) shall be provided to prevent contact of the shaft with the housing at the shaft opening. Shaft set collars shall be provided to prevent axial movement of the shaft through the bearings. The fan wheel shall be secured to the shaft in such a manner that it cannot shift axially on the shaft. BUFFER-TYPE SRC - (AMCA Standard 99-0401-86, Type C) to include buffers constructed of a spark-resistant alloy attached to the housing interior adjacent to the wheel front and back. Fan designs which incorporate a conical inlet venturi within the confines of the housing shall utilize a spun-aluminum venturi in lieu of a separate buffer on the inlet side. A buffer will also be located at the housing shaft opening. The term spark-resistant alloy may include, but is not limited to, those alloys shown in Figure 1. WHAT THE NYB SRC TYPES OFFER AND HOW THEY ARE ACCOMPLISHED One or more of these SRC types are offered on most New York Blower fans as indicated in the specific literature describing those fans. Of these types, a fan furnished with AIRSTREAM-TYPE SRC should provide the greatest degree of spark resistance. In the event that two or more fan components in the airstream rub or strike together, a properly maintained fan should be able to continue in operation for some reasonable period of time, without producing a spark. However, the severity of a hazard that calls for AIRSTREAM-TYPE SRC dictates that the fan should be closely monitored and shut down immediately upon such an occurrence. If allowed to operate, the rubbing or striking of these fan components will generate frictional heat, quickly deteriorate, and eventually catastrophically fail. Good safety practice cannot be ignored! A fan furnished with WHEEL-TYPE SRC differs from AIRSTREAM-TYPE SRC in that only the wheel itself is constructed of a spark-resistant alloy. A spark-resistant buffer is added around the housing opening through which the shaft passes as shown in Figure 2. The remainder of the fan components are furnished in their standard material, usually mild steel.

Aluminum is the most frequently used alloy due to its low cost. However, as pointed out in the AMCA Standard, when aluminum is in close proximity to steel, careful maintenance programs are necessary to prevent rust, because aluminum rubbing against rusty steel can cause high-intensity sparking. In applications where such maintenance is not possible, an SRC method that places steel in the airstream is not recommended. Regardless of which classification is chosen, airborne foreign or tramp particles could either strike each other, or strike one of the components of the fan, causing a spark. Protection against such occurrence cannot be built into the fan itself. SRC does not eliminate the potential for spark generation. Fans with any type of SRC are only intended to minimize the potential that any two or more fan components might generate sparks within the airstream by rubbing or striking during operation. No type of SRC can be guaranteed to eliminate the possibility of generating a spark, nor would any SRC type preclude sparks resulting from any foreign influence such as airborne materials striking each other. The AMCA Standard requires construction that will not permit a wheel and/or shaft to shift due to some malfunction during operation. If two components are allowed to shift and rub against each other for any length of time, either sparks or frictional heat could become a hazard in an explosive or flammable gas stream. Normally, standard procedures of

Page 2

Figure 3 Bearing Stop Blocks/Shaft Set Collars

Figure 2 Spark Resistant Buffer

Fans furnished with WHEEL-TYPE SRC should not continue in operation for any length of time with the wheel rubbing any component or with the shaft striking the buffer. Practically speaking, it is not possible to predict a safe length of time, because there may be other ferrous components within the fan airstream which could be torn or jarred loose by the rubbing or striking of the wheel or shaft, and such loose ferrous objects could create a spark. Also, the buffer cannot support the weight or withstand the forces of the rotating shaft for any prolonged period of time. The AIRSTREAM-TYPE and WHEEL-TYPE SRC specifications go further to minimize the potential for sparking by taking extraordinary precautions to minimize the potential for abnormal movement or shift of the fans airstream components. While the standard bearing mounting bolts will resist vertical or axial movement, the addition of bearing stop blocks will resist horizontal movement and effectively secure the bearings in place. The addition of shaft set collars as shown in Figure 3 will further resist shaft movement through the bearings. These combined features virtually eliminate the possibility of any movement in the shaft and bearing assembly. There are many ways to secure the fan wheel to the shaft, but standard setscrews and keys are not enough for the more severe applications. Figure 4 details one alternative which includes a bolted aluminum wheel retaining plate on the end of the shaft. Other methods might include countersinking the shaft to accept a setscrew, sweat-fitting, or tapered bores to prevent the wheel from slipping on the shaft axially. The precise method will vary by fan size and type. The BUFFER-TYPE SRC specifications utilize standard, usually mild steel, airstream component parts and employ spark-resistant plates or buffers to stop the wheel or shaft from coming into direct contact with other airstream components. A fan design which requires an inlet cone is usually furnished with an aluminum cone to act as the buffer on one side, as shown in Figure 5. Other designs might utilize a sparkresistant band or plate.

Figure 4 - Wheel Retaining Plate

Figure 5 - Aluminum Inlet Cone (1), Steel Wheel (2)

The BUFFER-TYPE SRC is intended to provide a low cost alternative for non-critical applications. The user or specifier must exercise caution in selecting this type so that the safety of the installation is not compromised for the sake of initial cost. Generally, aluminum wheel construction is utilized for AIRSTREAM-TYPE AND WHEEL-TYPE SRC. Because the material strength characteristics of aluminum decrease sharply at elevated temperatures, it is not recommended for handling anything other than nonabrasive airstreams at less than 200F. In cases beyond these limits, BUFFER-TYPE SRC may be the only readily available alternative. As with the WHEEL-TYPE SRC, fans furnished with BUFFER-TYPE SRC should not continue to operate for any length of time with the wheel or shaft rubbing the buffers. High speed fans will tend to wear away buffers more rapidly than slower speed fans, and thus BUFFER-TYPE SRC should be used with caution on high speed fans. The greater wheel tip speeds and shaft surface speeds, combined with their corresponding weights and forces, reduce the amount of time available to react. When a high speed fan application requires spark resistance but AIRSTREAM- and WHEEL-TYPE SRC are not practical, The New York Blower Company will work with the system designer to provide special spark-resistant features on a case by case basis. Periodic inspection of the fan, and particularly the airstream, is recommended. The build-up of foreign material or rust, the potential deterioration due to abrasion or corrosion, or the accidental shifting of any fan part could lead to further hazards of potential ignition or explosion.

Page 3

The centrifugal fan arrangements most compatible with the intended use of SRC are those in which the wheel is overhung on the shaft and the bearings are outside the airstream. Such arrangements include Arrangements 1, 8, 9, and 10 as described in AMCA Standard 99-2404-78. One item mentioned in the AMCA Standard for SRC is that the user must electrically ground all fan parts. This is necessary so that any electrical charge or static electricity that might build up in operation can be safely conducted away. Though there is probably sufficient electrical conductivity through most bearings to transmit any static charge to the bearing pedestal, brush type contacts on the pedestal may be a good added precaution. The pedestal can then be suitably grounded to the support structure. Steps should be taken by the user to ensure electrical conductivity to the connecting ductwork. AXIAL FANS AND SRC Propeller Fans, Duct Fans, Vaneaxial Fans, and Tubular Centrifugal Fans have the common difficulty of placing the bearings, and sometimes the drive components, either directly in the airstream or in an inner tube construction that is located within the airstream as shown in Figure 6.

WHERE TO AVOID ATTEMPTING SRC The basic requirement that bearings should not be placed in hazardous airstreams eliminates several centrifugal fan arrangements from consideration. Single-width or doublewidth fans in either Arrangement 3 or Arrangement 7, where the fan bearings are located in the inlet, should not be furnished for such service. See Figure 7.

Figure 7 - Arrangement 3 Double- Width Fan

CONCLUSION Moving explosive or flammable gas streams through fans requires the utmost care in system design and equipment selection. The system designer must weigh the total system from all angles to minimize risk, particularly when the system components and/or fans are in environments that are located in areas where people are likely to be working or passing.
Figure 6 Tubeaxial Fan

The New York Blower Company offers WHEEL- and BUFFER- TYPE SRC on its Duct, Tubeaxial, Vaneaxial, and Tubular AcoustaFoil fan lines. BUFFER-TYPE SRC on these fans requires bearings and drive components to be isolated from the airstream. To accomplish this, the fans are furnished with shaft seals and all airstream junctions are continuously welded and/or gasketed with suitable material. To prevent a shift of the impeller and/or shaft, a ceramic-felt shaft seal with retaining plates constructed of copper is used. For Tubeaxial and Vaneaxial fans, an aluminum wheel is also required. On the Duct Fan, a partial aluminum wheel is used. WHEEL-TYPE SRC utilizes all of the modifications of BUFFER-TYPE SRC. The addition of a wheel retainer, set collars, and bearing stop blocks help prevent a lateral or axial shift of the wheel, bearings, and shaft. FIBERGLASS-REINFORCED PLASTIC AND SRC Centrifugal fans made of FRP material present an excellent degree of spark resistance as FRP materials are nonsparking. However, FRP is also a nonconductor so the possibility of building and retaining a static charge is greater and must be accounted for. Adding graphite to the final resin finish will provide the necessary conductivity to alleviate this situation. The special construction features of FRP fans may also call for other considerations in dealing with hazardous fumes. See Engineering Letter 20.

The explosiveness of the gas mixture, the people factor, and the potential for foreign or tramp elements to enter the system, are all necessary concerns in determining to what degree special-material construction should be used. Vibration detectors to warn of impending malfunction of bearings or rotating assemblies are a good preventive measure to forestall the actual rubbing or impact of two parts in any mechanical equipment, and should certainly be considered in severe risk situations. The extraordinary measures to pre-vent wheel and shaft movement offered in nyb s AIRSTREAM-TYPE SRC and WHEEL-TYPE SRC are features to help minimize the potential of allowing two parts to strike. The three classifications of spark-resistant construction in AMCAs Standard and the specific construction methods offered by New York Blower provide only degrees of resistance to sparking. They have been used, and are continuing in use, as deterrents to possible sparking and ignition in hazardous systems. Care must be taken to recognize that there are no absolute guarantees. Therefore, in particularly hazardous applications, the location of the fan and perhaps the entire system should be a major consideration. In some cases, protective enclosures around the fan or other mechanical parts in the system may be another protective step to lessen the danger in the event that a spark might occur in spite of the precautions taken. The system designer is in the best position to weigh the alternatives and specify the required fan equipment.
Form 60 7 GAW

ENGINEERING LETTER 16
The New York Blower Company 7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60521-5530

CORROSION-RESISTANT COATINGS FOR FAN EQUIPMENT

INTRODUCTION This Engineering Letter provides basic information regarding the different types of corrosion-resistant coatings readily available for fan equipment. The coatings are described here according to generic classifications having similar characteristics such as curing methods, adhesion qualities, chemical resistance, and temperature limitations. Coating manufacturers offer a variety of brand name coatings which can be categorized by these generic classifications. The service life of air-moving equipment constructed of carbon steel may be significantly reduced when corrosives are allowed to attack the surface of the metal through chemical or electrochemical action. One method of inhibiting this corrosive action is by applying a protective coating to the area in contact with the corrosives. Protective coatings act as a barrier between the corrosive and the parent material. A wide range of protective coating systems is available to provide protection from a variety of corrosives including acids, alkalis, solvents, salts, and oils. Although other materials of construction, such as special alloys (see Engineering Letter 14) and fiberglass-reinforced plastic FRP (see separate Engineering Letters) are available, protective coatings can offer a low-initial-cost solution to the corrosion problem. The selection of a protective coating is critical in determining the service life of the equipment. The selection process must consider the actual chemical composition of the gas stream. To evaluate the corrosive nature of the gas stream completely, the concentrations and temperatures of the chemicals present must also be considered. COATING INGREDIENTS Although protective coatings are differentiated by their specific chemical composition, the most common consist of three basic ingredients; a binder, a flow control agent, and a pigment or filler. When these ingredients are combined, they can range in consistency from thin liquids to semi-solid pastes in a variety of colors. The binder is the film-forming ingredient in the coating. It consists of either a drying oil or a polymeric substance. Drying oils form a hard film by reacting with oxygen in the air. Coatings with this type of binder are usually cured by air drying but in some cases may be baked in order to cure more rapidly. Coatings that utilize a polymeric substance as the binder require a thermoset cure. Thermosetting can be accomplished by baking the applied coating in some cases or by adding a catalyst in other cases. The type of thermoset is dependent upon the characteristics of the polymeric substance itself. A flow control agent, or solvent, is combined with the binder to form the liquid portion of the coating. The solvent prevents the binder from solidifying prematurely and ensures uniform dispersion over the surface. This combination of binder and solvent is called the vehicle portion of the coating. The pigment is any substance, usually a powder, which gives color to the mixture. Most pigments are insoluble in solvents and are not affected by the vehicle portion of the coating. The generic coating classifications are differentiated by their chemical composition. While the chemical composition alone is not sufficient in determining which protective coating is selected for a specific application, it can be useful in determining the generic group of a particular brand name coating. COATING TYPES The following descriptions of generic coatings present curing methods, adhesion qualities, chemical resistance, and temperature limitations. This information can be used as a guide to specifying and selecting corrosion-resistant coatings for fan equipment. For chemical resistance to specific applications refer to the Corrosion-Resistance Table beginning on page 3. Phenolic - resin systems include any of the several types of thermosetting resins obtained by the condensation of phenol or substituted phenols with aldehydes, such as formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, or furfural. Phenolic resins can be cured by baking, air-drying, or catalyzation. These curing processes remove the solvents and oxidize the oils contained in the resin to produce coatings with an extremely hard finish. Phenolic coatings possess excellent resistance to moisture, solvents, and a wide variety of concentrated acids at temperatures to 150F. airdried or 400F. baked. Epoxy - coatings are derived from a thermosetting resin based on the reactivity of the epoxide group. The most common form of this resin stems from a reaction between epichlorohydrin and bisphenol A. Another type is formed from the oxidation of polyolefins with peracetic acid. Epoxy resins can be cured by baking or catalyzing. When cured, these coatings have a supple finish and superior adhesion qualities. Epoxy coatings are characterized by their excellent resistance to a variety of corrosive chemicals, including acids, alkalis, and salts with temperature limitations between 200F. and 300F. Epoxy-Phenolic - coatings are modified phenolic coatings created by blending phenolic resins with resins from the epoxide group. Epoxy-phenolics can be cured by baking or by the utilization of a catalyst. Catalyzed epoxy-phenolic coatings require a longer curing time and have lower chemical resistance than the baked epoxy-phenolic coatings. They can be applied in greater thickness to attain virtually the same

performance characteristics as the baked epoxy-phenolic coatings. These coatings are used mainly for alkali-resistance in moderate temperatures up to 400F. Inorganic Zinc - coatings are formulated by adding zinc dust to inorganic binders. These binders give the zinc coatings their corrosion-resistant qualities, while the zinc adds cathodic protection (alters the rate of electron flow which can produce corrosion) to metals below it in the galvanic series. (However, the zinc-rich coatings are not recommended for use over aluminum substrates.) These coatings, which are cured by airdrying, are not subject to ultraviolet degradation and may be used without a top coat for severe weathering conditions. The inorganic zinc coatings have good solvent-resistant properties, but may require an appropriate protective top coat for acid or alkali-resistant applications. Inorganic zinc coatings are suitable for temperatures to 750F. Vinyl - coatings use resins from the vinyl-resin family as the major portion of the binder. These resins are formed by a reaction between acetylene and an acid. They consist largely of vinyl acetate, vinyl chloride, and vinyl copolymer. Vinyl coatings can be cured by baking or air-drying, and have excellent adhesion qualities to steel. As the vinyl dries, the film remains non-brittle and will easily follow the expansion and contraction of the underlying surface. Vinyl coatings are unique in that they possess superior corrosion-resistant performance over a broad range of corrosive combinations. The vinyl coatings will give satisfactory results for most corrosive fume applications below 200F., but are not recommended for solvent-laden environments. Coal Tar Epoxy - coatings are formed by combining coal tar, a black liquid obtained from the distillation of coal during the conversion of coke, and a resin from the epoxide group. These coatings, which are cured by air-drying or catalyzing, adhere well to metal surfaces. The blend of coal tar and the epoxy resin forms a coating which has good water-resistance characteristics and is resistant to acids and alkali fumes at temperatures to 250F. Alkyds - are actually a type of polyester resin modified by the addition of fatty acids or drying oils. These resins are a product of the thermosetting reaction between polyhydric alcohol and a poly-basic acid. Alkyd resins are cured by catalyzation or air-drying. They have the ability to harden at room temperatures in a very short time. These coatings are not generally selected or specified for corrosion-resistant applications, but are normally required for color-matching purposes. Silicone - coatings are polymeric silicones formed by heating silicon in methyl chloride to yield methylchlorosilanes which are separated and purified by distillation. The desired compound is then mixed with water. Silicone coatings can be cured by baking or air-drying. Formulated for medium to high temperature service where temperatures seldom fall below 200F. to 300F., these coatings normally exhibit good to excellent fume resistance to acids, alkalis, solvents, salts, and water, but are not recommended for areas subjected to acid or alkali splash or spillage. Silicone coatings possess good

weathering characteristics, but an inorganic zinc primer will greatly extend the coatings service life when applied to steel, especially if service temperatures fall below 300F. and moisture is present. The maximum temperature limitation for these coatings varies according to each specific manufacturers recommendation. Polyurethane - coatings are derived from prepolymers containing isocyanate groups and hydroxyl containing materials such as polyols and drying oils. Polyurethane coatings, which are cured by air-drying or catalyzing, are frequently applied over zinc and epoxy primers. These coatings produce an extremely hard, yet flexible, high gloss finish that is resistant to weathering, ultraviolet degradation, acids, and alkalis at temperatures to 200F. Polyester - resins are thermosetting synthetic resins formed by the polycondensation of dicarboxilic acids and dihydroxy alcohols. Polyester resins are characterized by their ability to cure at room temperatures in a very short time after being catalyzed. They also have excellent adhesion qualities. The polyester coatings are resistant to mild traces of acids, alkalis, and solvents. The maximum temperature limitation for these coatings varies according to each specific manufacturers recommendation. Vinyl Ester - resins are combined with a special curing system and inert flake pigment. Vinyl ester coatings, which are cured by air-drying or catalyzing, provide excellent chemical resistance to organic and inorganic acids, oxidizing agents, salts, and a wide range of solvents. Vinyl ester coatings are applied at 35 to 40 mils DFT. Although these coatings cover a broad range of generic types, they by no means cover them all. Types mentioned here are the most commonly specified and selected generic types offered for use on fan equipment. Selecting the proper coating system for the application is not enough to ensure its success. Proper surface preparation is essential to the effectiveness of any coating system. COATING SURFACE PREPARATION Surface preparation not only ensures that the coating will adhere adequately but also removes contaminants which could be detrimental to the service life of the equipment. The Steel Structures Painting Council further defines various types of surface preparation as shown in Engineering Letter 17. Coating manufacturers then suggest the recommended degree of surface preparation for each of their brand name coatings. Based on the surface preparation necessary for each coating specification, nyb will either apply the coatings in its facilities or have them sent to an outside applicator. Most coatings applied by nyb receive a combination of phosphate wash and hand tool cleaning. This procedure removes all oil, dirt, grease, loose rust, and mill scale that hinders the effectiveness of the coating. This method of surface preparation is equivalent to a combination of Solvent Cleaning (SSPC-SP1) and Hand Tool Cleaning (SSPC-SP2). The application of a coating which requires any degree of sandblasting is handled by an outside applicator. Sandblasting is further defined in Engineering Letter 17.

Page 2

Airstream, exterior, and all surfaces are common area requirements for coatings. Airstream surfaces coated includes interior of housing, entire wheel, that portion of the shaft in contact with the airstream, airstream areas of collar, inlet ring and/or inlet plate, and all surfaces of the inlet cone. Exterior surfaces coated - includes all outside surfaces, except bearings, motor, and the shaft. All surfaces coated includes all surfaces inside and outside, except bearings, motor, and that portion of the shaft not in contact with the airstream APPLICATION AND SELECTION GUIDE The table below provides a condensed guide to the corrosionresistant properties of generic coatings commonly available on fan equipment. Each coating should be chosen according to the specific corrosive chemical or chemicals involved in the application. The customer is responsible for selecting the

coating which will provide proper protection. nyb can only warrant that the coating will be applied according to the coating manufacturers instructions. Fume-and aerosol-contaminated air has been used as the basis for this guide. The fumes or aerosols of a substance are effectively diluted by air, reducing the chemical concentration to a level significantly lower than the liquid solution. Because this guide is based on dilute concentrations of fumes and aerosols, relatively few chemicals are listed as unsatisfactory for use with these protective coating systems. Protective coatings play an important role in corrosion-resistant construction. They often have the lowest first cost. Special alloy and fiberglass-reinforced plastic construction are also available for corrosive applications. Special alloy and FRP construction are able to handle a wider range of corrosives, are far superior when it comes to corrosion resistance, and many times result in the lowest life cycle cost.

CORROSION-RESISTANCE GUIDE TO GENERIC COATINGS AND ASSORTED METALS COATINGS

Air-dried Phenolic Catalyzed Epoxy Baked EpoxyPhenolic Catalyzed Epoxy-Phenolic Baked Phenolic Coal Tar Epoxy Inorganic Zinc Air-dried Vinyl Polyurethane Carbon Steel Vinyl Ester

METALS
304* Stainless Steel 316 Stainless Steel Aluminum Polyester Air-dried Silicone

Acetic Acid Acetic Anhydride Acetone Acetylene Aluminum Acetate Aluminum Chloride (dry) Ammonia (dry) Ammonia (wet) Ammonium Sulfite Aniline Barium Chloride Benzene Boric Acid Bromine Water Butane Calcium Chloride Carbon Tetrachloride (dry) Chlorine Gas (dry) Chlorobenzene Citric Acid Copper Sulfate Cyclohexanone Ethyl Acetate Ethyl Alcohol Ethylene Dichloride Ethylene Oxide Ferric Chloride Ferric Nitrate Fluorine Gas (dry) Formaldehyde E = Excellent

E E E E E E E E E E E E E N E E E S S E E E E E E S S S N E

N N N E E S S N S S S N E N S E E S N E S N N S N N S S N E

N N S S N S N N S N S S S S N E N S N N S N S S N N E N N S

T T S S S E E E S T E E E N E E E T E S E S S E S T E T T E

N N S E N S S S S N E S E N S E S S S E E N S S S N E S N S

N N E E S N N N N E S E N N S N S N S N S S S E S E S N N E

E E N S S S N N N S E N E N S E N N S E E S S S N S E S S E

N S N T T S S N S N S N S S T S S S N S S N S S N N S T T N

Alkyd

Corrosive Agent

N N N N N S N N N N N N N N S N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N

S S S S S S S N S S S S S N S S S S S S S S S S S S E S S S

N N E S S S S S S S S S S S S E S S S S S S S S N N S S N S

E N N T S E S N S S S S S S T E S N S S S S N S S N S T T N

E S N E E E E E E S E N E S E E S E S E E S E S N N E E E S

N N E S T N S S N N N N N N E N S S S N N N S S S S N N N S

S E E E S S E E N N N S S N S S N N S S N S S S S S N N E S

S S E E E N E E S E E E E N E S S S S E E S E E E S N E E E

E E E E E S E E E E E E E N E S E S S E E S E E E S N E E E

S = Satisfactory

N = Not Recommended

T = Test data not available

* 347 stainless steel has the same corrosion-resistance characteristics as 304 stainless steel. The suitability of the coatings found in this table has been based on fume concentration effectively diluted by air at 70F. High chemical concentra tion and/or elevated temperatures and/or moisture may significantly reduce a coatings suitability. Page 3

CORROSION-RESISTANCE GUIDE TO GENERIC COATINGS AND ASSORTED METALS COATINGS

Air-dried Vinyl Bake d Phenolic Air-dried Phenolic Catalyzed Epoxy Baked EpoxyPhenolic Catalyzed EpoxyPhenolic Inorganic Zinc Polyurethane Carbon Steel Vinyl Ester

METALS
304* Stainless Steel 316 Stainless Steel Aluminum Polyester Air-dried Silicone

Formic Acid Gasoline Glycerine Hydrochloric Acid Hydrofluoric Acid Hydrogen Peroxide Hydrogen Sulfide (dry) Hydrogen Sulfide (wet) Iodine Lactic Acid Magnesium Carbonate Mercuric Chloride Methyl Alcohol Methyl Ethyl Ketone Mineral Oil Moisture Naptha Nitric Acid Ozone Perchloric Acid Phenol Phosphoric Acid Polyvinyl Acetate Potassium Chloride Potassium Cyanide Potassium Dichromate Potassium Hydroxide Pyridine Salt Spray Silver Nitrate Sodium Bicarbonate Sodium Chloride Sodium Cyanide Sodium Dichromate Sodium Hydroxide Sodium Hypochlorite Sodium Sulfate Steam Vapor Sulfamic Acid Sulfur Dioxide (dry) Sulfur Dioxide (wet) Sulfuric Acid Tannic Acid Toluene Trichloroethylene Xylene Zinc Chloride Zinc Sulfate E = Excellent

S E E E N N E S E E E E E E E E E E N S E E E E E S N E E E E E N N N N E E E E E E E E E E E E

N S E S N N S N T S E E S N E E E N N N N S N S S S N T S S E S S S N N S N S S S S E N N N S S

N S E N N S S N N S E E N S E E S N N N S N E N N N S N E N S E S S S N S S S S S N S E N E S S

N E E S N N E S T S E E E S E E E N N S S S T E E E N E E T E E S S S N E E T S S S T E E E E E

N E S S N N S N N E E E S N E E S N N N N S N E S S S N S N E E S N N N E N S S N S E N N S E E

N E S N N N N N N N S S E E E E E N S N S N N S N S S S E N N S N S S N N N N N N N N E S E N N

N S S S S S E N N E E T E N E E N S S E S E N S S S E T E E E E S S E N E S S N N S E N N N E E

N N S N N N S S N S S S N N E E S N N N N N T S S S S N E T E E S E S S S S S S S N E S N S S S

N S N N N N N N N N S N N N S E S N N N N N N N N N N N S N S S N N N N N S N N N N N N N N S S

Alkyd

Corrosive Agent

Coal Tar Epoxy

S S S S N S S N S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S E S S E S S N N S E S S N S S S S S E S

S E S S N S S N T S S E E E E E S N N N S E T S T S S N E S S S S S E S S N S T T E S E N E S S

N S S N N S S N S S S S S N S E S S T S S S N S S S S N S T S S S S S N S S S S N N T S N S S S

E E E E S E E E E E E E S N E E S S S S S E E E E E E N E E E E E S E E E E S E S E E S N E E E

N E S N N N S N N N N N S S S S S N N N S N N S S S S S N N N N S S S N S S N E N N N E S S N N

N E E N N E S S E S S N S S S S E N S N E N T N N E N S S N S N N S N N E S N S N N N E S E N S

S E E N N E S N N S E N E E E E E E S N E S E S E E E S S E E S E S E N E E T S N N S E S E N E

E E E N N E E S N E E N E E E E E E S N E E E E E E E S S E E E E S E N E E S E S S E E S E S E

S = Satisfactory

N = Not Recommended

T = Test data not available

* 347 stainless steel has the same corrosion-resistance characteristics as 304 stainless steel. The suitability of the coatings found in this table has been based on fume concentration effectively diluted by air at 70F. High chemical concentration and/or elevated temperatures and/or moisture may significantly reduce a coatings suitability.
Form 607 GAW

ENGINEERING LETTER 17
The New York Blower Company 7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60521-5530

COATING SURFACE PREPARATION SPECIFICATIONS

INTRODUCTION This Engineering Letter is intended to be an aid for selecting the proper surface preparation specifications for a given application. It also provides a better understanding of the Steel Structures Painting Council (SSPC) surface preparation specifications, which are the most commonly used. In addition, surface preparation standards published by the National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE) are crossreferenced where applicable. The life of a coating depends as much on surface preparation as on the subsequent coating system. Surface preparation, therefore, requires thorough consideration. The primary functions of surface preparation are: To remove surface contaminants and imperfections, such as oil, grease, dust, rust, weld spatter, etc., that will affect the performance of a coating. To provide an anchor pattern or surface profile which improves the mechanical bonding of a coating to the prepared surface by increasing the surface area. Note that all coating systems will fail eventually. However, most premature coating failure can be attributed to inadequate surface preparation or lack of coating adhesion.

SUMMARY OF COMMON SURFACE PREPARATION SPECIFICATIONS SSPC STANDARD DESCRIPTION

SP1 - SOLVENT CLEANING

Removal of oil, grease, dirt, soil, salts, and contaminants by cleaning with solvent, vapor, alkali, emulsion, or steam. Removal of loose rust, loose mill scale, and loose paint by hand chipping, scraping, sanding, and wire brushing. Removal of loose rust, loose mill scale, and loose paint by power tool chipping, descaling, sanding, wire brushing, and grinding. Removal of all visible rust, mill scale, paint, and foreign matter by blast cleaning. (For very corrosive atmospheres where the high cost of cleaning is warranted). Blast cleaning until at least two-thirds of the surface area is free of all visible residues. (For conditions where thoroughly cleaned surface is required). Blast cleaning of all except tightly adhering residues of mill scale, rust, and coatings, exposing numerous evenly distributed flecks of underlying metal. Blast cleaning until at least 95% of the surface area is free of all visible residues. (For high humidity, chemical atmosphere, marine, or other corrosive environments).

SP2 - HAND TOOL CLEANING

SP3 - POWER TOOL CLEANING

SP5 - WHITE-METAL BLAST CLEANING

SP6 - COMMERCIAL BLAST CLEANING

SP7 - BRUSH-OFF BLAST CLEANING

SP10 - NEAR-WHITE BLAST CLEANING

SSPC-SP1, SOLVENT CLEANING This specification includes simple solvent wiping, immersion in solvent, solvent spray, vapor degreasing, steam cleaning, emulsion cleaning, chemical paint stripping, and alkaline cleaners. Solvent Cleaning is used primarily to remove oil, grease, dirt, soil, drawing compounds, and other similar organic compounds.

SSPC-SP6, COMMERCIAL BLAST CLEANING The most common type of blast cleaning should be employed for all general purposes where a high, but not perfect, degree of blast cleaning is required. It will remove all rust, mill scale, and other detrimental matter from at least two-thirds of the surface area. The advantage of Commercial Blast Cleaning lies in the lower cost for satisfactory surface preparation for the majority of cases where blast cleaning is believed to be necessary. If the cleaning done according to this specification is likely to result in a surface unsatisfactory for severe service, then Near-White Blast Cleaning (SSPC-SP10) or White-Metal Blast Cleaning (SSPC-SP5) should be specified. Meets requirements of NACE Standard #3.

SSPC-SP2, HAND TOOL CLEANING Hand Tool Cleaning is an acceptable method of surface preparation for normal atmospheric exposures, for interiors, and for maintenance painting when using paints with good wetting ability. This specification includes hand chipping, scraping, sanding, and wire brushing. Hand Tool Cleaning is used primarily to remove loose rust, loose mill scale, and loose paint after all oil, grease, and salts are removed as specified in SSPC-SP1, Solvent Cleaning.*

SSPC-SP7, BRUSH-OFF BLAST CLEANING This method of blast cleaning should be used when the environment is mild enough to permit tight mill scale, paint, and minor amounts of tight rust and other foreign matter to remain on the surface. The surface resulting from this method of surface preparation should be free of all loose mill scale and loose rust with the small amount of remaining rust serving as an integral part of the surface. Brush-off Blast Cleaning is not intended for very severe surroundings. It is generally intended to supplant Power Tool Cleaning where facilities are available for blast cleaning. Meets requirements of NACE Standard #4.

SSPC-SP3, POWER TOOL CLEANING Power Tool Cleaning provides a better foundation for the priming paint than Hand Tool Cleaning. This specification includes power tool chipping, descaling, sanding, wire brushing, and grinding. Power Tool Cleaning is used primarily to remove loose rust, loose mill scale, and loose paint after all oil, grease, and salts are removed as specified in SSPC-SP1 Solvent Cleaning.

SSPC-SP10, NEAR-WHITE BLAST CLEANING This type of blast cleaning is generally employed for all general-purpose applications where a high degree of blast cleaning is required to remove all rust, mill scale, and other detrimental matter from at least 95% of the surface area. Exposures include high humidity, chemical atmosphere, marine, or other corrosive environments. Blast cleaning to near-white metal was developed to fill the need for a grade of blast cleaning beyond that of Commercial (SSPC-SP6) but less than White Metal (SSPC-SP5). The advantage of Near - White Blast Cleaning lies in the lower cost for surface preparation that is satisfactory for all but the most severe service conditions. Meets requirements of NACE Standard #2.

SSPC-SP5, WHITE-METAL BLAST CLEANING This blast cleaning method is generally used for exposures in very corrosive atmospheres and for immersion service where the highest degree of cleaning is required and a high surface preparation cost is warranted. Blast cleaning by wheel or nozzle (dry or wet) using sand, grit, or shot to white metal will result in high performance of the paint systems due to the complete removal of all rust, mill scale, and foreign matter or contaminants from the surface. In ordinary atmospheres and general use, White-Metal Blast Cleaning is seldom warranted. Meets requirements of NACE Standard #1.

* nybs standard surface preparation is a high-pressure chemical wash followed by SSPC-SP2 - Hand Tool Cleaning or SSPCSP3 - Power Tool Cleaning as required.

Form 60 7 GAW

The New York Blower Company 7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook , Illinois 60521-5530

ENGINEERING LETTER

18

CORROSION RESISTANCE OF FRP FANS

INTRODUCTION Process applications involve a wide variety of corrosive gas streams. Selecting the best materials of construction for air handling equipment can be difficult. This Engineering Letter provides information about the corrosion resistance of the resins used to manufacture standard nyb FRP fans. GAS STREAM TYPES Fumes are the dry vapors evolved from acids, solvents, etc. An example is the dry acid vapor scavenged from a process using acid. As a generalization, fumes are not as corrosive as aerosols. Aerosols are suspensions of liquids or solids in a gas stream. For the purpose of this discussion, aerosols are considered as being wet. Water as fog is an example of an aerosol. Another example is the mist of acid present in air scavenged from a process where acid is being used as a spray wash. As a generalization for the purpose of estimating corrosiveness, aerosols in fan-driven systems can be considered as being dilute concentrations of the chemicals composing the aerosols. An example of the distinction between fumes and aerosols is a system where sulfuric acid fumes are collected by hoods and scrubbed. The dry fumes entering the scrubber could be quite concentrated but have a relatively mild corrosive effect on the hood and duct material. On the other hand, the wet gas down stream from the scrubber could be quite dilute but more corrosive because of the scrubbers converting the fumes to an aerosol. CORROSION-RESISTANCE GUIDE The corrosion-resistance guide presented in this Engineering Letter is adapted from the literature published by the manufacturers of the resins used in the standard construction of nyb FRP fans. The guide provides data for aerosols being handled in fan-system gas streams. Data for chemicals that are potentially damaging as aerosols are marked fumes only. Where the user is unsure of the nature of the chemicals involved, or of the corrosive effect of the combination of chemicals involved, it is advisable to insert resin test coupons, as well as coupons of possible alternate materials of construction, into the gas stream for observation. TYPES OF RESIN USED BY nyb All polyesters and vinyl esters are corrosion resistant to some degree. The resins used by nyb are at the highly resistant end of the scale of corrosion resistance. (The opposite end from generalpurpose resins, sometimes called boat resins.) Standard FRP construction consists of Hetron 92FR, a good chemical-duty grade of polyester made by Ashland Chemical Company, for the housing and all non-rotating parts. Wheels are made of Derakane 510A40, a top-quality chemical-duty vinyl ester made by Dow Chemical Company. (See separate Engineering Letter for a full description of nyb resins.) All-vinyl ester airstream construction consists of all FRP parts being made from Derakane 510A40. SURFACE VEIL Standard nyb construction does not include the use of surface veil. Years of service prove this construction to be cost-effective and functionally successful. However, the general approach to the design of most FRP chemical-process equipment, such as storage tanks, is to use surface veil. Therefore, the ASTM standard specification for FRP Fans and Blowers, D4167, calls for a layer of surface veil on the inner surface of the fan housing. If required, nyb will construct a fan with synthetic veil on the housing airstream surfaces to meet ASTM D4167. Synthetic veil such as Nexus, a polyester veil made by Precision Fabrics Group, Inc. and used exclusively by nyb, is advantageous in helping to build a relatively thick surface layer (approximately 10 mils) that protects the glass structure from attack by chemicals that are particularly aggressive toward glass. Where the use of synthetic veil is advisable, the corrosion-resistance guide is so noted. For more information on surface veil and its uses, refer to Engineering Letter 21. CUSTOMER RESPONSIBILITY nyb will provide quality FRP construction using either of the above resin types as specified by the customer. This Engineering Letter and any discussions between nyb representatives and the customer should not be construed as a warranty of material suitability for a particular application. The system designer should have sufficient knowledge of, or experience with, the application to select the appropriate resin or alternate material.

Derakane is a registered trademark of Dow Chemical Company Hetron is a registered trademark of Ashland, Inc. Nexus is a registered trademark of Precision Fabrics Group, Inc.

CORROSION-RESISTANCE GUIDE TO FUME AND AEROSOL CONTAMINATED AIR FOR nyb FRP CONSTRUCTION AND ASSORTED METALS FRP
Stan dard FRP Con st ruction All-vinyl Ester Airstre am Ca rbon Steel

Metals
3 04 Sta inless Ste el 3 16 Sta inless Ste el Hastelloy C-276

FRP
Stan dard FRP Con st ruction All-vinyl Ester Airstre am Ca rbon Steel

Metals
3 04 Sta inless Ste el 3 16 Sta inless Ste el Hastelloy C-276

Aluminum

Mone l

Acetaldehyde Acetic Acid Acetic Acid, Glacial Acetic: HCl: H2O Acetic Acid: HCl Acetic: H2O 2 Acetic Anhydride Acetone Acetyl Chloride Acetylene Acrylic Acid Acrylonitrile Aerosol , Wetting Agent Almond Oil Aluminum Acetate Aluminum Chloride (dry) Aluminum Fluoride Aluminum Sulfate Ammonia Ammonium Carbonate Ammonium Chloride Ammonium Hydroxide Ammonium Nitrate Ammonium Persulfate Ammonium Sulfate Ammonium Sulfite Amyl Acetate Amyl Alcohol Aniline Aniline Sulfate Anthracene Oil Antimony Pentachloride Antimony Trichloride Aqua Regia (HNO3 - HCl) Arsenious Acid Barium Carbonate Barium Chloride Barium Hydroxide Beer Benzaldehyde Benzene Benzene, Sulfonic Acid Benzoic Acid Benzoyl Chloride Benzyl Alcohol Benzyl Chloride Boric Acid Bromine, Dry Gas Bromine, Moist Gas Butane Butyl Acetate Butyl Alcohol Butyl Hypochlorite Butylene Glycol Butylene Oxide Butyric Acid Calcium Chlorate Calcium Chloride

R* n R N R R R N N N T R N R R T T RV n R R* R* R R*V R R R R Rn Rn N R R R R R R R R N Rn N N R R N N N R R R T R* T X R N R R R

R*n R N R R R N R R T R R R R R R RVn R R R R RV R R R R R Rn N R R R R R R R R Rn R R* N R R R N R* R R R T R* Rn X R N R R R

N N N N N N N R N R* N R* T R* T N N N R* R* N N N N N N N R* N N T N N N N R* N N N N N N N N R* N N N N R N R* T T T T T N

R* R* R* N N N R R N R T R* T R R* R* R* N R R N R* N R* R* N R R* N N T N N N N N N N R R* R* N R* T R* N R* N N R* T R* T T T R* T R*

R R* R* N N N R* R R R R R T R R N N R R R R R R R R* R* R R R T T N N N R R R R* R R* R R* R R R N R N N R R R T T T R R R*

R R R N N N R R R R R R T R R R* N R R R R R R R R* R R R R T T N N N R R R R* R* R R* R R R R* R N N R R R T T T R R R*

R* R* R R* R* R* R* R R* R* T R* T R* R R* R* R* R* R R* N R* N R* R* R R R* T T T T T T T RT R* R T R* T R T R R* R* T N R T T T T T R* R* R

R R R R* R* R* R R R R* N R* T R* R R R* R R* R T T T T R* R R R R* T T T T N R* R* R* R* R R R* R* R* T R* N R R R R* T R* T T T R R R

Calcium Hydroxide Calcium Hypochlorite Calcium Sulfate Carbon Dioxide Carbon Disulfide Vapor Carbon Tetrachloride Cascade Solution Chlorine Dioxide Chlorine Gas, Dry Chlorine Gas, Wet Chloroacetic Acid Chlorobenzene Chlorofluorocarbon Chloroform Chlorosulfonic Acid Chlorotoluene Chrome-Plating Bath Chromic Acid Chromic Acid + Sulfuric Citric Acid Cooling Towers Copper Chloride Copper Cyanide Copper Nitrate Copper Oxychloride Copper Sulfate Cyclohexane DDT, Insecticide Solution Dichlorobenzene Dichloroethylene Dichlorophenoxyacetic Dichloropropane Dichlorotoluene Diesel Fuel Diethyl Ether Diethyl Glycol Diethyl Ketone Diethyl Maleate: Water Diethylbenzene Diisobutyl Ketone Diisobutylene Dimethyl Sulfide Dimethyl Sulfoxide Dimethylformamide Dimethylamine Dipropylene Glycol Divinyl Benzene Dodecene Dodecylbenzenesulfonic Acid: H2SO4: H 2O: oil Esters, Fatty Acid Ethanol Chloride Ether Ethyl Acetate Ethyl Alcohol Ethyl Acrylate Ethyl Benzene Ethyl Chloride

TV X R R R* R R T RV RV R* N R N N N R* R R R R R R R R R R R N N R* N N R N R N R T N T N R* R* R* R T N R R N R* N R N N R*

RV X R R R* R R R RV RV R* N R R* N R* R R R R R R R R R R R R N N Rn N Rn R N R N R R N R N R* R* R* R R R R R R R* R R N Rn R*

N N N R* R* R* R* N R* N N R* T N R* N N N N N T N N N N N R* T R* N T T N R R* R* T T N T T T T N T T T T T N T R* R* R* N N R*

N N R* R R N R* R* N N N R* T R* R* N N R* N R* T N N N N N R* T R* R* T T N R R* R* T T T T T T T R R T T T T R T R* R* R* R* R* R*

R* N R* R R* R* R N R* N R* R* T R N N R* R* N R T N R R N R R* T R* R* T T N R R* R T T N T T T T R* R T T T T R* T R R R R* N R

R R* R* R R* R R N R* N R R* T R N R* R* R R* R T N R R N R R* T R* R* T T T R R* R T T T T T T T R* R T T T T R* T R R R R* R* R

R N R* R* R* R T T R N R* R* T R R* R* N R* R* R* T N N N N N R T R* R* T T T R* R* R* T T T T T T T R* T T T T T R* T R* R* R* R* R* R*

Mone l

Corrosive Agent

Corrosive Agent

Aluminum

R R R* R R* R R* R R R R R T R R N R R R R T R* R R R* R R* T R R* T T N R* R* R* T T T T T T T T T T T T T R T R* R* R R R R*

These compounds are normally solids; considered here as being water solutions. R - Recommended R* - Recommended for fumes only. Care must be taken to prevent formation of condensate on wheel or in housing T - Test data not available V - Surface Veil required D - Double layer of surface veil required
Aerosol is a registered trademark of American Cyanamid Co.

120F. maximum N - Not recommended X - Consult New York Blower

Page 2

CORROSION-RESISTANCE GUIDE TO FUME AND AEROSOL CONTAMINATED AIR FOR nyb FRP CONSTRUCTION AND ASSORTED METALS FRP Metals FRP
30 4 Stainle ss Stee l 31 6 Stainle ss Stee l Hastello y C-27 6 Stan dard FRP Co nstruction All-vin yl Ester Airstrea m Stan dard FRP Co nstruction All-vin yl Ester Airstrea m Ca rbo n Steel Ca rbo n Steel

Metals
30 4 Stainle ss Stee l 31 6 Stainle ss Stee l Hastello y C-27 6

Aluminum

Monel

Ethyl Ether Ethylene Chlorohydrin Ethylenediamine Tetra Acetic Acid Ethylene Dibromide Ethylene Dichloride Ethylene Glycol Ethylene Oxide Fatty Acids Ferric Chloride Ferric Nitrate Ferric Sulfate Ferrous Chloride Ferrous Sulfate Flue Gas, (wet) Fluoboric Acid Fluorine Gas Fluosilicic Acid Fluosulfonic Acid Formaldehyde Formic Acid Fuel Oil Fungicides Fungus, 95% Relative Humidity Furfural Gasoline Gasoline, Aviation Glycerine Glycolic Acid Heptane Hexane Hexachlorocyclopentadiene Hexachloroethane Hexamethylenetetramine Hydrazine Hydrochloric Acid Fumes Hydrochloric Acid + Free Cl 2 Hydrocyanic Acid Hydrofluoric Acid Hydrogen Hydrogen Bromide Hydrogen Chloride Hydrogen Fluoride Hydrogen Peroxide Hydrogen Sulfide Hydroxyacetic Acid Hypochlorous Acid Insecticides Iodine Iron Perchloride Isobutyl Alcohol Isopropyl Alcohol Isopropyl Amine Kerosene Lactic Acid Lead Acetate Leather Dyeing & Finishing

N R N N N R N R R R R R R R RV N RV R* R R R R Rn R* n R R R R R R R N R N RD RD R R*D R R R R*V R R R R R R* R T T T R R R R

R* R Rn R* N R N R R R R R R R RV RDn RV R R R R R R R*n R R R R R R R N R N RD RD R RD R R R RV n R R R R R R R R Rn R R R R R

R* R* R* R* R* R* R* R* R* R* R* R* T T T T T T N R* R* R* N N N N N N N R* N N T R* N R* T T R* R R R* N R* R* T T T T N N N N R N N N N R* N N T N T T R* T R* N N T R* R* R R* R N N N N R* R* N R N T R* N R* T T R R R R R* R R T T T T N N R N R N N N R R* R* N T R T T R* T R R* N R R* R R* R* R* N R R* N R* T R* R N T R R* R T T R* R R R R* R R T T T R N N R* N R N N N R R* R* N T N T T R T R R* R* R R* R R* R* R* N R R N R* R* R R R* T R R R T T R* R R R R* R R T T T R N N R N R N N N R R R* N T N T T R T R R R* R R* R R* R* R* N N R* N R* T R* R R T R R* R* T T R* R R R R* R* R* T T T T R* R* R R R N R* R R* R* R* N T R* T T R* T R* N R* T R* R* R R R R* R* R R* R* R R R* R* T R* R R T T R* R R R R* R R T T T T R R R R* R R* R R* R R R* R* T R T T R T R* R* R* R*

Linseed Oil Lithium Carbonate Lithium Chloride Lithium Hydroxide Lithium Hypochlorite Magnesium Carbonate Magnesium Chloride Magnesium Sulfate Malathion Maleic Acid Mercapto Acetic Acid Mercuric Chloride Mercurous Chloride Mercury Methacrylic Acid Methyl Alcohol Methyl Bromide Methyl Chloride Methyl Ethyl Ketone Methylene Chloride Mineral Oil Monochloroacetic Acid Monochlorobenzene Monoethanolamine Naphtha Naphthalene Nickel Chloride Nickel Nitrate Nickel Sulfate Nitric, Red Fuming Nitric Acid Nitrobenzene Nitrogen p-Nitrotoluene Sulfonic Acid Nitrous Acid Nut Oil, Ground Oakite Stripper SA Oleic Acid Oleoparathion Oleum Olive Oil Oxalic Acid Oxidizing Gases Ozone Palmitic Acid Parathion, Wet Perchloroethylene Perchloric Acid Petroleum Ether Phenol Phenol, Sulfonic Acid Phosphate Salts Phosphoric Acid Phosphorous Acid Phosphorous Oxychloride Phosphorous Trichloride Phthalic Acid Phthalic Anhydride

R N R N X R R R R R N R R R R R* R* Rn N N R R* N N R R R R R N R N R R* Rn R R R R N R R R T R R R* Rn R N N R R R N N R R

R RV R RV X R R R R R N R R R R R* R* R N N R R* N N R R R R R R* R N R R R R R R R N R R R R* R R R R* R N N R R R T N R R

R* T R* N T N N R* T N T N N R* T R* R* N R* R* R* N R* R* R* R* N N N N N R* R T N R* T R* T R* R N T N N T R* N R* R* T N N R* N R* N R*

R* T N N T R* N R* T R* T N N N T R* N N R* R* R* N R* R* R R N N N R N R* R T N R T R T R* R R* T R* R* T R* N R R T R* N R* R* N R* R

R T R R* T R N R* T R* T N N R R R R* R R R* R R R* R R R R* R R* R R R* R T R* R T R T R* R R T R* R* T R N R R R R R* R N R R* R

R T R R* T R R* R* T R* T N N R R R R* R R R* R R R* R R R R R R* R R R* R T R R T R T R* R R T R* R T R N R R R R R R N R R R

R* T R R* T R* R* R T R* T N N R* T R* T R* R* R* R T R* R* R* R* R* R* R* N N R* R T N R* T R T N R* R* T R* R* T R N R R T R* R* R R* T R* R

Monel

Corrosive Agent

Corrosive Agent

Aluminum

R* T R R* T R* R R* T R* T R* R* R N R T R* R R R* R R* R* R* R* R R* R* R* R R* R T T R* T R T R R R* T T R* T R* R* R R* T R R R R* R* R* R

These compounds are normally solids; considered here as being water solutions. R - Recommended 120F. maximum R* - Recommended for fumes only. Care must be taken to prevent formation of condensate on wheel or in housing N - Not recommended T - Test data not available V - Surface Veil required D - Double layer of surface veil required X - Consult New York Blower
Aerosol is a registered trademark of American Cyanamid Co.

Page 3

CORROSION-RESISTANCE GUIDE TO FUME AND AEROSOL CONTAMINATED AIR FOR nyb FRP CONSTRUCTION AND ASSORTED METALS FRP
Sta nda rd FRP Co nstruction All-vinyl Ester Airstrea m Carb on S teel

Metals
3 04 Stainless Ste el 3 16 Stainless Ste el Hastelloy C-27 6

FRP
Sta nda rd FRP Co nstruction All-vinyl Ester Airstrea m Carb on S teel

Metals
3 04 Stainless Ste el 3 16 Stainless Ste el Hastelloy C-27 6

Alumin um

Mo nel

Picric Acid in Alcohol Polychlorocyclohexane Polyvinyl Acetate Emulsions Polyvinyl Alcohol Polyvinylidene Chloride Potassium Bicarbonate Potassium Carbonate Potassium Chloride Potassium Cyanide Potassium Dichromate Potassium Ferrocyanide Potassium Hydroxide Potassium Nitrate Potassium Permanganate Potassium Persulfate Potassium Sulfate Propionic Acid Propionyl Chloride Propylene Glycol Pulp and Paper Mill Blow Down Gases Pyridine Rayon Spin Bath Selenious Acid Sewage Treatment Silver Nitrate Sodium Acetate Sodium Benzoate Sodium Bicarbonate Sodium Bisulfate Sodium Bisulfite Sodium Borate Sodium Bromide Sodium Carbonate Sodium Chloride Sodium Chloride, pH 10.5 Cl2 Sat. Sodium Chlorite Sodium Cyanide Sodium Dichromate Sodium Ferricyanide Sodium Hydroxide Sodium Hypochlorite Sodium Nitrate Sodium Sulfate Sodium Sulfide Sodium Sulfite Sodium Xylenesulfonate Stannic Chloride Stannous Fluoride: Hydrofluoric Acid Stearic Acid Styrene

R* R R R R R*V R*V R N R R N R R R R Rn N R RVn N R T R R R R RV R R R R RV R R* R T R R RVn X R R Rn R R R N R R*

R* R R R R RV RV R R*n R R RDn R R R R R T R RV N R R R R R R RV R R R R RV R R R R R R RV X R R R R R R RVn R R*

N T N N T R* R* R* R* R* R* R* N R* T R* T T R* T R* N N N N N T N N N N N R* N N N R* R* T R* N R* R* R* R* T N N

N T T T T N N N N R R* N R* R T R* T T R* T R* T N R* N R R R* N N R* N N N N T N R* R N N R R N R* T N N

R* T R T T R* R* R* R R R* R R* R T R T T R* T R* N T R* R R* T R R* R* R* R* R R* N R* R R* R* R N R R R* R T N N

R* T R T T R* R* R R R R* R R* R R* R R* T R* T R* R* T R* R R* T R R* R* R* R* R R N R R R* R* R N R R R R T N N

N T T T T R* R* R R* R* R* R R* N T R N T R* T R* T N T N R* R* R R* R* R* R* R* R N T N T R* R N R* R R* R* T N T

R* T T T T R* R* R R* R* R* R R* R R R R T R* T R* R* T R* R* R R* R R* R* R R* R R R R* R* R R R* R* R* R R* R* T R* T

N R* R* R R* R R R

R* R T N

Sulfamic Acid Sulfated Detergents Sulfate Liquors Sulfite Liquors Sulfur, Wettable, Fungicide Sulfur Dichloride Sulfur Dioxide Sulfur Trioxide Sulfuric Acid Sulfuric Acid: Phosphoric Acid Sulfuric: Nitric Acids Sulfurous Acid Sulfuryl Chloride Sweet Oil Tannic Acid Tar Camphor Tartaric Acid Tetrachloroethane Tetrachloropyridine Tetrapotassium Pyrophosphate Thionyl Chloride Tin, Molten, Fumes Toluene Toluene Sulfonic Acid Tolyl Chloride Trichloroacetaldehyde Trichloroacetic Acid Trichloroethane Trichloroethylene Trichloromonofluoromethane Trichlorophenol Triethanolamine Trimethylene Chlorobromide Trisodium Phosphate Turpentine Urea Urotropine Vinegar Vinyl Chloride Vinyl Toluene Waste, Organic, H2O, HCl, Cl2 Vapors Water, Deionized Water, Demineralized Water, Distilled Water, Sea Water, Steam Condensate Xylene Zinc Chloride Zinc Hydrosulfite

R* R R R R R R* Rn R R R R* N R R R R T T R N R R R* N N R N N TV N T N R N T R R N T RVn R R R R R N R R

R* R R R R R R R R R R R* R R R R R R* Rn R N R R R RV R R Rn R* RVn T R N R R R R R N R RVn R R R R R R* R R

N N N N N N R* R* N N N N T R N R* N R* T T N N R T T T N T R* T T R* T R* R* R* T N T T N N N N N R* R* N N

N N N N R N R* R* N N N R* R* R N R R* N T T N N R T T T N N R* T T R* T N R* R* T R* R* T N R* R* N R* R* R N N

T T R* R* R N R* R* N N N N T R R* R R R* T T N N R T T T N R* R* T T R* T R* R R* T R R* T N N R R* R* R R N R

R* T R* R* R R* R* R* R* R* R* R* T R R R R R T T N N R T T T N R* R* T T R* T R* R R* T R R* T N R* R R* R* R R R* R

T T R* N R N R* R* R* R* N N R* R* R* R* R* T T T R* T R T T T R* T R T T R* T R* R R* T R* T T N T T N R* R* R* R* T

Mo nel

Corrosive Agent

Corrosive Agent

Alumin um

T T R* R R R* R* R* R* R* R* R* R R R* R* R* R T T T R R T T T R* R R T T R* T R R* R* T R R* T R R* R* R R R R R* T

These compounds are normally solids; considered here as being water solutions. R - Recommended 120F. maximum R* - Recommended for fumes only. Care must be taken to prevent formation of condensate on wheel or in housing N - Not recommended T - Test data not available V - Surface Veil required D - Double layer of surface veil required X - Consult New York Blower
Aerosol is a registered trademark of American Cyanamid Co.

Form 607 GAW

ENGINEERING LETTER 19
The New York Blower Company 7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60521-5530

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF nyb FRP FANS

INTRODUCTION Fiberglass-reinforced plastic (FRP) made from chemical-grade polyester or vinyl ester resin resists corrosion as well as, or in some cases better than, high-priced materials such as titanium or high-nickel alloys. In general, FRP (also known as RTP, or reinforced-thermoset plastic) is widely used in handling the fumes of acids and of many inorganic and organic chemicals where service temperatures do not exceed 250F. COMMON USES FOR FRP FANS Potential applications for FRP fans include any process in which corrosive fumes must be captured, moved, cleaned, or vented. FRP fans are most often used in fume-scrubber systems where the scrubber itself may be constructed of FRP or an exotic alloy, but where FRP is the preferred fan material. Galvanizing and etching processes often have FRP exhaust hoods and ducts, and many of the fans used to convey fumes in such systems are also built of FRP. Wastewater-treatment plants and laboratory exhaust systems are other applications for which FRP fans are being used with increasing frequency. When FRP is the selected material for an air-handling system, it is logical that the fan also be made of FRP. For example, the acids used in the pickling of stainless steel are necessarily those that attack stainless steel. In such a system, the acid-holding tanks, fume-control hoods, ducts, scubbers, and fans are often made of FRP because FRP resists acid corrosion and costs less than metal alloys having comparable resistance. In summary, FRP fans may be an economical alternative to stainless steel or other metal-alloy fans when corrosion is a concern and temperature is below 250F. In addition to the economic advantage, FRP fans often provide better performance than special alloys in handling airstreams that are particularly corrosive to metals. COMPARISON OF FRP FANS TO FANS OF OTHER MATERIALS A comparison of the corrosion resistance and economics of fans made of various materials leads to these generalizations: Coated steel fans vary greatly in the degree of corrosion protection provided and cost. Coatings run the scale from little-different-than-ordinary machinery enamel to baked-on phenolics applied to sandblasted metal. Costs for coated fans run from about one-third that of FRP fans for the least-resistant coated-steel fans to about half the cost for the baked phenoliccoated fans.
Monel is a registered trademark of Inco Alloys International, Inc. Hastelloy is a registered trademark of Haynes International, Inc. Derakane is a registered trademark of Ashland, Inc

Coated fans, regardless of the inherent corrosion resistance of the coating, have the potential of coating failure and resultant rapid deterioration of the base metal. Failures occur when coatings are physically damaged, and when corrosive attack permeates the coating to attack the metal. Refer to Engineering Letter 16 for additional information on corrosion-resistant coatings for fan equipment. Stainless steel is susceptible to attack by chlorides and resultant physical failure by stress cracking. Residential hotwater heaters are never made of stainless steel because the combination of small amounts of chlorine in the water, modest temperatures, and the stresses caused by changes in water pressure results in rapid failure of the stainless steel. As noted earlier, stainless steel is also much more susceptible to corrosive attack by most acids than is FRP. Refer to Engineering Letter 14 for additional information on the use of stainless steel in fan construction. Costs for fans made of 3 16L stainless vary from about threefourths that of FRP fans for small Class I fans to almost twice the price of FRP fans for large Class III fans. Fans made of Monel , titanium, and the high-nickel alloys may be more or less corrosion resistant than FRP depending on the chemistry and temperature involved. Figure 1 shows the effect of simultaneously submerging a coupon of a high-nickel alloy (Hastelloy C-276), 316 stainless steel and FRP (Derakane 510A40) in a bath of nitric and hydrochloric acid (aqua regia). While the 316 stainless was destroyed and the 276 alloy severely corroded, the FRP was untouched. The cost of fans made of such alloys is usually several times the cost of fans made of FRP.

Figure 1 - High-nickel, stainless, and FRP coupon in bath of nitric and hydrochloric acid.

Fans made of rigid polyvinyl chloride (PVC) have good allaround corrosion resistance and generally cost less than fans made of FRP. However, PVC has two significant physical weaknesses that severely limit its use in fans: PVC becomes quite brittle at temperatures below freezing, and PVC loses its strength so rapidly with increasing temperatures that even ordinary summer rooftop operating conditions are marginal. Wheels sag and go out of balance and strike housings. PVC is a thermoplastic material that remembers ~ its original shape at about 150F., and needs to reach only about 300F. for it to have the zero strength needed for vacuum forming. Numerous users have disavowed the use of PVC fans because of their experiences with failures resulting from PVC's lowtemperature brittleness and high-temperature weakness. The use of PVC equipment involves some safety considerations as well. PVC does not burn, but because it is a low-temperature thermoplastic it collapses early in a fire and will drip molten PVC. Thus, rather than containing a potential fire within the duct system, as fire-retardant FRP will do, PVC tends to expand the fire into other areas, even though it is not inherently combustible. In addition, PVC releases highly toxic hydrochloric acid fumes when exposed to flame even though it is a self-extinguishing material. PVC, like FRP, is an insulating material and inherently sparkresistant. However, unlike FRP, it cannot be made electrically conductive to control static electricity. UNDERSTANDING FRP The term FRP describes a broad spectrum of fiber-reinforced plastic materials. For example, cabinets for office machines might be made of non-corrosion-resistant plastics reinforced with mica and loosely called FRP. However, the FRP used in making process vessels and equipment such as fans is composed of about 30% by weight of glass or other fibers that have been given a coating (sizing) to enhance their bonding with the resin, and about 70% by weight of corrosion-resistant polyester or vinyl ester resin. The fibers provide physical strength, and the resin provides the corrosion resistance and rigidity that make FRP a workable solid. Sometimes, non-glass-fiber materials are used in FRP to impart special properties. For example, graphite fibers add tensile strength, and aramid fibers (Kevlar add toughness. But FRP for process equipment usually has glass fibers because they are more economical and easier to work with; graphite fibers, for example, are more difficult to handle and do not bond as well as glass.
)

Chopped-strand mat, consisting of Type E glass of 1 1/2 ounces per square foot in weight, is used in hand lay-up of housings and Fume Exhauster wheel blades among other products. Castings such as FPB and RFE wheels and seal housings are made with chopped fibers. Milled fibers are primarily used to make putty for filling cracks, turning sharp angles into smooth radii, and encapsulating wheel hubs. The corrosion resistance of FRP depends on the resin. Resins used in FRP for process equipment are formulated for maximum corrosion resistance, and are consequently two or three times as costly as those used in everyday products such as boat hulls or auto body parts. FRP fan manufacturers normally use two types of resin in the construction of their products. Polyester is the resin of choice for non-moving components such as housings and inlet cones because it provides excellent corrosion resistance for most FRP applications at a relatively low cost. Unfortunately, this type of resin cannot withstand the dynamic stresses inherent in rotating parts such as wheels. Therefore, FRP wheel construction dictates the use of vinyl ester resins which are much stronger and more flexible than polyester resins. The strength and elasticity of vinyl ester resins enable FRP wheels to achieve maximum safe speeds comparable to similarsized steel wheels at 70F. As with steel and other alloys, the strength and flexibility of vinyl ester is compromised at elevated temperatures, resulting in safe speed derate factors above 150F. Refer to specific product bulletins for maximum safe speeds and applicable derate factors. FIRE RETARDANCE OF FRP RESINS Since many FRP applications involve a mixture of combustible chemicals and air, nyb FRP fans are made of fire-retardant resins. Fire retardance is measured by the ASTM E-84 test method, which determines flame spread ratings~ by comparing the rate at which flame spreads when material is fired in a long, narrow furnace with flowing air. (The test is also called the tunnel test~ and is recognized by Underwriters' Laboratory and the National Fire Protection Association.) Completely incombustible materials, such as cement board, are rated zero flame spread. Red oak is used as the comparative value of a combustible material and is rated at 100. A flamespread rating of 25 or lower is considered non-combustible. (Resin systems rated at 25 or less are often referred to as Class I.) A flame-spread rating of 50 means that the material will gradually, but steadily, extinguish itself. (Resin systems rated at 26 to 50 are often referred to as Class II. Class III and IV denote less fire-resistant ratings.) Resins for chemical duty can be made fire retardant by formulating the resins to include adequate molecularly bound halogens, such as chlorine or bromine, or by the use of smaller amounts of halogens but with the addition of antimony trioxide. The first method is more costly but provides a clear resin that improves quality control of the product being manufactured since the workers and the inspectors can see into the finished

Glass fibers are available in a variety of forms, including continuous -strand roving, woven roving, continuous -strand mat, chopped-strand mat, chopped fibers, and milled fibers. nyb uses all of the above except woven roving and continuousstrand mat in the construction of its FRP products. Continuous-strand roving is used in the chopper guns for spray-molding of non-moving parts such as housings, inlet cones, inlet boxes, damper frames, and outlet transitions.
Kevlar is a registered trademark of E.I. DuPont De Nemours & Company

Page 2

product. Antimony trioxide is a white pigment which produces an opaque product that reduces the ability to visually check product quality. Further, antimony additives can reduce the corrosion resistance and strength of the resin. nyb uses resins that are fire retardant without the use of antimony trioxide. STANDARD nyb RESINS Housings and other non-moving parts are made with an Ashland Chemical Company resin, Hetron 92FR. This is a chlorendic, halogenated polyester resin known for its ease of fabrication. It is well suited for high temperature applications, and is highly fire retardant with an ASTM E-84 tunnel test rating of 25 or less, meeting requirements for ASTM E-84 Class I performance. This satisfies the most stringent concern for the containment of ventilation-system fires. Hetron 92FR is a clear resin that does not require the use of antimony trioxide to achieve its rating. The clarity makes it possible to maintain extremely high standards of quality control. All nyb FRP wheels are made with Derakane 510A40, a brominated epoxy vinyl ester resin manufactured by Ash-land Chemical Company. This resin offers the flexibility, low shrinkage, and excellent secondary bonding necessary to withstand the vibrational stress and fatigue of dynamic loading inherent in rotating wheels. Derakane 510A40 has an ASTM E-84 tunnel test rating of 25, offering Class I fire retardance without the use of additives which could compromise its superior toughness and corrosion resistance. As with Hetron 92FR, the clarity of Derakane 510A40 enables the fabricator and inspectors to locate and eliminate air inclusions in the laminate, thus maintaining high standards of quality control of a critical fan component. Since additives tend to adversely affect a resin's chemical resistance, nyb FRP products do not contain ultraviolet (UV) inhibitors. These additives have a tendency to inhibit resin cure and lose their effectiveness after long exposure to ultraviolet radiation. In order to prevent UV degradation, nyb applies a coating to the exterior surfaces of all FRP components. Years of successful outdoor service prove that this method of protection is superior to adding UV inhibitors to the resin.

Corrosion resistance is the main concern when selecting a resin. nyb's standard housing resin has very good corrosion resistance to a broad spectrum of corrosive environments. When necessary, the entire FRP airstream may be constructed of the more corrosion-resistant vinyl ester resin. The data on corrosion resistance to various chemicals, presented in Engineering Letter 18, were derived from tests of these resins. CONSTRUCTION OF FRP FANS The fabrication of FRP is similar to the casting of metal. A pattern is used to make a mold for the FRP part. In a fan, the airstream surfaces of the housing should be smooth to minimize resistance and prevent build-up of airborne contaminants. Thus, male molds are required rather than female ones. The smooth outside surface of the mold shapes the inside surface of the housing. Parts made with male molds must be removable, so FRP fan housings are usually made in two halves with matching flanges. In larger fans, these two halves are bonded together by means of FRP filler between the flanges, as shown in Figure 2. A lamination laid over the joint on the inside of the housing provides a smooth surface. The joined flanges form a ridge that adds rigidity to the housing. The inlet subassembly is bolted into place to allow access for installation of the wheel. Smaller FRP fan housings are also molded in halves, but they are typically bolted together as shown in Figure 3. Removing the inlet side of the housing allows installation or removal of the fan wheel. Fan wheel construction is also different for large and small FRP fans. Small wheels, such as nyb's Fiberglass Pressure Blower, are made by casting or press-forming in fully enclosed molds; Figure 4 shows an example. Larger wheels, such as nyb's Fume Exhauster, are made by assembling and bonding molded parts (wheel blades, frontplates, and backplates) with layers of laminate construction so as to make strong, smooth joints. See Figure 4. All FRP wheels are ovencured for several hours to improve physical strength and corrosion resistance of the FRP laminate.

Figure 2 - Fiberglass Fume Exhauster

Hetron is a registered trademark of Ashland, Inc.

Figure 3 - Fiberglass Pressure Blower

Figure 4 Fiberglass Pressure Blower wheel, upper leftFiberglass Fume Exhauster wheel, lower right

Page 3

Metal parts that are incorporated in the FRP parts, shafts, wheel hubs, and studs, are encapsulated in FRP so no metal is exposed to the gas stream. Shafts are encapsulated in an FRP sleeve that extends through a close-fitting opening in the side of the housing. (Shaft seals that can be lubricated are available as an option.) Bolts used to fasten smaller fan housing halves together are of 316 stainless steel. Neoprene foam gasketing is used between bolted housing subassemblies and under access doors, inspection ports, and shaft seal assemblies. FRP fan wheels are permanently bonded to the fan shafts, the shafts encapsulated in FRP, and the assembly balanced as a unit. After the fan is assembled it is test run as a final check to guarantee smooth operation. Exterior surfaces of completed nyb FRP fans are coated with gray epoxy enamel. APPLICABLE STANDARDS FOR FRP FANS The purchaser of FRP fans should consider the importance of two published standards: one, ASTM D4167, covers the construction of FRP fans; the other, AMCA Standard 210, describes how fans are to be tested for air performance. The AMCA Certified Ratings Program is the method by which manufacturers certify their products' aerodynamic performance. The ASTM standard is concerned with the structural reliability of the fan. If the fan in a fume-control system fails, the entire process may come to a halt. The importance of reliability has led to development of a standard for FRP fansAmerican Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) D4167, Standard Specification for Fiber-Reinforced Plastic Fans and Blowers. This standard defines minimum specifications for construction of major fan elements. Here are six of the details: 1. Fan housing construction must conform to the ASTM C582 specification which applies to all FRP process equipment. (nyb standard construction with optional veil complies with ASTM C582.) The same resin must be used throughout the housing unless the manufacturer and user agree to use different resins in different layers of the laminate. (nyb does not back up the corrosion barrier with less costly resin. nyb uses premium quality resin throughout.) The structural rigidity of the housing (or a prototype) is tested by running the fan with the inlet closed and the outlet open. Inward flexing may be no greater than 0.5% of the fan-wheel diameter. Fasteners, hubs, and shafts exposed to corrosives must be either corrosion resistant or encapsulated in a material that is. The ASTM standard prohibits the use of additives in fan wheel resins that obscure visual inspection of wheel parts, including the use of antimony trioxide. nyb standard construction provides fire retardance without the use of additives. Safe wheel operating speed is determined either by past experience or by destructive testingi.e., running the fan wheel at increasing speeds until it fails, and applying a safety factor to the failure speed.
Figure 5 - A graphite-impregnated FRP fan for spark resistance.

5.

Spark resistance. FRP is spark-resistant in the sense that contact of FRP parts does not generally produce sparks. However, FRP fans handling dry air can develop electrostatic charges on wheel and housing surfaces because FRP is a non-conductor. Still, an FRP fan can be made spark-resistant by incorporating graphite flakes in the wheel and housing airstream surfaces to make them conductive, and grounding the surface layers of the housing as shown in Figure 5. ASTM D4167 defines acceptable resistivity as no greater than 100 megohms between all points on the airstream surfaces and ground. Dynamic balance is achieved either by balancing the wheel-shaft assembly as a separate unit or by balancing the wheel once it is installed in the fan (nyb does both). Unbalance is corrected by adding FRP weights.

6.

The Air Movement and Control Association (AMCA) Certified Ratings Program is concerned with accurate performance ratings. The manufacturer submits published performance ratings to AMCA and fans for test in the AMCA Laboratory. Deviations are determined by plotting actual performance against the fan's cataloged performance . Manufacturers displaying the AMCA Certified Ratings Seal on their products, and in their literature, have agreed to a system of check testing in the AMCA Laboratory. If a product fails to perform within the tolerances specified by the program, the manufacturer must either republish the literature with correct ratings or republish without the seal.

2.

3.

4.

Fo r m 5 0 7 DJ K

ENGINEERING LETTER 20
The New York Blower Company 7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60527-5530

ACCESSORIES AND CONSTRUCTION MODIFICATIONS FOR FRP FANS

INTRODUCTION The applicability of corrosion-resistant FRP fans to a wider range of applications is enhanced through the use of accessories and construction modifications. The purpose of this Engineering Letter is to provide supplemental information concerning accessories and modifications that are unique to FRP fans. ACCESSORIES SHAFT SEALS are used where the standard close-clearance shaft opening is not deemed to be adequate. (Standard construction on nyb FRP fans have shaft openings fitted with Teflon membranes that have shaft holes 1/32" larger than the FRP shaft sleeves.) nybs standard shaft seal for FRP fans utilizes a pair of Viton lip seal elements pressed into an FRP casing. As an option, Teflon shaft seal elements can be provided for more corrosive applications. The seal assembly is secured to the fan housing with 316 stainless steel studs. The heads of the studs are encapsulated in FRP to eliminate exposure to airstream corrosives. See Figure 1.

Seals are recommended wherever corrosive or toxic gases are being handled, or when outside air is to be kept from entering the fan and contaminating a process. It is difficult to predict the conditions that increase leakage into or out of the fan around the shaft opening. However, as a general rule, higher positive or negative pressure differentials will result in greater leakage. OUTLET DAMPERS are designed to bolt directly to the outlet flange on FRP fans. RFE and FPB dampers are round, with one blade. FE and GFE dampers are rectangular, with parallel blades, and are available for MP fans only. See Figure 2. Casings and blades are constructed of Hetron 92 FR, as standard, with Derakane 51 0A40 available as an alternate. All damper parts are constructed of FRP except the 316 stainless steel control quadrant and hardware, and the corrosion-resistant, injection-molded bearings. Damper casing halves are bolted together to allow for easy replacement of damper vanes and bearings. All components can be disassembled except vanes from rods.

Because the seals must ride on a smooth, heat-conductive surface, the standard construction of the shaft encapsulated in FRP is not suitable. Therefore, the seal assembly includes the substitution of a 316 stainless steel sleeve for the standard FRP sleeve. As an option, Hastelloy C-276 sleeves are available for those cases where the corrosive environment makes stainless steel unacceptable. The seal assembly is lubricated with Never-Seez , a graphite compound.

Figure 1 - Photo of FRP shaft seal mounted and diagram illustrating lubricated lip seal elements.
Teflon and Viton are registered trademarks of E.I. DuPont de Nemours & Company. Hastelloy is a registered trademark of Haynes International, Inc. Hetron is a registered trademark of Ashland, Inc.

Figure 2 - Three types of FRP outlet dampers as manufactured by nyb.

Never-Seez is a registered trademark of Bostik. Derakane is a registered trademark of Ashland, Inc.

INLET BOXES are used to accomplish a 90 turn at the fan inlet when space is limited. Fan applications typically involve less than ideal connections between the fan and the process. When the connections cause other than straight, uniform flow into the fan inlet, the fan suffers performance losses beyond those determined by ordinary duct-resistance calculations or pressure drop measurements. (See Engineering Letter 5 for a description of the effects of inlet connections.) Therefore, it is advantageous to use nyb test-rated inlet boxes to reduce flow losses, and to make those losses predictable for inclusion in system design calculations. See Figure 3.

Inlet Boxes are available for Fume Exhausters and GeneralPurpose Fume Exhausters. See Figure 4. Construction of FRP inlet boxes is similar to that of FRP Fume Exhausters. Standard construction is with Hetron 92FR polyester resin, with Derakane 510A40 vinyl ester resin available as an option. Inlet boxes are made in two sections bolted together with 316 stainless steel hardware. THREADED FRP DRAIN with PVC plug, 1" npt, is bonded to the lowest point in the housing scroll. COMPANION FLANGES are available with FPB and RFE fans for those applications where a flexible or slip connection to the fan inlet and/or outlet is required. Companion flanges are commonly used on fans furnished with vibration isolation. INSPECTION PORTS are used for periodic maintenance checks on the wheel and the housing interior. They are available on all FRP fans, and are located on the drive side half of the housing (GFE and FE fans) or the inlet side half of the housing (FPB and RFE fans), at either the 2 o' clock or the 10 oclock position, opposite the fan discharge. RAISED BOLTED CLEANOUT DOORS are available on GFE and FE fans. They are located above the fan centerline at either the 2 oclock or the 10 oclock position, opposite the fan discharge. OUTLET TRANSITIONS provide for a rectangular-to-round transition on the outlets of various GFE and FE fan sizes. They are available on GFE and FE Sizes 18 through 36 and 48 (MP fans only). The I.D. of the round outlet is equal to that of the fan inlet, and also to the transition length. MODIFICATIONS

High, unpredictable effect on fan selection and system performance.

Minimum, calculable effect on fan selection and system performance. Figure 3 - Inlet Connections

ALL-VINYL ESTER AIRSTREAM provides increased resistance to certain corrosives. Engineering Letter 18 provides data for the corrosion resistance of the standard construction and of the all-vinyl ester construction. Standard construction uses vinyl ester resin for wheels. All other FRP parts are made of polyester resin. When an all-vinyl ester airstream is specified, parts normally made of polyester are made of vinyl ester. See Engineering Letter 19 for more details. SURFACE VEIL is used to reinforce the surface layer of resin for added resistance to specific corrosives or to meet the specification of ASTM D4167. Veil may be applied to just the wheel, or to just the housing, or to the entire airstream. nyb uses a synthetic surface veil that is described in detail in Engineering Letter 21. GRAPHITE IMPREGNATION of the final resin coat on airstream surfaces provides for static grounding. This important modification allows the fan to handle gas fumes that are not only corrosive but also potentially explosive. FRP is inherently non-sparking and the electrical resistance of FRP may be considered infinitely high since it is essentially a non-conductive or non-metallic material. Because FRP is nonmetallic, the physical contact of two FRP parts or a metallic

Figure 4 - FRP Fume Exhauster with Inlet Box

Page 2

part with an FRP part will not produce a spark. However, FRP does have the tendency to hold a charge of static electricity. This charge can be generated by a dry gas or airstream passing over FRP. The fan can ultimately become a capacitor capable of discharging high-voltage, low-amperage sparks. The static electricity or charge which builds up on the airstream surface of the FRP part must be eliminated in applications where the fumes are potentially explosive. This can be accomplished by making the surface electrically conductive, providing an electrical path to dissipate the relatively low-current static charge. STATIC GROUNDING - FRP fans can be effectively grounded for the removal and control of static electricity by incorporating graphite in the airstream layer of resin. See Figure 5.

GROUNDING FEATURES - Surface resistivity of than 1 megohm from any point on the airstream to generally considered adequate. nybs process grounding by graphite impregnation provides surface well below the 1-megohm figure.

not more ground is of static resistivity

Tests of nyb FRP fans equipped for static grounding indicate that there is sufficient conductivity through the bearings to eliminate the need for supplemental brush-type contacts to ground the wheel and shaft assembly for most applications. However, the burden of determining whether this is the case for a particular installation and lubrication system rests with the customer. Static grounding by graphite impregnation does not interfere with the corrosion-resistant properties of the fan. Graphite is extremely corrosion resistant. However, the addition of the graphite makes the surface softer than normal and prevents the normal checking of the surface for Barcol-hardness readings. FRP fans are often the best alternative for those applications which require the handling of explosive, as well as corrosive gas fumes. However, care must be taken to realize that there can be no guarantees against possible sparking or ignition in such airstreams. All aspects of the application, the system components, and even the potential for sparks resulting from tramp or foreign elements in the airstream must be considered to ensure the safety of the installation. FLANGE-DRILLING PATTERNS for round inlet and round outlet flanges are in accordance with the National Bureau of Standards Voluntary Product Standard PS 15-69. This drilling pattern was developed by members of the FRP industry for FRP ductwork and specifies bolt hole diameters appropriate for bolting FRP ducts to FRP fans. nyb FRP fans that have both round inlets and round outlets are also available with flanges drilled to ANSI 150. Because ANSI 150 is intended for bolting together heavy metal pipe, it uses bolts that are unnecessarily large for FRP. Although nyb charges the same for drilling to PS 15-69 or ANSI 150, the cost to the user can be substantially different. Flanges are usually fastened together with corrosion-resistant alloy bolts, nuts, and washers. The cost difference between the sizes required for PS 15-69 and ANSI 150 can be significant. For example, a 12" inside-diameter PS 15-69 flange would have 7/16" diameter holes for twelve 3/8" bolts. An ANSI 150 flange would have 1" diameter holes for 7/8" bolts. The difference in cost can be $50 or more per flange for 316 stainless steel hardware and much more for higher-alloy hardware. Since PS 15-69 and ANSI 150 drilling patterns only pertain to round flanges, they do not apply to FE and GFE outlet flanges. Therefore, nyb has developed a standard for drilling rectangular outlet flanges which provides holes drilled on 4" centers, straddling the flange centerlines.
Fo r m 5 0 7 D J K

Figure 5 FRP Radial Fume Exhauster with graphite impregnation and copper grounding straps.

The proper application of the graphite-resin coat is critical if static grounding is to be achieved. Airstream and related surfaces are coated with a mixture of graphite flakes and resin to form a smooth, continuous graphite surface. FPB, RFE, and non-rotatable GFE and FE fans are furnished with contacts which are imbedded in the graphite layer to accommodate grounding straps made of twisted, bare copper wire. The straps are attached to the fan base on FPB and RFE fans and to inlet side angles on the large Fume Exhausters. Rotatable GFE and FE fans do not require grounding straps. These fans are completely grounded to the pedestal through the mounting studs on the housing. This design effectively grounds the airstream to the steel base of the fan. However, it is essential that the customer ground the fan base at the installation.

Page 3

ENGINEERING LETTER 21
The New York Blower Company 7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60521 -5530

SURFACE VEIL FOR FRP FANS

INTRODUCTION This Engineering Letter has several functions: to describe nyb surface veil characteristics, define the purposes of surface veil, explain the relationship between surface veil and ASTM D4167, detail the specific corrosive agents that require a double layer of veil, and describe the special construction requirements involving hypochlorite applications. SURFACE VEIL CHARACTERISTICS The synthetic surface veil used exclusively by nyb is Nexus. It is a non-woven formed fabric produced from Dacron 106 homopolymer. This binder-free polyester fiber has an apertured (perforated) design that provides the necessary flexibility for the fabrication of fans. Each layer of surface veil contains about 90% resin and 10% veil material and is applied at a minimum of 10 mils. ASTM STANDARD D4167 The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) D41 67, Standard Specification for Fiber-Reinforced Plastic Fans and Blowers defines the basic guidelines for the construction of FRP fans handling corrosive fumes. One of the specifications within D4167 is that the laminate construction be in accordance with another ASTM standard, C582. That standard specifies that the working surface (the surface to be in contact with corrosives) of the laminate consist of one layer of surface veil backed by two layers of chopped-strand mat or equivalent from a chopper gun, followed by the structural layers. Therefore, in order to comply with ASTM D4167, all FRP fans must be furnished with at least one layer of surface veil on all housing surfaces. CORROSIVES REQUIRING A DOUBLE LAYER OF SURFACE VEIL There are some chemical agents that are aggressive toward glass. For these specific corrosives, nyb s resin suppliers recommend the addition of a layer of surface veil for increased corrosion resistance. Additionally, in those applications where the corrosive agent is extremely aggressive, a second layer of veil is required. The corrosion-resistance guide found in Engineering Letter 18, Corrosion Resistance of FRP Fans, indicates where one or two layers of veil are required. The corrosives listed as requiring a double layer of surface veil include fluorine gas, hydrochloric acid, hydrofluoric acid, hydrogen fluoride, potassium hydroxide, and various hypochlorite compounds.
Nexus Synthetic Surface Veil

ADDITIONAL REQUIREMENTS FOR HYPOCHLORITE APPLICATIONS Applications involving butyl hypochlorite, calcium hypochlorite, lithium hypochlorite, or sodium hypochlorite require special FRP construction considerations. In addition to the aforementioned double layer of surface veil, resin suppliers recommend a substitution for nybs standard catalyst and promoter. nybs standard polyester and vinyl ester resins both use cobalt napthanate (CoNap) as a promoter and Lupersol , a methyl ethyl ketone peroxide (MEKP), as a catalyst. Gas streams containing hypochlorites attack CoNap whenever MEKP is used as a catalyst. Therefore, a benzoyl peroxide (BPO) catalyst is recommended for these applications because it

PURPOSES OF SURFACE VEIL One purpose of surface veil, also referred to as surfacing mat or tissue, is to prevent protrusion of the chopped-strand mat glass fibers to the surface which could allow chemical wicking to occur. A second, but equally important, purpose is to provide reinforcement to the surface layer of resin to prevent cracking and crazing. Finally, the addition of surface veil allows nyb fans to meet the requirements of ASTM Standard D4167.

Dacron is a registered trademark of E.I. DuPont de Nemours & Company, Inc. Nexus is a registered trademark of Precision Fabrics Group, Inc. Lupersol is a registered trademark of Elf Atochem North America, Inc.

does not use CoNap as its promoter. The BPO catalyst requires dimethyl aniline (DMA), which is unaffected by hypochlorites, as its accelerator in lieu of the CoNap. Special BPO/DMA construction is limited in that it cannot be used for FRP wheel construction. It can only be used to apply surface veil to the wheel. All other FRP components can be constructed using this special catalyst/accelerator system. In addition, note that due to reactivity between BPO catalysts and graphite, which reduces the graphites conductivity, static

grounding by graphite impregnation is not an available option when used in conjunction with a BPO catalyzed resin. CUSTOMER RESPONSIBILITY This Engineering Letter and any discussions between nyb representatives and the customer should not be construed as a warranty of material suitability for a particular application. The system designer should have sufficient knowledge of, or experience with, the application to select the appropriate resin or alternate material.

Form 60 7 GAW

ENGINEERING LETTER 22
The New York Blower Company 7660 Quinc y Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60527 -5530

INTEGRAL MOTORS FOR CENTRIFUGAL FANS

INTRODUCTION

The most common power source for fans is the electric motor. A motors service life is largely dependent upon proper selection and installation. Since the motor and its control circuitry represent a substantial portion of the cost of many fan systems, they deserve careful consideration. This Letter introduces some of the more important matters for consideration.
SELECTION CRITERIA

The selection of the proper motor is based on numerous criteria. Included are horsepower, service factor, enclosure, ambient temperature, phase and voltage, speed, and efficiency.
Horsepower. If all air-handling systems had exactly the same

The major difference in the BHP curve for backwardlyinclined fans is its non-overloading characteristic. Figure 2 illustrates a BHP curve that reaches a peak and then drops off as the volume continues to increase. This makes it possible to select a motor for the maximum BHP at a given speed without fear of overload despite any variance in the volume/pressure relationship of the installed system. Since BHP varies with changes in fan speed, the non-overloading characteristic only applies to a given fixed speed.

volume/pressure relationship the designer anticipated, all motors could be selected merely to cover the fan brake horsepower (BHP) calculated. However, system design usually involves some estimating, and systems are not always installed exactly as intended by their designers. With all centrifugal fans, the fan speed must be increased to handle the desired volume when the system resistance is higher than anticipated, creating a substantially higher fan BHP requirement. For radial and forward-curved wheels, if the system resistance is lower than anticipated, fan BHP will increase with the greater volume of air being handled. Refer to Figure 1.

The fan capacity table (Figure 3) shows the fan BHP for a given volume/pressure relationship. However, it is not uncommon to size the motor for a static pressure 5% to 10% higher than design to allow for variances in the installed system. The system designer should also be prepared to reduce fan speed if resistance is lower than anticipated. Motors should be selected so that the fan BHP rating for the required volume and pressure is less than the rated motor horsepower. The rated motor horsepower is the mechanical power available at the motor shaft at full-load speed without exceeding the motors maximum temperature rise.

CFM 10856 11373 11890 12607 12924 13441

OV 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500 2600

4 SP RPM BHP 1140 9.29 1154 9.79 1167 10.2 1183 10.8 1200 11.4 1217 12.0

41/ 2 RPM 1194 1205 1218 1232 1248 1263

SP BHP 10.4 10.9 11.4 12.0 12.6 13.3

5 SP RPM BHP 1248 11.6 1257 12.1 1269 12.7 1282 13.3 1296 13.9 1310 14.5

5 1 / 2 SP RPM BHP 1300 12.8 1308 13.3 1318 13.9 1330 14.6 1342 15.2 1355 15.9

TOTALLY ENCLOSED FAN-COOLED MOTORS - These are totally enclosed motors equipped with a cooling fan, or fans, integral with the motor assembly but external to the enclosed parts. These motors should be installed so that the intake of the cooling fan is not blocked or impeded. The standard insulation is Class F with a 1.15 service factor rating. TOTALLY ENCLOSED AIR-OVER MOTORS - These special-purpose totally enclosed motors are intended for use in fan applications where the fan provides sufficient cooling airflow over the surface of the motor. However, they are not self-cooling, so they should only be used when airflow is present at or above the velocities necessary for continuous operation within the rated motor temperature rise. TEFC SEVERE DUTY MOTORS - These special purpose TEFC motors are intended for use in contaminated environments such as in the paper, metal, or chemical industries. Special features include cast-iron frame, end brackets, conduit box and fan cover, plated hardware, and stainless steel nameplates. They are also rated with 1.15 service factors and Class F insulation. Some trade names include Mill and Chemical, Dirty Duty, Extra Tough, and Chemical Duty. TOTALLY ENCLOSED NON-VENTILATED MOTORS These are basically totally enclosed motors with larger frames to dissipate heat, but no cooling fan. Typically offered in the smaller fractional horsepowers, these motors should only be used in open, well-ventilated areas. EXPLOSION-PROOF MOTORS - These special-purpose totally enclosed motors are designed to withstand internal explosions of gases or vapors, and to prevent the ignition of gases or vapors surrounding the motor. Refer to Engineering Letter 23, Electric Motor Codes and Standards, for details. Insulation. Various motor insulation systems are available. The rated temperature for a given insulation classification is the maximum temperature for sustained operation. Three common insulation classes are shown in Figure 4. INSULATION Ambient Temperature* 40C. 41 - 65C. 66 - 90C.

Figure 3 - At 12,924 CFM and 5" SP, the BHP required is 13.9. With an additional 10% system resistance margin (51 / 2 " SP), the BHP required is 15.2.

Service Factor. Integral open-dripproof and totally enclosed motors usually have a service factor of 1.15, while explosionproof motors usually have a 1.0 service factor. When the motor nameplate voltage and frequency are maintained, the motor can be run up to the capacity obtained by multiplying the rated horsepower by the safety factor shown on the motor nameplate. For example, a fan in a given system might require 5.0 BHP according to original estimates, but minor system changes could increase the demand to 5.25 BHP. In this case, a 5 HP open motor rated with a 1.15 service factor could still be used (5 HP x 1.15 = 5.75 HP) without detrimental overheating. Enclosure. The selection of a motor enclosure depends upon ambient conditions. Electric motors are air-cooled machines and their service life depends greatly upon protecting the motor from contaminated surroundings. Basically, all motor enclosures can be divided into two categories: open and totally enclosed. OPEN MOTORS - This type is recommended for relatively clean environments since the ventilating openings permit passage of external cooling air over and around the motor windings. Open motors are usually less expensive than other enclosures. DRIPPROOF MOTORS - These are open motors with ventilating openings so constructed and positioned that operation is not hampered when drops of liquid or solid particles strike the enclosure at any angle from 0 to 15 downward from the vertical axis. The standard insulation is Class B with a 1.15 service factor rating. WPI AND WPII MOTORS - These are essentially open motors with vacuum-pressure impregnation (VPI) winding treatment for moisture resistance and weather protection. WPI motors are equipped with space heaters. WPII motors have ventilating openings arranged so that high-velocity air and/or airborne contaminants blown into the motor during storms or high winds can be discharged without entering the internal electrical parts of the motor. Generally, the weather protected motors are only available in frame sizes larger than NEMA standard and they are less expensive than totally enclosed motors in those cases. TOTALLY ENCLOSED - This type is recommended for any installation where dirt or contaminants can collect in or around the motor. They are constructed in a manner that prevents the free exchange of air between the inside and outside of the motor case, but they are not airtight.

NEMA Class B F H

Hot-Spot Temperature 130C (266F.) 155C. (311F.) 180C. (356F.)

*Note that these ratings apply to 1.0 service factor only. Figure 4

Not all parts of the motor windings operate at the same temperature. The temperature at the center of the coil is the hottest, and is commonly referred to as hot-spot temperature. This hot-spot temperature is used to establish the rating of an insulation class. The actual temperature is the sum of all the heat-producing factors including the ambient temperature, motor induced temperature rise, and the hot-spot allowance. Ambient temperatures. Whenever possible it is best to select a motor with the appropriate insulation for the specific ambient conditions. For example, a TEFC motor with Class F insulation is suitable for ambient temperatures of 40C. (104F.) with 1.15 service factor or 65C. (149F.) with 1.0 service factor. If this same motor is used in an ambient of 75C. (167F.)

Page 2

continuously, the life of the motor will be greatly reduced. Phase and voltage. Although these are limited to the power supply available at the installation site, the general rule of thumb is to use polyphase (three phase) motors of the highest available voltage in order to achieve the most economical equipment and installation costs. Single phase motors typically cost more than polyphase because of the need for capacitors, centrifugal switches, etc. Higher voltage ratings can reduce installation costs by reducing the required electrical line size. In most U.S. and Canadian industrial sites, the power supply typically found for the average polyphase motor is 230 or 460 volts (U.S.) and 575 volts (Canada) at 60 Hertz (cycles per second) generation. In many large cities where 120/208 volt networks are employed, commercial and small industrial loads require motors rated for 200 volts. Motors for 2300 volts can be furnished in motor frames 445T and larger. Because of the cost of starting equipment for this higher voltage, 2300 volt motors are not generally available below 200 HP. Single phase motors are available for service on 115/230 volts for 3 HP and smaller. Motors up to 10 HP are available for 230 volt service in single phase. The standard motor frequencies are 60 and 50 cycles per second, or Hertz. The prevailing frequency in the United States and Canada is 60 Hertz. Most of Europe, the Middle East, and the Pacific Rim have 50 Hertz service. Many motors specified for 50 Hertz will require 380 volts, 440 volts, or 220/380 volts . . . all of which are considered standard by motor manufacturers. Although motors built for 50 Hertz are becoming more readily available in this country, consideration should be given to the accepted practice of derating 60 Hertz motor speed and horsepower. Ratings can be derated by a factor of .833 (50/60) to determine the operating characteristics in 50 Hertz service. For example: 60 Hertz - 10 HP, 1800 RPM, 3/60/230/460 50 Hertz* - 8.3 HP, 1500 RPM, 3/50/190-380 * Note: This does not apply to single phase or explosion-proof motors. RPM and Voltage rounded to standard nomenclature. NEMA standards state that motors must be capable of delivering their rated horsepower at a variance of nameplate voltage of 10% voltage, although not necessarily at the standard rated temperature rise. One exception is a motor nameplated as 208-230/460 volts. The 10% voltage only applies to 230 or 460, and thus requires very good voltage regulation for operation in a 208 volt network. Another exception is 60 Hertz motors derated for 50 Hertz operation. A 208 volt network requires a 200 or 200/208 volt motor. Note that the 200/208 does not mean dual voltage, (as with a standard 23 0/460 rating), but is simply a 200 volt motor rated and recommended for 208 volt service. The NEMA standard 230/460 volt rating is not generally recommended for 208 volt service unless authorized by the motor manufacturer. Motors for use in a 208 volt network should be ordered with a 200 volt rating, with windings and nameplate so designed and stamped. Speed. The general rule of thumb is to select the highest practical motor speed to reduce the size, weight, and cost of the motor.

However, belt-drive fan applications are usually limited to 1800 RPM motors when the horsepower requirements are 25 and up. Generally, TS (short shaft) frames are used on larger 3600 RPM motors, and these are not well-suited to belt-drive arrangements. Although T frame motors are available for larger horsepower 3600 RPM motors, they are not standard, so long procurement lead times and cost can be prohibitive. The majority of electric motors used in fan applications are single speed. However, multispeed motors are available in either single phase or three phase. The motor synchronous speed is expressed as: 120 x F Synchronous RPM = P where: F = supply frequency in Hertz P = number of poles in motor winding The actual full load RPM (nominal speed) will be somewhat below the synchronous speed. The percentage in speed is known as the percent slip. Thus, an 1800 RPM (4 pole) motor with a 2.8% slip will have a full load nominal speed of 1750 RPM (1800 - 50 = 1750). The exact slip percentage will vary from one motor size and type to another. Slip is also somewhat dependent upon load. A partially loaded motor will run slightly faster than a fully loaded motor. Since calculating the precise nominal speed for each application would be impractical, the Air Movement and Control Association (AMCA) has established nominal speeds to be used uniformly to determine fan performance. See Figure 5. NOMINAL SPEEDS FOR 60 HERTZ MOTORS Number Synchronous Nominal of Poles Speed (RPM) Speed (RPM) 2-pole: 3600 thru 1 HP 3450 11 / 2thru 25 HP 3500 30 HP and up 3550 4-pole: 1800 thru 3 / 4 HP 1725 1 thru 20 HP 1750 25 HP and up 1770 6-pole: 1200 thru 3 HP 1150 5 HPand up 1175 8-pole: 900 thru 1 / 8 HP 850 1 / 2 HP and up 875 Note: 50 Hz motor speeds can be determined by multiplying the above ratings by .833 (50/60).
Figure 5

Motor Efficiency. The continued increase in energy costs and emergence of energy savings programs have heightened concern for electrical usage and motor efficiency. Good system design necessitates the selection of the most efficient motor for a given application. Motor manufacturers are able to improve motor efficiency by altering any number of design factors. The use of thinner steel laminations in the stator and rotor core, using better grades of steel, more copper in the stator, and more efficient, smaller cooling fans are just a few examples.

Page 3

In an effort to distinguish one manufacturers motor from another, motor manufacturers use a number of names, such as standard, high, premium, etc., to qualify published efficiency values. The generally accepted basis for comparison of efficiency values is the guaranteed minimum efficiency based on NEMA recommendations. Motor efficiency can be calculated by the following formula: Motor Efficiency = 746 x HP output Watts Input

It is best to consult the fan manufacturer for confirmation of questionable fan/motor combinations, i.e. large fans with small motors. If the combination has an unacceptable starting time, the solution could be to use a larger motor, damper the fan for reduced load starting, or in some cases consider clutching systems so the fan can be brought up to speed without tripping electrical breakers or damaging the motor. Minimum Sheave Diameters. Special consideration should be given to the diameter of drive sheaves used on motors. As belt tension must increase to avoid slippage with small diameter sheaves, the radial load imposed on the motor bearing becomes significant. The motor manufacturer can provide specific recommendations for minimum sheave diameters. Some general recommendations are shown in Engineering Letter 23 - Electric Motor Codes and Standards. Heavy Cycling. When a motor is started and stopped frequently, heat build-up from the heavy starting current cannot be adequately dissipated. Heat will build up on successive starts and the temperature will rise even after the motor is stopped because air movement is not present for heat dissipation. This type of operation poses unusual problems in the selection of proper protective devices. Thermal protectors located in the motor starter will cool more rapidly than the motor windings, so protection is compromised. Internal temperature sensors, known as thermal overload detectors, can be embedded in the motor windings to provide the best form of protection for motors subjected to heavy cycling. Generally, standard integral motors are designed for continuous operation. Cyclic service of any fan/motor combination demands special consideration. Such situations should be explained and carefully reviewed with the fan and motor manufacturers. Excessive Loading. When too much is demanded of a motor, it will attempt to compensate by drawing more current. Heat build-up is proportional to the square of the increase in current. Proper overload protection will guard against excessive heat build-up; however, it is unwise to use overcurrent protectors with automatic resets because the motor can cycle until enough heat builds up to damage the windings. The potential problems of excessive loading are often dealt with by using backwardly inclined fan designs. As explained previously, it is possible to select a motor for a backwardly inclined fan that will not overload at a fixed speed, regardless of any changes in system resistance. CONCLUSION The New York Blower Company frequently supplies the entire fan, drive, and motor package. However, because motor selection is dependent upon the actual location, environment, and intended service, and since only the system designer or end user can be fully aware of these variables, nyb cannot be expected to select or recommend motor specifications. The information contained in this Letter provides the system designer or user with fundamental information to aid in the selection and application of motors. Further information can be obtained by contacting motor manufacturers directly.
Fo r m 5 0 7 D J K

When comparing motor efficiencies, the power factor must also be considered. At a given efficiency, a higher power factor results in a lower current demand. The power factor is the ratio of real current (current required to run the motor) to the total current (real current plus the reactive current that creates the magnetic field). The power factor for a given motor should be obtained from the specific motor manufacturer, but it can be calculated by the following formula: Power Factor = Watts Input Volts x Amps x 1.73* * For 3-phase motors only. SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS In addition to the previous selection criteria, there are several other special considerations that affect proper motor selection. These include high or low voltage, starting times, minimum sheave diameters, heavy cycling, and excessive loading. High or low voltage. Motor service life can be shortened considerably if the motor is operated outside the 10% voltage variance range. With low voltage, motor torque decreases. The motor is therefore forced to slow down to develop the required torque. This causes increased current draw which creates additional heat in the motor winding. In addition, at the slower speed ventilation is reduced and heat will not be dissipated as rapidly. High voltage will cause an increase in magnetizing current in the motor. This causes additional heating in the motor windings. Particularly with older motors, increased voltage can break down the motor insulation by breaching its insulating capability. Starting times. Whenever an electric motor is used to drive a centrifugal fan, both the fans maximum power demand and the motor starting torque characteristics must be considered. Where larger centrifugal fans are to be driven by relatively small motors, it is possible that the motor will not be capable of overcoming the fans inertia to bring it up to the required speed in a reasonable time. Excessive starting time, generally greater than 10 to 15 seconds, will raise the temperature of the motor windings to a point where circuit breakers can trip out, or the motor itself can be damaged. The user must be aware of this problem when selecting the fan and motor combination. The two main factors to be considered are the fan wheel inertia (WR or WK and the starting torque characteristics of the motor. Exact curves of the motor starting torque, as a percentage of full load torque at a given speed, are available from the motor manufacturer.
2 2)

Many fan applications require a fan speed other than a nominal motor speed, so a belt-drive configuration is used. In these cases, the WR must be corrected to include the effects of the fan shaft and fan sheave.
2

Page 4

ENGINEERING LETTER 23
The New York Blower Company 7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60527 -5530

ELECTRIC MOTOR CODES AND STANDARDS

INTRODUCTION Electric motors are often required to meet various industry standards and national codes in addition to specific application requirements. The more common of these standards and codes are explained in this Engineering Letter. Also included are some general motor dimensions and weights for reference purposes. In the early days of electric motors, motors were built to the specifications and standards of individual manufacturers. Each brand usually had its own unique nomenclature, dimensions, ratings, etc., thus interchangeability was seldom possible. Currently, a number of independent groups and several special interest organizations provide uniform specifications to which motor manufacturers can comply on a selective or voluntary basis. Some of the more common of these are listed below. MOTOR STANDARDS ORGANIZATIONS AIM - Automotive Industrial Motors include specific brands manufactured on a selective basis to meet the specifications established by the automotive industry. Examples include GMC - 7EQ, Ford EM-1, and Chrysler NPEM-100. ANSI - American National Standards Institute represents manufacturers, distributors, and consumers. A wide variety of subjects are covered, such as dimensions, material specifications, test methods, and performance. Standards frequently reference those adopted by NEMA and IEEE. NEC - National Electric Code is an ANSI standard sponsored by the National Fire Protection Association for the purpose of safeguarding persons and property from electrical hazards. The code covers wiring methods and materials, protection of branch circuits, motors and controls, grounding, hazardous locations, and recommendations. See Figure 1. NEMA - National Electrical Manufacturers Association is a trade association organized and supported by manufacturers of electrical equipment and supplies. Voluntary standards define products, processes, and procedures with reference to nomenclature, construction, dimensions, tolerances, operating characteristics, performance, testing, and rating. The standards cover such matters as motor-frame sizes and designations, circuit connections, lead markings, torque classifications, and a basis for ratings. Some of the more important items standardized by NEMA are: Speeds - see Figure 3. Horsepower Ratings - see Figure 3. Frame Sizes and Dimensions - see Figure 4. Conduit Box Locations - see Figure 5. Standard Voltages and Frequencies* Service Factors* Enclosures* Starting Current Torques

CSA - Canadian Standards Association provides material * Note: refer to Engineering Letter 22 - Integral Motors for standardization services for Canada. It develops or adopts Centrifugal Fans. standards for safety, quality, and performance. IEC - International Electrotechnical Commission defines metric equivalancies to some NEMA standards, such as enclosures, frame sizes, conduit box locations, and mounting arrangements. IEEE - Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers covers such fundamentals as basic standards for temperature rise, classification of insulating materials, and the appropriate test codes and rating methods. ISO - International Standards Organization establishes uniform terminology, units, and equivalancies in international metric terms. UL - Underwriters Laboratories, Inc. is an independent testing organization specializing in testing products, systems, and materials with particular reference to life, fire, and casualty hazards. Standards have been developed for motors and controls in cooperation with the manufacturers. The variety of standards for motors compliance include: 1. Motors for use where explosive vapors, combustible dusts, or easily ignitible flyings existas adopted by NEC. 2. Motor-operated appliances. 3. Motor overload protection devices.

NEC EXPLOSION-PROOF MOTOR DESIGNATIONS The National Electrical Code categorizes common hazardous atmospheres and locations. Classification of hazards might be defined by the plant safety engineer or by the insurance company. Since the type and degree of hazard varies widely according to the materials encountered and their probable presence in hazardous quantities, the following methods of identification are used: Class - materials are classed as flammable vapors or gases (Class I); or as combustible dusts (Class II). Group - materials are grouped according to their relative degree of hazard with Groups C and D applicable to vapors or gases, and Groups E through G applicable to combustible dusts. Division - the containment aspects are defined by divisions according to the likely concentration of the hazard. Division 1 is applicable to routine or periodic exposure, while Division 2 refers to a hazard that is normally confined within a system or container and which would only escape in the event of some abnormal circumstance or equipment failure. NEC requires the use of explosion-proof motors for all Division 1 locations. Class I Group C - Atmospheres containing ethyl vapors, ethylene, or cyclopropane. Class I Group D - Atmospheres containing gasoline, hexane, naptha, benzine, butane, alcohol, acetone, benzol, lacquer-solvent vapors, or natural gas. Class II Group E - Atmospheres containing metal dust. Class II Group F - Atmospheres containing carbon black, coal, or coke dust. Class II Group G - Atmospheres containing flour, starch, or grain dust. The specific motor Class and Group must be determined for the particular hazard involved. Motors designed and rated for one type of hazard or location are not necessarily suitable for use in another situation . . . consult the motor manufacturer for specific application information. The explosion-proof motor ratings normally stocked by motor manufacturers or distributors are Class I, Group D and Class II, Groups F and G, Division 1. Other ratings, such as Class I, Group C or Class II, Group E, Division 1 are non-standard but are available on special order.
Figure 1

COMMON MOTOR WEIGHTS AND SHEAVE LIMITS

Motor Weights (lbs.) Sheave Limitations (Inches) Frame ODP TE Min. Maximum Width Min./Max. Min./Max. Pitch Dia. Narrow Conven.
143T 145T 182T 184T 213T 215T 254T 256T 284T 284TS 286T 286TS 324T 324TS 326T 326TS 364T 364TS 365T 365TS 404T 404TS 405T 405TS 444T 444TS 445T 445TS 26/41 33/55 50/105 60/120 90/137 100/160 145/275 160/3 10 228/374 225/372 275/409 250/380 366/495 333/478 415/600 406/565 580/792 519/777 620/835 600/821 845/1110 750/1108 816/1163 800/1150 1122/1528 1100/1515 1250/1750 1200/1600 28/65 35/70 55/111 70/125 99/197 121/224 23 1/384 265/415 359/495 356/425 390/499 380/475 490/700 458/671 526/766 490/73 8 748/948 730/916 804/1040 777/1004 1100/1220 1000/1211 1049/1368 907/1312 1400/1820 1365/1799 1500/2458 1481/2300 2.2 2.4 2.6 3.0 3.0 3.8 4.4 4.6 5.0 * 5.4 * 6.0 * 6.8 * 7.4 * 9.0 * 9.0 * 11.5 * 11.0 * 13.2 * 21/4 21/4 23/4 23/4 33/8 33/8 4 4 45/8 * 45/8 * 51/4 * 51/4 * 57/8 * 57/8 * 71/4 * 71/4 * 81/2 * 81/2 * 41/4 41/4 51/4 51/4 61/2 61/2 73/4 73/4 9 * 9 * 101/4 * 101/4 * 111/2 * 111/2 * 141/4 * 141/4 * 163/4 * 163/4 *
1 2

NEMA STANDARD FRAME SIZES

Rating (HP)
3/4 1 11/2 2 3 5 71/2 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 70 100 125 150 200

Synchronous Speed (RPM) 3 3600 1800 1200 ODP TEFC ODP TEFC ODP TEFC
--143T 145T 145T 182T 184T 213T 215T 254T 256T 284TS 286TS 324TS 326TS 364TS 365TS 404TS 405TS 444TS --143T 145T 182T 184T 213T 215T 254T 256T 284TS 286TS 324TS 326TS 364TS 365TS 405TS 444TS 445TS 447TS -143T 145T 145T 182T 184T 213T 215T 254T 256T 284T 286T 324T 326T 364T 365T 404T 405T 444T 445T -143T 145T 145T 182T 184T 213T 215T 254T 256T 284T 286T 324T 326T 364T 365T 405T 444T 445T 445T 143T 145T 182T 184T 213T 215T 254T 256T 284T 286T 324T 326T 364T 365T 404T 405T 444T 445T 445T 445T 143T 145T 182T 184T 213T 215T 254T 256T 284T 286T 324T 326T 364T 365T 404T 405T 444T 445T 445T 447T

* Not recommended for belt drive Figure 2

Figure 3 1. Motor weights are not standardized and vary with manufacturer, enclosure, frame, etc. The minimum and maximum weights shown are representative of the range available from several major manufacturers as of November, 1995. Where exact weights are required, consult the specific manufacturer. 2. The sheave limitations shown represent the most restricted parameters from several major manufacturers. It may be possible to exceed these parameters for a given situation by consulting the specific manufacturer. 3. Motor frame sizes may vary with special features or characteristics. Refer to Engineering Letter 22 - Integral Motors for Centrifugal Fans for nominal speeds.

Page 2

NEMA STANDARD DIMENSIONS (Inches)

Frame 143T 145T 182T 184T 213T 215T 254T 256T 284T 284TS 286T 286TS 324T 324TS 326T 326TS 364T 364TS 365T 365TS 404T 404TS 405T 405TS 444T 444TS 445T 445TS

BA 2.25 2.25 2.75 2.75 3.50 3.50 4.25 4.25 4.75 4.75 4.75 4.75 5.25 5.25 5.25 5.25 5.88 5.88 5.88 5.88 6.63 6.63 6.63 6.63 7.50 7.50 7.50 7.50

D* 3.50 3.50 4.50 4.50 5.25 5.25 6.25 6.25 7.00 7.00 7.00 7.00 8.00 8.00 8.00 8.00 9.00 9.00 9.00 9.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 11.00 11.00 11.00 11.00

E 2.75 2.75 3.75 3.75 4.25 4.25 5.00 5.00 5.50 5.50 5.50 5.50 6.25 6.25 6.25 6.25 7.00 7.00 7.00 7.00 8.00 8.00 8.00 8.00 9.00 9.00 9.00 9.00

F 2.00 2.50 2.25 2.75 2.75 3.50 4.12 5.00 4.75 4.75 5.50 5.50 5.25 5.25 6.00 6.00 5.62 5.62 6.12 6.12 6.12 6.12 6.87 6.87 7.25 7.25 8.25 8.25

U .875 .875 1.125 1.125 1.375 1.375 1.625 1.625 1.875 1.625 1.875 1.625 2.125 1.875 2.125 1.875 2.375 1.875 2.375 1.875 2.875 2.125 2.875 2.125 3.375 2.375 3.375 2.375

V 2.00 2.00 2.50 2.50 3.13 3.13 3.75 3.75 4.38 3.00 4.38 3.00 5.00 3.50 5.00 3.50 5.63 3.50 5.63 3.50 7.00 4.00 7.00 4.00 8.25 4.50 8.25 4.50

C-ODP Min. Max. 10.99 12.82 11.12 12.99 12.36 14.72 13.56 16.50 15.50 18.19 16.31 18.19 20.00 22.32 21.69 23.19 23.19 25.94 21.82 22.44 23.81 25.06 22.44 23.69 21.38 27.25 21.38 25.75 26.69 28.50 25.19 27.00 28.62 29.69 26.50 29.70 26.57 29.69 27.50 29.81 32.38 34.19 29.38 31.19 33.88 34.19 30.88 31.19 37.56 39.94 33.81 36.18 38.62 39.94 35.87 36.18
1

C-TE1 Min. Max. 10.45 13.35 11.45 14.35 13.55 17.15 13.55 17.15 17.18 20.28 17.18 20.28 21.50 25.60 23.20 25.60 25.33 28.93 23.95 27.55 26.83 28.93 25.45 27.55 28.15 32.25 26.65 30.75 29.65 32.25 28.15 30.75 31.28 34.28 29.15 32.15 31.28 34.28 29.15 32.15 33.88 39.91 30.89 36.91 36.85 41.95 33.85 38.95 39.56 46.68 35.31 42.93 39.56 48.68 35.31 44.93

*Tolerance: 8" or less, + .000, - .03 1, Over 8", +.000, - .062. Tolerance: 11 / 2 " dia. or less +.0000, - .0005; Over 11 / 2 " dia. + .000, - .001. V is usable shaft length. Figure 4

1. The overall motor length is uniformly designated as NEMA C, but the dimension itself varies between manufacturers. The C dimensions shown are representative of the range available from several manufacturers as of November, 1995. Where exact dimensions are required, consult the specific motor manufacturer.

2. The distance from the center of the motor shaft to the outside edge of the conduit box is known as NEMA AB. Since this dimension varies with manufacturer, enclosure, frame, etc., consult the specific motor manufacturer.

Page 3

Conduit-box locations . . . the standard location for floor mounted motors is designated as F-1, where the conduit box is on the right when viewing the end opposite the shaft. Although other arrangements are available as indicated, they are non-standard and require special production and extended delivery schedules in most cases. Thus, the F-1 is used for the majority of fan applications regardless of fan arrangement. See Figure 6. Assembly F-1, W-2, W -3, W-6, W-8 and C-2 = Standard Lead Location. Assembly F-2, W-1, W-4, W-5, W-7, and C-1 = Lead Location Opposite Standard.

MOTOR ROTATION DESIGNATIONS

Motor rotation . . . the direction of the motor rotation can be significant, particularly in large fan-cooled motors. The increasing demand for energy-efficient and quiet-operating motors has forced motor manufacturers to use uni-directional cooling fans in many cases. Thus, the motor manufacturer will need to know the required rotation in many cases. Most motor manufacturers specify CW or CCW when viewing the end opposite the shaft. Therefore, the motor rotation will be the same as the fan rotation in Arrangements 4, 7, 8, and 1 or 3 with motor positions X and Y. The motor rotation will be opposite the fans in Arrangements 9, 10, and 1 or 3 with motor positions W and Z. This may differ with some manufacturers, since there is no formal standard.

Figure 6
Form 507 DJK

ENGINEERING LETTER 24
The New York Blower Company 7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60521-5530

FUNDAMENTALS OF STEAM
INTRODUCTION A good knowledge of steam heating, for process work and air handling/ventilation systems, is important to design engineers, building owners, and maintenance personnel who may encounter steam systems. This Engineering Letter was written as a basic reference tool, primarily for those who have not been regularly involved in designing and operating steam-heating systems. LATENT HEAT One of the factors important in holding the earths surface temperature within its rather narrow bounds is the fact that while it takes about 1 Btu to change the temperature of a pound of liquid water by 1 F., it takes 144 Btu to freeze one pound of water (latent heat of fusion) and about 1000 Btu to convert one pound of water to steam (latent heat of evaporation). The relatively large amount of heat change required to convert water into either ice or steam acts to keep the earths temperature moderate. Heating water from 32F. to its boiling point, 2 12F. at sea level, requires about 180 Btu per pound (one Btu per degree). This is referred to as sensible heat. Converting the water at 212F. to steam at the same temperature requires about 1000 Btu per pound. This is the heat applied in a steam boiler. Conversely, when the latent heat is extracted from the steam, perhaps by condensing it in a section of STEELfin coil, the 1000 Btu per pound is given up by the steam without any change in temperature. Figure 1 shows how the temperature of one pound of water would vary if subjected to a constant rate of Btu input. Notice that it would stay at 32F. and 2 12F. (at sea level) until, in each case the latent heat conversions had taken place for the entire pound of water.

BTU to raise the temperature of one pound of water. Figure 1

SATURATION If a container of water is heated sufficiently at a constant pressure, the water temperature will rise until the boiling point is reached. While boiling, the temperature will remain constant until all the water has been converted to steam. Then the temperature will rise again as the steam is further heated, as shown in Figure 1. Steam at the temperature at which it co-exists with water is called saturated steam. The temperature is called the saturation temperature. The saturation temperature varies with the pressure. An increase in pressure increases the temperature at which the latent heat transfer takes place. The pressure at which the latent heat transfer takes place (at a given temperature) is called the saturation pressure.

For example, at sea level normal atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psia (absolute pressure). The saturation temperature is 212F. At 2 12F. the saturation pressure is also 14.7 psia (which is also 0 psig see Pressures, below). Almost all useful steam-heat transfer work takes place at the latent heat-saturation temperature and pressure point. Saturation pressures, temperatures, and latent heat values are shown in Figure 2.

Gauge Pressure

Temp. F.

Latent Heat

Gauge Pressure

Temp. F.

Latent Heat

2 5 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 70

219 227 239 250 259 267 274 286 298 307 316

966 960 953 945 939 933 929 920 912 905 898

80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 175 200

324 331 338 344 350 356 361 366 377 388

891 886 880 875 871 866 861 857 847 837

The increase in temperature above the saturation temperature is called superheat. Steam that has a small amount of superheat is called dry steam. If heated more than a few degrees above the saturation temperature it is referred to as superheated steam. Obviously, neither dry nor superheated steam can co-exist with liquid water. Since steam is a gas it tends to expand with a direct relation to temperature. The increased volume and small amount of extra heat value makes superheat a relatively worthless factor in steam heating. Its only real value is to ensure that there will be dry steam at the point where the steam is to be used. In other words, a few degrees of superheat at the boiler will minimize condensation in the supply lines to the steam coils. CONDENSATION When steam gives up its latent heat and changes from saturated steam to water at the same temperature, it condenses. The water is referred to as condensate. HEAT TRANSFER Figure 3 shows the cross section of a typical steam coil. The heat produced by the condensation of the steam travels through the boundary layer of steam, through the condensation that forms on the inside of the tube, through the tube itself, out into the fins, and through the boundary layer of air on the fins surfaces and into the passing stream of air.

Steam gauge pressures, saturation temperatures, and latent heat values at sea level, standard barometric pressure of 29.92" Hg = 14.7 psia. Figure 2

PRESSURES In the English system of measure, steam pressures are measured in pounds per square inch. In international units, steam pressures are measured in pascals or kilopascals where 1 psi is equal to 6894.7 pascals. For the sake of simplicity, English units are used in this Engineering Letter. There are, necessarily, two reference levels for measuring pressure. One is the pressure above atmospheric. This is the boiler pressure, commonly called gauge pressure and abbreviated either psi or psig. Because of the variable nature of atmospheric pressure, steam pressures are more accurately described in terms of their absolute pressure. This is the total amount of pressure above a perfect vacuum. At sea level, atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psia. Hence gauge pressure (psig) + 14.7 = absolute pressure (psia). SUPERHEAT Steam is a gas. As in the case of any gas, it can be heated above the boiling point. Once it is past the saturation temperature it requires only about .5 Btu per pound to increase its temperature 1F.

Steam coil cross-section showing the temperature gradient with 5 psig steam (227F. saturation temperature) heating air to 90F. Figure 3

All steam coils are 100% efficient in the sense that the heat released by condensing steam within the coil has nowhere to go but into the air surrounding the coil. Tube-and-fin material, fin spacing, air velocity, and some other factors affect the rate at which the heat transfer (and therefore the condensation) takes place but they cannot alter the fact the steams latent heat has only one place to go: into the airstream.

Form 60 7 GAW

ENGINEERING LETTER 25
The New York Blower Company 7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60527-5530

I N D U S T R I A L S T E AM H E AT I N G S Y S T E M S
INTRODUCTION Reduced to its barest elements, a steam heating system consists of a boiler to convert water to steam, piping to conduct the steam to where it is to be used, a coil or other surface for condensing the steam and transferring the latent heat from the steam to the air, a trap to prevent the steam from passing through the coil before it is condensed, and return piping to bring the condensate back to the boiler. The purpose of this Engineering Letter is to provide a basic overview of the major elements found in typical industrial steam heating systems. SYSTEM COMPONENTS Boilers While the boiler and its attachments are major factors in the steam heating system, it is not the intent of this Letter to do more than point out that boilers are generally divided into Low Pressure and High Pressure designs. Low pressure boilers, running up to 15 psig, are generally used for space heating with unit heaters, make-up air units, heating and ventilating units, etc. There is no benefit in raising the steam pressure or temperature much beyond the minimum needed to boil water and to provide the pressure necessary to drive the steam through the piping system. Higher pressures not only require more expensive piping and fittings but the added danger involved in higher pressures and temperatures has given rise to municipal and insurance codes requiring additional safety features, licensed operators, etc. High pressure boilers generate more than 15 psig. Highpressure systems are used either to provide adequate pressure for long runs of steam piping or to develop higher temperatures for process systems. The air passing across a steam coil cannot be heated any higher than the steam temperature. At 5 psig the steam temperature is 227F. At 200 psig it is 388F. There is little difference between the amount of total heat at 5 psig and at 200 psig but the fact that the heat is released at a higher temperature gives the capability of producing substantially higher final air temperatures. 2. Industrial heating and process applications demand the most rugged possible coil construction. The most practical coil is one using heavy-gauge, welded-steel tubes with an ovalshaped cross-section. The resultant strength is several times that of light-gauge copper or steel tubing. A round tube will sp lit when filled with water and frozen, as so often happens when the condensate return system fails for one reason or another. An oval tube deforms slightly, increasing its crosssectional area, but rupture normally will not occur if the oval tube is made of heavy-gauge, high-strength steel. 3. Condensate is water and it runs downhill. The condensate drains from the coils tubes by gravity. Good coil installation produces an almost uniform pressure through the coil. The steam pressure cannot and does not force the condensate through the tubes. For high heating capacities, the tubes should be vertical. This allows quick drainage and clearing of the tubes. In addition to reducing the possibility of freezing, the washing action brought about by the quick drainage also reduces the boundary layer of water in the tubes and improves heat transfer. 1. The metal or metals of which a steam coil is manufactured are relatively unimportant insofar as heating capacities are concerned but may be extremely important in determining the life of the coil. Coils have been successfully made from almost every conceivable metal. Copper tubes have long been a favorite because of coppers supposed corrosion resistance and ease of soldering, brazing, and forming. However, other tubes, particularly steel, are quite adaptable to the manufacture of steam coils. Conventional copper or steel tube coils are usually adequate for commercial heating installations.

An advantage of vertical-tube coils, often overlooked, is their lack of susceptibility to water hammer. Water is virtually incompressible. When driven through a pipe or co il tube at the velocity of steam, it hammers the turns in the pipe or the end of the coil tube. Vertical drainage eliminates water hammer in vertical-tube coils. Horizontal-tube coils are destroyed by Piping repeated water hammer. Typically, water hammer results in a Piping is addressed on page 3. fairly uniform bulge, or rounding, at the end of the steam coil tube. When the bulge finally ruptures it is frequently mistaken Steam Coils for failure due to freezing. The visual distinction between the The steam coil is the part of the system designed to condense results of the two kinds of failures is that water hammer gives a the steam and transfer the latent heat to the airstream. If all coils symmetrical bulge at the end of the tube, where freezing gives a are 100% efficient, then what differentiates a good steam coil non-symmetrical distortion. from a poor one? Here are some important factors:

4. Lack of maintenance, particularly in industrial plants, can cause deterioration of the coil and of its capacity. Coils with thin copper tubes and thin aluminum or copper fins are physically weak. Normal industrial cleaning methods can be too rough. Cleaning aluminum or copper fins with an air hose is almost certain to deform the fins and result in a loss of heating capacity. Welded-steel tubes with steel fins bonded to them and reinforced with hot-dipped galvanizing offer the physical strength to withstand scrubbing or high-pressure air-hose cleaning. Although not precisely related to the subject of this Engineering Letter, it seems worth recording the Steam Formula, the equation used to predict coil performance at one steam pressure and entering air temperature from the performance of the same coil at the same standard air velocity but at a different steam pressure and/or entering air temperature: TR1 TR2 = ST1 - EAT 1 ST2 - EAT 2 , where

For systems with modulating types of steam control, the trap should be at least twelve inches below the coil to ensure the trap of a water head when the modulating valve has throttled down to 0 psig at the coil. Therefore, for modulating systems, the trap should be sized to handle the maximum condensate load at the pressure available in the water leg only. For a twelve -inch leg, this would be .43 psi. The two types of traps of most interest for industrial heating and process work are described below: The Float and Thermostatic Trap shown in Figure 1 is the closest thing to a general-purpose trap for industrial heating and process work. F and T traps function well over broad ranges of pressure and steam volume. They are especially suitable for low to medium pressures up to about 20 psig. However, they should not be used on systems involving steam that is superheated more than a few degrees. In operation, air is vented through the thermostatic element on systems with under 20 psi steam pressure at the coil. Condensate raises the float, opening the lower port. The Inverted Bucket Trap of Figure 2 should, generally, take the place of the F and T trap for both high pressure steam and for superheated steam systems. There are other types of traps, but they should not be used as condensate traps on heating and ventilating systems.

TR is air temperature rise through the coil, ST is steam saturation temperature, EAT is entering air temperature. Traps All steam traps serve the same basic purposes: 1. The trap prevents the higher steam supply pressure from passing directly to the return line. If the supply pressure had ready access to the return piping, the whole system would be at the same pressure and there would be reduced steam flow. 2. The steam must not be allowed to pass through the trap until it has condensed in the coil. The whole purpose of the steam heating system is to condense the steam in the coil, and nowhere else. 3. When a steam heating system is started up, the system is filled with air. The water used to produce steam contains dissolved air, which is released when the water is heated. It may also contain nascent oxygen and noncondensable gases which can form CO2 and which, if not released immediately from the coil, will inhibit heat transfer and may attack the tube walls. The air and gases must be allowed to pass through the coil and out of the trap. On high-pressure steam systems, the trap may not have enough air-venting capacity. Refer to note 3 on condensate piping later on in this Letter. All traps are rated on the basis of constant steam and condensate flow at a differential in pressure across the trap. In practice, constant flow rates are seldom encountered. Temperature control variations are the principal cause of uneven flow rates. All steam traps should be sized to handle three times the anticipated maximum condensate rate to ensure condensate removal under surge-load conditions and cold startups. Condensate will not flow from one side of a traps orifice to the other without a pressure differential. For systems with non-modulating types of steam control, the trap must at least be below the coil to ensure that the water level in the trap is below the coil.

Float and Thermostatic Trap (Courtesy of Sarco Co.) Figure 1

Inverted Bucket Trap (Courtesy of Sarco Co.) Figure 2

Page 2

PIPING

The key to successful steam piping requires that these two principles be kept in mind: A. Steam is a gas and can flow in any direction, but condensate, a liquid, flows downhill. C. Both steam and condensate cause friction when they flow. As with air flowing in ducts, consideration must be given to velocity, pipe size, and pressure drop. Bringing the steam to the coil is not nearly so difficult nor troublesome as getting the condensate from the coil back to the boiler. Because steam is the working element in the system and condensate is, after all, only ordinary water, we tend to concentrate our attention on the steam piping and ignore the condensate piping. We should do just the opposite. Although the following discussion treats steam piping first, it is the return piping that demands most careful attention. Referring to Figures 3 (Low Pressure) and 4 (High Pressure) the elements of a good steam-piping system are:
A. Steam mains must be sized based on the steam pressure,

how much of the pressure may be used to overcome friction drop, and the length of the longest run. (System designers accustomed to air-duct design will recognize the basic similarity.) A nomograph for sizing steam pipes is contained on page 8. Pipe expands when heated. The increase is .00008 in./ft.F. A 100-foot long main for 50 psig steam would expand .00008(100) (298-70) = 1.82". Piping must be installed so the expansion may take place without placing stress on the pipe or the equipment to which it is connected. Some of the methods employed to accommodate expansion are metal bellows expansion joints, expansion loops (Figure 5), swing connections (Figure 6), and pipe-support brackets employing rollers.

Page 3

Some steam condenses in the steam mains. The amount may be minimized by insulating the pipes and by using superheat, but all steam supply piping should provide for condensate drainage. Vertical-steam pipes cause no particular problem if the steam if flowing down, but long up-flowing steam lines can be troublesome. Water hammer can be avoided by installing a short horizontal swing connection and drip leg every 20 to 40 feet. The condensate that forms in the steam pipe is passed through a trap to the return (condensate) line. (Sometimes the connection and trap are called the drip leg and drip trap.) See Figure 7.

Steam or Condensate Strainers (Courtesy of Sarco Co.) Figure 8

C. Condensate (return) piping should include: 1. A stub pipe or dirt pocket, at least 8" long, directly below the coil. This is simply a settling spot for dirt and scale, and should be periodically emptied. 2. The strainer, Figure 8, with the dirt pocket, keeps extraneous matter from the mechanism of the trap. Boilers, pipes, and coils are apt to contain small particles of scale, weldspatter or thread-turnings. The strainer in the condensate line is intended primarily to pick up dirt, pipe dope, etc., that find their way into the system during installation. The element should be removed from the condensate strainer assembly after the system is fully in operation. It should not be replaced. The strainer on the supply side of the coil is adequate for the entire system. Since high pressure steam implies high velocity and rapid scouring of dirt from pipes, especially when the system is new, it may be best to use strainers that are available with accessory blow-down valves for frequent and quick cleaning. 3. On high-pressure systems, over 15 psig, it is desirable to provide more air-venting capacity than is incorporated in the trap. This may be done in one of two ways: a. With an air eliminator, which is a thermostatic vent. This type should be used only if it can be guaranteed to operate at the elevated temperature corresponding to the steam temperature. b. By means of a petcock left continuously open. The lost steam is far less costly than the damage done to coils by inadequate venting. Improper venting of high pressure systems is a major cause of coil problems. The high-temperature gases entrained in the steam, if not eliminated, may combine with the condensate to form acids.

Figure 7 -Drip Leg and Trap Systems Use Swing Connections

The purpose of good drainage and drip lines is to avoid water hammer. Steam traveling at high velocity has the capability of scooping up condensate and driving it, in slugs, against a pipe turn, valve, coil, etc. The hammering effect can be violent enough to burst pipes. The only prevention of water hammer is to keep the steam lines dry, i.e., clear them of condensate at frequent intervals. B. Steam supply to the coils should consist of these components: 1. A drip line and trap should parallel the coils unless the coils are located quite close to a drip line on the main. The steam supply should rise above the drip line, as it approaches the coil, for best drainage. 2. Swing connections, see Figures 3, 4, and 6, from the main to the branch and from the branch to the coils. 3. A strainer to keep foreign matter out of the valves, coils, and traps. See Figure 8. 4. A shutoff valve for possible maintenance use. 5. A pressure-control valve. 6. A union. By putting unions and shutoff valves on both sides of coils and traps, an individual coil or trap may be removed without shutting down the entire system.

Page 4

6. Where overhead returns are unavoidable, the only good solution is to drop first into a vented reservoir (sometimes called receiver) and use a motor-driven condensate pump to lift the water into the overhead line. This relieves the trap and coil of the dangers of waterlogging. Despite all of the reasons for not using overhead returns without condensate pumps, such installations are found. In fact, they are so common that they will be discussed here. This is best done by differentiating between those systems that use modulating steam control and those that use non-modulating control. a. Non-modulating control systems may be calculated as the steam pressure is always great enough to overcome the rise in the return line. It can be argued that there are steam systems that do not involve handling lowtemperature air and therefore present no problems of freezing. Such a system might be a process system completely enclosed within a manufacturing plant. However, even in such a system there comes a time when the steam valve is shut off. The condensate that is, at the moment, on the supply side of the trap cannot be discharged from the system (unless fitted with another small trap line that can drain this trapped water into a sewer) and if the water level happens to be such that it settles out across a coil and is allowed to sit there for any length of time, the coil is apt to corrode at the water surface. Modulating systems present a unique situation in that under most conditions the only pressure available at the trap is the water leg between the coil and the trap. For example, a coil that will heat from -10F. to 60F. with 5 psig (227F.) steam will heat from -4F. to 60F. with 0 psig (212F.) steam. This not only makes control difficult but aggravates the condensate removal problem. Therefore, a modulating system must be provided with a vacuum-breaker on the retur n side of the coil to ensure that the trap will at least have equal pressure on the upstream and downstream sides - plus the maximum water head over twelve inches that space will allow. (A vacuum-breaker is just a swing check valve installed so it opens into the system.) Obviously overhead returns cannot be tolerated on this type system without the use of a vented reservoir and condensate pump. Due to the difference in volume between water and steam, condensate pipes may be sized at 60% of the diameter of the steam pipe, for gravity-return systems. Pumped systems may be sized at 40% of the steam pipe diameter.

4. The traps, described in a previous section, must be installed below the coils. Water flows downhill. Overhead return lines (Figure 9) are perhaps the biggest single cause of freezing, water hammer, coil corrosion, and trap failure. While it is theoretically possible for the steam pressure in the coil to push (lift) water into an overhead return line there are just too many reasons why the pressure may not be available when most needed. Consider, for example, a 25 psi boiler system. Assuming a 5 psi drop through the lines, the remaining 20 psi should be able to raise water 46 feet. (One sea level atmosphere is equal to 14.7 psi. This is, in turn, equivalent to a head of 34 feet of water. Stated differently, standard barometric pressure at sea level is 34 feet of water. Since 14.7 psi will lift 34 feet of water then 1 psi will lift 2.3 feet and the 20 psi in the example will lift 46 feet.) On this basis a 15foot lift into an overhead line would seem reasonable. But, on the first cold Monday morning of winter, when the plant heating and process systems were shut down over the weekend, every terminal on the steam system will be at maximum demand. The boiler may develop only 20 psi. The steam will travel at higher-than-ordinary speeds, and the pressure drop may become 10 psi. The steam coils, normally thought of as having negligible pressure drop, will be temporarily starved for steam. The steam will condense so rapidly in the cold coils that the 10 psi at the coil inlets might drop to 5 psi in the coils. Five psi will lift water 111/ 2 feet, but cannot buck the 15-foot rise. The trap and coil will become waterlogged. Water hammer may be severe in horizontal tube coils. If the coil is handling air below 32F. the coil will freeze. Or, consider shutting down the same system at the end of the heating season. As the steam pressure drops, a point is reached where the coil is again waterlogged. A stagnant water level in a coil is an invitation to corrosion. 5. Not shown in Figures 3 or 4, but often advantageous, is an aquastat strapped to the return line just beyond the trap. It is set so cold temperature, indicating no condensate flow, shuts off the fan and thereby prevents freezing air from passing over a water-filled coil. It does not prevent the occurrence of water hammer in horizontal tube coils.

b.

c.

CONTROL METHODS

Control, when referring to steam, means control of the air temperature leaving the coil. Proponents of other heating methods point out that temperature control is difficult with steam. This is a fair criticism. Compare a steam coil to a gas burner, for example. The heat released by the gas burner is a more or less direct function of the amount of gas burned.

Page 5

Contrast this to a 5 psig steam system. The maximum temperature of the coil, at 5 psig, is 227F. By throttling the steam pressure down to 0 psig the temperature can be reduced only to 212F. This difference doesnt allow good control. Attempting to go to a lower temperature necessitates operating at a less than atmospheric pressure and introducing more air into the coil through the vacuum-breaker. This raises the very sort of condensate drainage problems that were discussed in the previous section. However, there are methods of obtaining satisfactory control. A. On-Off. Two-position control is relatively trouble-free but gives the least desirable type of temperature control. In Unit Heaters it is accomplished by leaving the steam on all the time and turning the fan on or off as required by a thermostat. In Make-Up Air and most process and ventilation systems, where constant airflow is desired, the steam is turned full-on or full-off. Before dismissing such systems as too primitive, recognize that most residential heating is done by basically onoff systems. On-off steam systems have one great advantage full steam pressure is available at all times to operate traps and (despite warnings) overhead return lines, and to minimize the danger of freezing. B. Face and Bypass. By allowing some air to bypass the coils, and thereby remain unheated, and by blending the face and bypass airstreams it is possible to obtain good temperature control and still maintain full steam pressure on the coils. This is the system best-suited for steam Make-Up Air (See Figure 10). Face and bypass systems may be built-up (plenum) or packaged. Both may have the disadvantages listed below but, generally speaking, built-up systems can be designed to avoid them. 1. The presence of steam in the coils generally precludes the possibility of handling 100% bypass air without a temperature rise of a few degrees. 2. Most packaged units are designed with less bypass area than is desirable for 100% bypass flow. Most manufacturers

assume that summer operation will be with the steam off and air flowing through the face. Most customers seem to prefer low unit height to full bypass capability. 3. The two different temperature airstreams force the fan (generally downstream of the coils) to operate with inlet stratification. This damages fan performance. One important factor often overlooked in the selection or design of face-and-bypass systems is that the damper blades should have their axis of rotation perpendicular to the axis of the coil tubes. Imagine horizontal dampers and horizontal tubes and you can see that in a partly throttled condition, air would be directed towards some tubes and away from others. Using vertical tubes and horizontal dampers gives the best possible combination. C. Modulating Valves. Since the heat comes from the steam, it seems reasonable to control the heat by throttling the incoming steam. By now the reader has been through the previous discussion of the difficulties involved in operating with this sort of control that results in poor drainage. In addition to the danger of freezing, there is the possibility that horizontal coils and long tubes can set up water hammer that will ruin the coil. D. Preheat-Reheat. Two coils in series can be used to give good temperature control and a reasonable measure of freeze protection (See Figure 11). The coils must be accurately sized. The first preheat coil is selected to raise the entering air temperature to about 40F. to 50F. The second reheat coil raises the air to the desired final temperature. The preheat coil is supplied with a snap action on-off steam valve. The reheat coil has a modulating steam valve. Under maximum conditions, with the coldest (design) entering air temperature, both coils will be under maximum pressure. The thermostatic controls are set to throttle the reheat coil until it is fully closed. The preheat coil is sized so that it will not overheat at full pressure.

Page 6

E. Combinations can be made of preheat-reheat with face and bypass. Fresh air and recirculating dampers may be used to exercise some control by closing down on fresh air in cold weather. Caution should be used in designing combination systems. Complex control systems are often maintenance headaches. Keep it simple. F. High-pressure steam presents the special problems of superheat and flashing. The high temperature of high pressure steam can aggravate the problems of control. One solution is to pass the steam through a pressure-reducing valve before it gets to the coil or temperature control valve. Reducing the pressure reduces the temperature at which the latent heat will be released and makes control easier. However, reducing the pressure does not, in itself, extract any heat from the steam - so the reduced pressure steam is superheated. Reducing saturated 150 psi steam, at 366F., to 25 psi steam, at 266F., gives steam with up to 52 of superheat. Since superheated steam is just another gas until it has been cooled to saturation temperature, it is necessary to increase the size of the coil. The added coil face may be thought of as room for the superheated steam to sit and cool to the saturation temperature. Dry superheated steam has a lower film coefficient than does the wet saturated steam. This also

adversely affects the overall coefficient of heat transfer. A good rule of thumb is to increase the coil area by 10% for each 100 of superheat. When high pressure steam is used, without pressure reduction, the condensate temperature may be high enough to cause some of the condensate to flash back into steam as it enters the lowpressure condensate line, downstream of the trap. Not all the condensate flashes - just a small part of it, enough to absorb the amount of heat needed to produce a stable mixture of steam and water. The mixture is therefore at a lower temperature than the high-pressure condensate. G. Vacuum-steam systems. One-pipe steam systems and some other variations were, and sometimes still are, used for small space heating installations. They are seldom of much interest in industrial heating or process work. CONCLUSION A knowledge of the fundamentals of steam heating is still a necessity in some process applications and building heating systems. The purpose of this Engineering Letter was to provide a basic overview. Engineers and designers of steam-heating systems are encouraged to seek out additional training and reso urces to build their knowledge base.

Page 7

P a ge 8

ENGINEERING LETTER
MI S CE L L AN E O US E NG I NE E RI NG D AT A

The New York Blower Company 7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60521 - 5530

The purpose of this Engineering Letter is to provide reference data commonly required in routine fan system computations.

BASIC FAN LAWS Variable Volume When Speed Changes CFM2 = CFM1
2 1

FAN EFFICIENCY Mechanical Efficiency Mechanical Efficiency Static Efficiency Air Horsepower out x 100% = Shaft Horsepower in = = TP x CFM x 100% 6356 x BHP SP x CFM x 100% 6356 x BHP

When Density Changes Does Not Change D2 D1 D2 BHP 1BHP 2 = D1 P2 = P1

( ) RPM Pressure P = P ( RPM ) RPM Horsepower BHP = BHP ( RPM )

2 1

RPM2 RPM1
2

( ) ( )

UNITS COMMONLY USED IN FAN APPLICATIONS In. WG 1 .00403 27.761 13.635 .03937 .53681 407.98 Pascals 248.36 1 6894.7 3386.4 9.7779 133.32 101325 Psi .03602 .00015 1 .49116 .00142 .01934 14.696 Volume Flow CFM 1 2118.9 35.314 .58858 2.1189 .03531 m /s .000472 1 .01667 .00028 .00100 .00002
3

Pressure In. HG .07334 .00030 2.0360 1 .00289 .03937 29.921

mm WG 25.400 .10227 705.13 346.33 1 13.635 10363

mm HG 1.8628 .00750 51.715 25.400 .07334 1 760.00

Atm .00245 .00001 .06805 .03342 .00010 .00132 1 Rotating Speed

m /min. .02832 60.000 1 .01667 .06000 .00100

m /hr. 1.6990 3600.0 60.000 1 3.6000 .06000

l/s .47195 1000.0 16.667 .27778 1 .01667

l/min. 28.317 60000 1000 16.667 60.000 1

RPM 1 60.000

rps .01667 1

Density lbs./ft.3 1 .06243 Kg/m3 16.018 1

Velocity ft./min. 1 196.85 3.2808 .05468 88.000 101.34 m/s .00508 1 .01667 .00028 .44704 .51479 m/min. .30480 60.000 1 .01667 26.822 30.887 m/hr. 18.288 3600.0 60.000 1 1609.4 1853.2 mph .01136 2.2369 .03728 .00062 1 1.1516 Knots .00987 1.9425 .03238 .00054 .86839 1

Power HP Watts 1 .00134 745.7 1

PRESSURE EQUIVALENTS
Inches Water Inches Mercury Ounces Per Sq. In. Pounds Per Sq. In. Millimeters Water Velocity (FPM)

VELOCITY PRESSURES 3 (At Standard Density .075 lbs./ft. )

VP (In. Water) Velocity (FPM) VP (In. Water)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45

.0733 .1467 .2200 .2934 .3667 .4400 .5134 .5867 .6601 .7334 .8067 .8801 .9534 1.027 1.100 1.173 1.247 1.320 1.393 1.467 1.540 1.613 1.687 1.760 1.834 1.907 1.980 2.054 2.127 2.200 2.274 2.347 2.420 2.494 2.567 2.640 2.714 2.787 2.860 2.934 3.007 3.080 3.154 3.227 3.300

.5763 1.153 1.729 2.305 2.882 3.458 4.034 4.611 5.187 5.763 6.340 6.916 7.493 8.069 8.645 9.222 9.798 10.374 10.951 11.527 12.103 12.680 13.256 13.832 14.409 14.985 15.561 16.238 16.714 17.290 17.867 18.443 19.019 19.596 20.172 20.748 21.325 21.901 22.478 23.054 23.630 24.207 24.783 25.359 25.936

.0360 .0720 .1081 .1441 .1801 .2161 .2522 .2882 .3242 .3602 .3962 .4323 .4683 .5043 .5403 .5763 .6124 .6484 .6844 .7204 .7565 .7925 .8285 .8645 .9005 .9366 .9726 1.009 1.045 1.081 1.117 1.153 1.189 1.225 1.261 1.297 1.333 1.369 1.405 1.441 1.477 1.513 1.549 1.585 1.621

25.4 50.8 76.2 101.6 127.0 152.4 177.8 203.2 228.6 254.0 279.4 304.8 330.2 355.6 381.0 406.4 431.8 457.2 482.6 508.0 533.4 558.8 584.2 609.6 635.0 660.4 685.8 711.2 736.6 762.0 787.4 812.8 838.2 863.6 889.0 914.4 939.8 965.2 990.6 1016.0 1041.4 1066.8 1092.2 1117.6 1143.0

500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800

.016 .022 .031 .040 .050 .062 .075 .090 .105 .122 .140 .160 .180 .202 .249 .302 .359 .421 .489

3000 3200 3400 3600 3800 4000 4200 4400 4600 4800 5000 5200 5400 5600 5800 6000 6200 6400 6600 6800

.561 .638 .721 .808 .900 .998 1.10 1.21 1.32 1.44 1.56 1.69 1.82 1.96 2.10 2.24 2.40 2.55 2.72 2.88

FAN SYSTEM EFFECT FACTORS Pressure Drop, Inches Water Gauge

Round, Mitred Elbow Square-Duct Elbow Air W/Out Turning With Turning Multi-piece Velocity Vanes Vanes Two(FPM) piece R R R R R R =1 =2 =1 =2 =1 =2 D D D D D D

3000 4000 5000 3000 4000 5000 3000 4000 5000

DENSITIES OF SATURATED AIR

Temp. (F.) Density (lbs./ft.3 ) Temp. (F.) Density (lbs./ft.3 )

Elbow On The Inlet 1.8 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.5 0.3 3.2 1.3 1.0 1.3 0.8 0.6 5.0 1.8 1.5 1.8 1.3 0.8 Elbow (2) Duct Diameters From The Inlet 1.2 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.2 2.0 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.5 0.4 3.0 1.0 0.8 1.1 0.7 0.5 Elbow (5) Duct Diameters From The Inlet 0.6 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 1.0 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.2 1.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.3 FAN PRESSURES TP = SP + VP TP fan = TP outlet - TP inlet SP fan = SP outlet - SP inlet - VP inlet VP = Velocity Pressure TP = Total Pressure SP = Static Pressure

0.1 0.3 0.4 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.0 0.1 0.2

-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

.09027 .08824 .08632 .08445 .08264 .08090 .07921 .07753 .07589 .07425 .07262 .07094

100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 212

.0619 .06741 .06552 .06349 .06132 .05895 .05634 .05346 .05036 .04667 .04270 .03730
Page 2

ALTITUDE AND TEMPERATURE CORRECTION FACTORS (Multiply Factor by SP at Conditions) Air Temp. (F.) 0 50 70 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000 Altitude (feet) 0 .87 .96 1.00 1.07 1.15 1.25 1.34 1.43 1.53 1.62 1.72 1.81 1.91 2.00 2.10 2.19 2.28 2.38 2.47 2.56 2.66 2.76 1000 .91 1.00 1.04 1.10 1.20 1.29 1.39 1.49 1.59 1.69 1.79 1.88 1.98 2.08 2.18 2.27 2.37 2.48 2.57 2.66 2.77 2.87 2000 .94 1.04 1.08 1.14 1.24 1.34 1.45 1.55 1.62 1.75 1.86 1.96 2.06 2.16 2.26 2.36 2.47 2.57 2.67 2.76 2.87 2.98 3000 .98 1.08 1.12 1.19 1.29 1.40 1.50 1.61 1.72 1.82 1.93 2.03 2.14 2.24 2.35 2.46 2.56 2.66 2.77 2.87 2.98 3.09 4000 1.01 1.11 1.16 1.23 1.33 1.45 1.56 1.67 1.78 1.89 2.00 2.11 2.22 2.33 2.44 2.55 2.66 2.76 2.87 2.97 3.09 3.20 5000 1.05 1.15 1.20 1.28 1.38 1.51 1.62 1.74 1.85 1.96 2.08 2.19 2.30 2.42 2.54 2.65 2.76 2.86 2.96 3.07 3.19 3.31 6000 1.09 1.20 1.25 1.33 1.44 1.56 1.68 1.79 1.91 2.03 2.15 2.26 2.39 2.50 2.62 2.74 2.81 2.98 3.09 3.20 3.33 3.45 7000 1.13 1.25 1.30 1.38 1.50 1.63 1.74 1.86 1.99 2.11 2.24 2.35 2.48 2.60 2.73 2.85 2.96 3.09 3.21 3.33 3.46 3.59 8000 1.17 1.30 1.35 1.43 1.55 1.69 1.81 1.93 2.07 2.19 2.32 2.44 2.58 2.70 2.84 2.94 3.08 3.21 3.33 3.46 3.59 3.73 9000 1.22 1.34 1.40 1.48 1.61 1.75 1.88 2.00 2.14 2.27 2.41 2.53 2.67 2.80 2.94 3.01 3.19 3.33 3.46 3.58 3.72 3.86 10000 1.26 1.39 1.45 1.54 1.67 1.81 1.94 2.07 2.22 2.35 2.49 2.62 2.77 2.90 3.05 3.18 3.31 3.45 3.58 3.71 3.86 4.00

WEIGHTS OF MATERIALS, MEAN VALUES

Material Density

lbs./ft.

Material

Density

lbs./ft.

Material

Density

lbs./ft.

Material Salt, gran, and piled Saltpeter Sand, dry, loose Sand, wet Sandstone Sandstone, crushed Sawdust Shale, riprap Shavings, planer Slag, Iron Slag, granulated Slate Soda ash Soda ash, granulated Sodium carbonate Sodium nitrate Sodium sulphate Starch granulated Steel Sucrose Sugar, bulk Sulphur Sulphur, crushed Talc Tar, bituminous Tile Tin Tobacco Water Zinc Zinc oxide

Density

lbs./ft.

Air .0749 Aluminum 165 Aluminum chips 48 Antimony 414 Asbestos 153 Asbestos, loose 64 Ashes, coal, dry 40 Ashes, wood, dry 47 Bakelite, Laminated 86 wood filler 85 asbestos filler 118 crushed 43 Baking powder 56 Bauxite, dry, crushed 43 Borax 109 Borax, dry, crushed 75 Brass 530 Brass chips 163 Brick, masonry 118 Bronze 509 Bronze, phosphor 554 Calcium, carbonate 177 Calcium chloride 134 Calcium sulphate 185 Carbide, dry, crushed 50 Carborundum 195 Carborundum, loose 140 Caustic soda 88 Celluloid 90 Cellulose 94 Cement, loose 94 Cereals, bulk barley, corn 37 oats 26 rye, wheat 48 Chalk 142 Charcoal, hardwood 34 softwood 23 broken 12

Cinders Clay, loose, dry moist Coal, anthracite anthracite, piled bituminous bituminous, piled Coffee Coke Coke, piled Coke, dry, crushed Concrete, cinder stone Copper Copper ore, crushed Copper oxide Cork Corn meal Corundum, alundum Cotton, baled loose Dolomite Duralumin Earth, dry and loose Earth, moist & loose Emery Feldspar Feldspar, crushed Ferrous, grind dust Flour, compressed barreled loose Fullers earth, dry Glass, crown Glass, flint pyrex ground Granite loose, piled Graphite

43 63 110 98 54 85 47 48 75 28 15 97 142 556 190 190 15 40 247 93 30 181 175 76 78 250 160 88 125 47 28 30 160 215 140 90 165 96 132

Gravel, loose, piled 120 Grit blast dust 160 Gypsum, compressed 152 loose 70 Iron, gray cast 442 Iron ore, loose 150 Lead 710 Lead oxide (red) 567 Leather 56 Lime 53-64 Limestone 163 Lucite 74 Magnesia 214 Magnesium 109 Manganese ore, crushed 259 Marble, crushed 95 Mica 183 Monel metal 556 Natural gas 0.04475 Nickel 547 Nylon 70 Paper 58 Strawboard or newspaper 33-44 Paraffin 56 Peat, dry 30 Phosphate, ground 75 Porcelain 150 Potash 60 Quartz 165 Quartz, ground 84 Resin 67 Rubber, India 58 compound 115 hard 75 hard sponge 30 tire reclaim, solid 74 tire reclaim, shred 27

48 80 99 110 144 82 7-15 105 7-15 172 60 172 74 30 91 141 167 95 35 487 100 55 126 50 170 69 113 457 16 62.4 443 350

Page 3

MISCELLANEOUS CONVERSION FACTORS Pressure 2 1 Pa = 1 N/m 1 Pa = 10 dy/cm 2 2 1 psi. = 0.0703 kg/cm 2 1 lb./ft. = 4.884 kg/m2 Length 1 mil. = 0.0254 mm 1 in. = 2.54 cm 1 ft. = 0.3048 m 1 mi. = 1.6093 km 1 nau. mi. = 1.1516 mi. Energy 1 Btu = 777.97 ft.-lb. 1 HP = 2545 Btu/Hr. 1 HP = 1.014 metric HP 1 HP = 0.0761 boiler HP 1 KW = 3414 Btu/Hr. 1 Ton = 12000 Btu/Hr. Mass 1 lb. = 453.5924 g. Area 1 in. = 6.4516 cm2 1 ft.2 = 0.0929 m2 2 1 yd. = 0.8361 m2 2 1 mi. = 2.5899 km2 Volume 1 in.3 = 16.3871 cm3 3 1 ft. = 0.0283 m3 1 ft.3 = 7.48 gal. 3 1 ft. = 28.316 l. 3 1 yd. = 0.7646 m3 1 oz. = 29.57 ml. 1 gal. = 3.785 l. 1 gal. U.S. = 0.833 Imp. gal.
2

U. S. INCH Fraction 1/16 1/8 3/16 1/4 5/16 3/8 7/16 1/2 9/16 5/8 11/16 3/4 13/16 7/8 15/16 1 Decimal 0.06250 0.12500 0.18750 0.25000 0.31250 0.37500 0.4375 0.5000 0.56250 0.62500 0.68750 0.75000 0.81250 0.87500 0.93750 1.00000 MM 1.588 3.175 4.763 6.3 50 7.938 9.525 11.113 12.700 14.288 15.875 17.463 19.050 20.638 22.225 23.813 25.400

Metric Prefixes deci = x 0.1 centi = x 0.01 mili = x 0.001 micro = x 0.000001 deca = x 10.0 hecto = x 100.00 kilo = x 1000.00

METAL SHEET AND PLATE DATA Mild Steel, Stainless T-1, INX Gauge 1" 3/4" 5/8" 1/2" 3/8" 1/4" 7 (3/16") 10 12 14 16 18 Thickness 1.0 .75 .625 .50 .375 .250 .1875 .1345 .1046 .0747 .0598 .0478 Weight (lbs./ft.2 ) 40.8 30.6 25.5 20.4 15.3 10.2 7.5 5.625 4.375 3.125 2.50 2.0 Gauge .250 .190 .160 .125 .100 .080 Aluminum Weight (lbs./ft.2 ) 3.50 2.65 2.24 1.75 1.40 1.12

SHAFTING DATA (Mild Steel, Stainless) Diameter (in.) 5/8 1 1 3/16 1 7/16 1 11/16 1 15/16 2 3/16 2 7/16 2 11/16 2 15/16 3 3/16 3 7/16 3 15/16 4 7/16 4 15/16 5 7/16 6 Weight (lbs./ft.) 1.04 2.67 3.77 5.52 7.60 10.02 12.78 15.87 19.29 23.04 27.13 31.55 41.40 52.58 65.10 78.95 96.13

ELECTRICAL FORMULAS

TEMPERATURE CONVERSION C = (F - 32) 1.8 K = C + 273.15 F = (C x 1.8) + 32 R = F + 459.67

Form 60 7 GAW

ENGINEERING LETTER G
The New York Blower Company 7660 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, Illinois 60527-5530

GLOSS ARY
The following terms are common to the fields of air movement, general ventilation, industrial process, and pollution control. The definitions contained in this glossary provide brief descriptions of the terms as generally used in these fields. In many cases, a more thorough discussion of these terms can be found in the text of the appropriate Engineering Letter.

ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE

degrees Rankine, where absolute 0R. = -459.7F.; density corrections for temperature are based on the percentage rate of change in degrees Rankine: degrees Kelvin where absolute 0K = -273.1C. Density (temp.) = 460F. +70F. 460F. + F. (non-standard) standard standard) ABSORPTION the process of one substance entering into the inner structure of another. Density (std.) x

AMBIENT immediate surroundings or vicinity. AMCA Air

Movement and Control Association.

ANEMOMETER

a device which reads air velocity such as a wind vane. In fan applications, it is usually a spinning-vanetype instrument used to read low velocities at registers or grills.

ANNEAL

the process of relieving stress and brittleness in metals by heating.

ANODIZE ANSI

an electrolytic action of affixing a protective coating or film, usually applied to aluminum. American National Standards Institute.

ACCELERATION LOSS the energy required to induce air to

move at the entry to a system.

ACFM actual cubic feet per

minute; the quantity or volume of a gas flowing at any point in a system. Fans are rated and selected on the basis of ACFM, as a fan handles the same volume of airregardless of density. .075 x SCFM actual density ACTUATOR mechanical device attached to a damper to move its blades. May be manual, electric, pneumatic, or hydraulic. ACFM =

API American Petroleum Institute. APPURTENANCES accessories added to a fan for the purposes
of control, isolation, safety, static pressure regain, wear, etc.

ARI Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute. ASHRAE ASME

American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air Conditioning Engineers. American Society of Mechanical Engineers.

ADSORPTION adhesion of a thin film of liquid or gases to the

surface of a solid substance.

ASPECT RATIO the ratio of the width to the length. ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE one atmosphere is approximately
14.7 PSI; 408" water gauge. Airflow is the result of a difference in pressure (above or below atmospheric) between two points.

AF fan wheel design with airfoil-shaped blades. AIR CONDITIONING treating air to meet the requirements of a
conditioned space by controlling its temperature, humidity, cleanliness, and distribution.

AIR CURTAIN mechanical air-moving device designed to

limit the influx of unwanted air at a building opening.

ATTENUATION

AIR -HANDLING UNIT

factory-made encased assembly consisting of a fan or fans and other equipment to circulate, clean, heat, cool, humidify, dehumidify, or mix air.

absorption of sound pressure. Attenuation reduces the amplitude only of a sound wave while leaving the frequency unchanged.

AXIAL FAN

AIR VELOCITY rate of speed of an airstream, expressed in

FPM.

fan where the airflow through the impeller is predominantly parallel to the axis of rotation. The impeller is contained in a cylindrical housing.

AXIAL FLOW
motor shaft.

in-line air movement parallel to the fan or

ALTITUDE

the height above sea level of a given location. Density corrections for altitude are made using the following formula where Z is the feet above sea level. Density (Alt) = Density (Std) x [1 - (6.73 x 10
-6

BABBITT METAL

an alloy containing tin, copper, and antimony; commonly used for lining bearings.

) Z] 5.258

BACKDRAFT DAMPER

damper used in a system to relieve air pressure in one direction and to prevent airflow in the opposite direction.

CAPACITOR START MOTOR type of

BALANCING the process of adding (or removing) weight on a

rotor in order to move the center of gravity toward the axis of rotation.

single-phase induction motor with a capacitor connected in series with the starting winding. High-starting and breakdown torque, medium starting current. Used in hard-starting applications; compressors, pumps, etc.

CAPTURE VELOCITY

BARCOL NUMBER a standard measure of FRP surface hardness. BAROMETRIC P RESSURE a

measurement of the pressure of the atmosphere; standard is 29.92" Hg. the main bearings.

air velocity necessary to overcome opposing air currents or natural flow and cause contaminated air, fumes, or material to flow in a desired direction.

CATALYST

the final ingredient that triggers the chemical reaction known as curing, which converts liquid resin to a solid. a thermometric scale in which water boils at 100 and freezes at 0, same as centigrade:

BEARING LOSSES the power losses resulting from friction in CELSIUS BERNOULLIS THEOREM the

C = .5556 x [F. - 32] principle that the total energy per unit of mass in the streamline flow of a moving fluid is constant, being the sum of the potential energy, the kinetic CENTRIFUGAL FAN a fan design in which air is discharged energy, and the energy due to pressure. In terms of air perpendicular to the wheels rotational axis. movement, the theorem states that the static pressure plus velocity pressure as measured at a point upstream in the direction CFM cubic feet per minute; the volume of flow for a given of airflow is equal to the static pressure plus velocity pressure fan or system. as measured at a point downstream in the direction of airflow COATINGS specialty coverings, typically referred to as paints, plus the friction and dynamic losses between the points. with varying degrees of resistance to atmospheric or chemical BI fan wheel design with backwardly-inclined blades. corrosion.

BILLET a section of semi-finished metal or non-ferrous alloy. BLADE L INERS

pieces of material added over the wheel blades to reduce abrasion of the blades.

COEFFICIENT OF CONDUCTIVITY

BLADE-PASS F REQUENCY the tone generated by the blades

passing a fixed object.

the rate of heat transfer through a material, expressed in Btu transmitted per hour through one square foot of surface per degree difference in temperature across the material. Figures are usually expressed for basic materials, such as wood or insulation; per inch of thickness, and called by the symbol K.

BLAST AREA the fan outlet area less the projected area of the
cut-off.

COMPRESSIBILITY

BOILER HORSEPOWER

a factor used by fan manufacturers to correct performance ratings in higher pressure ranges to account for the fact that air is a compressible gas that does not follow the perfect gas laws.

the capability to evaporate 34.5 pounds of water per hour into dry steam at 2 12F. at sea level; 33,500 BTU/Hr.

COMPRESSION

BRAKE HORSEPOWER

[BHP] mechanical energy consumed at a rate of 33,000 ft. lbs. per minute; a consumption rating, as compared to the production rating of horsepower itself.

BREAKDOWN TORQUE

maximum torque a motor will produce without a sudden decrease in speed. Often referred to as pull-out torque or maximum torque.

a phenomenon related to positive pressure. When air is forced into a system it is compressed and becomes more dense. Depending on the volume or weight of air required down stream in the positive pressure portion of the system, the volume of air at the inlet of a fan may have to be adjusted by the ratio of absolute pressure at the entrance of the fan versus the design requirements in the system.

CONVEYING VELOCITY CORROSION the

the air velocity required in a duct system to maintain entrainment of a specific material. deterioration of a material by chemical or electrochemical reaction resulting from exposure to weathering, moisture, chemical, or other agents in the environment in which it is placed.

BRINELL NUMBER

a standard measure of metal surface hardness; metals with Brinell hardness ratings of 250 or more are generally considered abrasion-resistant.

BTU

British Thermal Unit; heat required to raise the temperature of 1 pound of water by 1 F. The Btu/hr. required to raise the temperature of a volume of standard air a specific number of degrees is calculated by the formula: Btu/hr = Temp. Rise x CFM x 1.085

CRP Certified Ratings Program. CSA Canadian Standards Association. Sets safety standards for
motors and other electrical equipment used in Canada.

Page 2

CURVE, FAN PERFORMANCE

a graphic representation of static or total pressure and fan BHP requirements over an airflow volume range at a stated inlet density and fan speed.

EFFICIENCY, STATIC the

ratio of fan output less the kinetic energy [outlet-velocity pressure] leaving the fan to the power applied to the fan: SE = SP x CFM 6356 X BHP distance of the subject site above or below

CURVE, SYSTEM

a graphic representation of the pressure versus flow characteristics of a given system and density. sea level.

DAMPER an accessory to be installed at the fan inlet or outlet E LEVATION the

for air-volume modulation.

dbA

sound-pressure level corrected to the A weighing network. and some quantity of electric or acoustic signal power.

E ND REFLECTION

a known value of sound radiated back into a duct or opening.

DECIBEL the logarithmic ratio between some known reference E NTHALPY the heat content per unit mass of a substance. ENTRY L OSS the loss in pressure caused by air flowing into a
system; normally expressed in fractions of velocity pressure.

DENSITY the measure of unit mass equal to its weight divided

by its volume (lbs./ft.3); standard air is .075 lbs./ft. .
3

EQUIVALENT DUCT DIAMETER

sides a and b is: D = (4ab/ )0.5

for rectangular duct with

DEW P OINT the temperature at which condensation begins to

form as air is cooled.

DFT

dry-film thickness usually expressed in thousandths of an inch (mils).

E VASE a diffuser at the fan outlet which gradually increases in

area to decrease velocity and to convert kinetic energy to static pressure [regain.]

DIFFERENTIAL P RESSURE the DILUTION VENTILATING

difference of static pressures

at the fan outlet and inlet; also see FAN CAPACITY. the mixing of contaminated air with uncontaminated supply air for the purpose of attaining acceptable working or living conditions.

F AHRENHEIT

a thermometric scale in which water boils at 212 and freezes at 32. F = (1.8 x C) + 32

DIRECTIVITY FACTOR

the number representative of the radiation characteristics of a sound source.

F AN

a power-driven machine which moves a continuous volume of air by converting rotational mechanical energy to an increase in the total pressure of the moving air.

DRY- BULB T EMPERATURE the

water vapor and air mixture.

combined temperature of a

F AN CAPACITY performance

DUST

air suspension of particles [aerosol] of any solid material, usually with a particle size smaller than 100 micrometers.

requirement for which a fan is selected to meet specific system calculations given in terms of ACFM at the fan inlet.

F AN CLASS operating limits at which a fan must be physically

capable of operating safely.

DUST COLLECTOR

an air-cleaning device used to remove heavy-particulate loadings from exhaust systems prior to discharge.

F AN LAWS

theoretical constant relationships between CFM, RPM, SP, and BHP for a given fan used in a given fixed system: CFM varies as RPM SP varies as (RPM)2 3 BHP varies as (RPM)

DWDI double-width, double-inlet fans, Arrangement 3. DYNAMIC BALANCE the

part or assembly in motion. mechanical balancing of a rotating

DYNAMIC INSERTION LOSS

a reduction of airborne noise levels affected by the installation of an acoustical silencer.

FC fan wheel design using forward-curved blades. F INITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

(FEA) computerized analytical technique used to divide a rotating body into many segments to determine the stress of each segment and therefore the complete body.

DYNE a unit of force equal to that which would accelerate one

gram by one centimeter per second.

EFFICIENCY, MECHANICAL T OTAL the ratio of fan output

to the power applied to the fan. Can be helpful in selecting fan size, type, or manufacturer for the same application: ME = TP x CFM 6356 x BHP

F LASHING sheet-metal F OOT- POUND

strip placed at the junction of intersecting exterior building surfaces to make the joint water-tight.
( F t . - L b. ) torque rating or requirement; equivalent to the force required to move a one-pound weight one foot in distance, equal to 12 in.-lb.

Page 3

FORCED DRAFT how air is provided in a process, such as a GEL COAT

combustion process; when air is blown or forced into a process, it is known as a forced draft system. Also see induced draft.

a special resin system, sometimes including pigment, but without glass-reinforcing, that is applied to the mold before applying the FRP.

FPM

feet per minute; commonly defines air velocity (to determine velocity pressure or suitability for materialconveying), shaft/bearing speeds (used to determine lubrication requirements) and wheel tip speeds.

GROUND MOTOR

a short circuit between any point in the motors electrical circuit and its connection to the ground.

HEAT EXCHANGER a device such as a coil or radiator which

is used to transfer heat between two physically separated fluids.

FRAME SIZE

a set of physical dimensions of motors as established by National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) for interchangeability between manufacturers. Dimensions include; shaft diameter, shaft height, and motor mounting foot print.

HEPA FILTER

high-efficiency particulate commonly called absolute filters.

air

filters

FREE FIELD

HERTZ frequency measured in cycles per second. Hg

symbol for mercury. Pressure is often measured in inches of mercury: (1" Hg. = 13.64" WG)

the surroundings of a specific equipment location in which no obstructions or reverberant surfaces exist to distort or amplify sound waves.

FREQUENCY any

cyclic event whether vibration, alternating current, or rotational speed. Usually expressed in cycles per second (cps) or just cycles.

HORSEPOWER

FRICTION LOSS

(as applied to motors) is an index of the amount of the work the machine can perform in a period of time. 1 HP equals 33,000 ft. lbs. of work per minute, also equal to 0.746 kilowatts. Horsepower can be calculated by: HP = Torque (ft. lbs.) x RPM 5250

resistance to air flow through any duct or fitting, given in terms of static pressure.

FRP abbreviation for fiberglass-reinforced-plastic. FULL-LOAD SPEED the speed at which the rated horsepower
is developed. This speed is less than synchronous speed and varies with motor type and manufacturer.

HOUSING the casing or shroud of a centrifugal fan. HVAC heating, ventilating, and air conditioning. IMPELLER another term for fan wheel. The rotating portion
of the fan designed to increase the energy level of the gas stream.

FULL-LOAD TORQUE FUMES airborne

the torque required to produce the rated horsepower at full-load speed. particles, usually less than 1 micrometer in size, formed by condensation of vapors, sublimation, distillation, or chemical reaction.

IMPELLER DIAMETER
over the impeller blades.

the maximum diameter measured

GALVANIZING the process of coating or plating with a zincrich solution; can be a hot-dip process, cold spray, or brush application.

IMPINGEMENT INCH

striking or impacting; such as material impingement on a fan wheel.

OF WATER unit of pressure equal to the pressure exerted by a column of water one inch high at a standard density (27.73" water = 1 PSI).

GAS STREAM the specific airstream composition within any

fan or system.

INCH-P OUND torque equal to one-twelfth foot pound. INCLINED MANOMETER a

metering device used to obtain accurate pressure measurements.

GASES

formless fluids which tend to occupy an entire space uniformly at ordinary temperatures and pressures.

GAUGE

(GAGE) metal manufacturers standard measure of thickness for sheet stock; some examples for steel are:

INDUCED DRAFT how air is provided in a process, such as a

combustion process; where air is drawn or pulled through a process. Also see forced draft.

Gauge 7 10 12 14 16

Thickness (Inches) .1793 .1345 .1046 .0747 .0598

Weight of Steel (Lbs./Ft. 2) 7.50 5.625 4.375 3.125 2.50

INDUCTION the production of an electric current in a conductor

in a changing magnetic field.

INERTIA tendency of an object to remain in the state it is in;

see WR .
2

GAUGE P RESSURE

the pressure differential between atmospheric and that measured in the system.

INLET-VANE DAMPER

round multiblade damper mounted to the inlet of a fan to vary the airflow.

Page 4

INSTABILITY the point of operation at which a fan or system MIL a unit of measure equal to 25 microns or one-thousandth
will hunt or pulse; common in FC fans and some other fan types where the point of operation is left of the peak of the static-pressure curve. parts requiring either a press fit or a shrink fit. of an inch.

M IXED-F LOW F AN a fan where the airflow is primarily

axial and is changed by the blade shape to induce a small radial

INTERFERENCE FIT specified interference between mating flow at the discharge. KELVIN see Absolute Temperature. KILOPASCAL Kpa; metric pressure unit; one inch water
gauge is 0.24836 Kpa.

M OLECULAR WEIGHT the weight of a molecule expressed

on a scale in which the carbon isotope weighs exactly 12.0; represents the sum of the weights of all the atoms in a molecule. As air is a gas mixture, it does not have a true molecular weight but an apparent molecular weight determined by the percentages of the molecular weights of each gas in a composition.

KILOWATT Kw; measure of power equal to 1.34 horsepower.

which 90% of the bearings subjected to a given set of conditions will still be in operation; also known as B-10.

L-10 BEARING LIFE the theoretical number of hours after NACE National Association of Corrosion Engineers. NATURAL FREQUENCY the frequency at which a component
or system resonates.

LAMINAR FLOW gas or fluid in parallel layers with some

sliding motion between the layers.

NEC National Electrical Code. NEMA the National Electrical Manufacturers Association;
the trade association establishing standards of dimensions, ratings, enclosures, insulation, and other design criteria for electric motors. maximum permissible sound-power level in each of the eight octave bands. NC curves give, in a graphical form, maximum permissible intensity per octave band.

LAMINATE the total structure of the FRP part. For

nyb

corrosion-resistant products it consists of a resin-rich surface and a thickness of glass-reinforced resin as required for structural strength. used as a lubricant base.

LITHIUM a soft element in the alkali metal group commonly NOISE CRITERIA a way for an architect to specify the LOGARITHM a mathematical term used as a basis of the
decimal system. A logarithm is the exponent of 10 which produces a given number. For instance the log of 100 is 2 since:
lo g 10 1 0 0 = 2

O CTAVE BANDS ranges of frequencies. These octave bands

are identified by their center frequencies (63, 125, 250, etc.).

10 = 100

OHM a measure of electrical resistance. A wire in which one

produces a current of one ampere has a resistance of one LOUVER a device comprised of multiple blades which, when volt Ohm. mounted in an opening, permits the flow of air but inhibits the entrance of undesirable elements.

O PPOSED- BLADE DAMPER a type of damper where

LOWER EXPLOSIVE LIMIT the lowest percentage of an adjacent blades rotate in the opposite direction. element in otherwise standard air that will explode when OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration.
exposed to a spark. ounces per square inch; a unit of pressure equal to oneMACH NUMBER a fraction of the speed of sound; used in fan OSI sixteenth PSI or 1.733 inches of water. engineering where air moving at a mach number of 0.9, or 9/10 the speed of sound, begins to deviate from the fan laws.

P ARALLEL- BLADE DAMPER a type of damper where the

blades rotate in the same direction.

MAKE-UP AIR a ventilating term which refers to the

replacement of air lost because of exhaust air requirements. and partially filled with liquid, either water, light oil, or mercury.

P ARALLEL FANS two or more fans which draw air from a

common source and exhaust into a common duct or plenum. A requirements beyond that of single fans. Two identical fans in parallel will effectively deliver twice the rated flow of any one of the fans at the same static pressure.

MANOMETER instrument for measuring pressure, u-shaped, parallel fan arrangement is generally used to meet volume MAXIMUM CONTINUOUS RATING the point at which the
fan is expected to operate. atmospheric pressure; 0.0000 146 PSI.

P ERMANENT SPLIT CAPACITOR MOTOR very low starting

torque. Performance and applications similar to shaded pole power capabilities. acidity or alkalinity on a scale from 0 to 14; pH7 is taken as neutral, 6 to 0 increasingly acid, 8 to 14 increasingly alkaline.

MICROBAR a unit of pressure equal to one-millionth of an but more efficient, with lower line current and higher horseMICRON a unit of measure equal to one-millionth of a meter, pH a symbol as part of a logarithmic designation to indicate
commonly used in dust collection and material-handling applications to designate particle size.

Page 5

PHENOLIC a thermosetting resin system used for coatings and RAREFICATION a phenomenon related to negative pressure.
adhesives. When air is drawn through resistance into a fan inlet, the air is stretched out, or rarefied, and becomes less dense than at the PIEZOMETER RING a device consisting of a number of entry to the system. While negligible at low pressures and pressure taps connected to a common manifold to measure volumes, high pressure fan selection must be based on rarefied pressure. inlet density.

PITCH DIAMETER the mean diameter or point at which V-belts RELATIVE H UMIDITY the ratio of existing water vapor to
ride within a sheave. This dimension is necessary for accurate drive calculations. tube with a short right-angle bend; the periphery of the tube has several holes through which static pressure is measured; the bent end of the tube has a hole through which total pressure is measured when pointed upstream in a moving gas stream. system in which two or more branches converge or where system components such as fans, coils, filters, or dampers are located. that of saturated air at the same dry-bulb temperature.

RESIN an organic polymer in liquid form which, when reacted PITOT TUBE a metering device consisting of a double-walled with the proper catalyst, becomes solid. REYNOLDS NUMBER a mathematical factor used to express
the relation between velocity, viscosity, density, and dimensions in a system of flow; used to define fan proportionality. surface hardness. Also see Brinell Number.

PLENUM a chamber or enclosure within an air-handling ROCKWELL H ARDNESS a standard measure of a metals ROTOR the rotating part of most AC motors. RPM revolutions per minute. RT fan wheel design with radial-tip blades. RTP reinforced thermoset plastic. Also see FRP. SATURATED AIR air containing the maximum amount of
water vapor for a given temperature and pressure. 0.075 lbs./ft. density; used as an equivalent weight.
3

POINT

OF OPERATION the intersection of a fans static pressure curve and the system curve to which the fan is being applied; may be designated as velocity pressure divided by static pressure or by a given CFM and SP.

POLES the number of magnetic poles established inside an

electric motor by the placement and connection of the windings. exhibit a high degree of corrosion-resistance over a wide spectrum of corrosive agents.

POLYESTER a large group of thermosetting plastics which SCFM standard cubic feet per minute; a volume of air at
CROLL the general shape of a centrifugal fan housing; the PSI pounds per square inch measured in gauge pressure, not S formed piece to which housing sides are welded. including atmospheric.

SENSIBLE HEAT any portion of heat which effects a change in PSIG pounds per square inch measured in gauge pressure, not a substances temperature but does not alter that substances
including atmospheric. state. outlet of one fan exhausts into the inlet of another. Fans connected in this manner are capable of higher pressures than a single fan and are used to meet pressure requirements greater than single fans.

PSYCHROMETRIC CHART a graphic depiction of the SERIES FANS a combination of fans connected such that the
relationship between pressure, density, humidity, temperature, and enthalpy for any gas-vapor mixture, used extensively in comfort ventilation.

PULL-OUT TORQUE breakdown torque.

wave pattern. Such a sound might be created by a tuning fork.

SERVICE FACTOR the number by which the horsepower PURE T ONE a sound that is characterized by a very uniform rating is multiplied to determine the maximum safe load that a
motor may be expected to carry continuously.

PVC polyvinyl chloride; a synthetic thermoplastic polymer. QUADRANT commonly the damper control plate.
straight radial direction from the hub. constantly changing frequency.

SHADED- POLE M OTOR a special type of single-phase

induction motor. Low starting torque, low cost. Usually used on direct-drive fans.

RADIAL B LADE fan wheel design with blades positioned in SHAFT SEAL a device to limit gas leakage between the shaft
and fan housing. circuit and armature circuit are connected in parallel.

RANDOM NOISE a sound that has an average amplitude and SHUNT-WOUND MOTOR a DC motor in which the field RANKINE see Absolute Temperature. SI UNITS Systeme International dUnites, International
System of Units; any one of the units of measure in the international meter-kilogram-second system.
Page 6

SLIP

the percentage difference between synchronous and operating speeds.

STATOR

the stationary parts of a magnetic circuit with associated windings.

SOUND

produced by the vibration of matter. The vibration causes sound waves to spread through the surrounding medium.

SURGE LIMIT that point near the peak of the pressure curve
which corresponds to the minimum flow at which the fan can be operated without instability.

SOUND-P OWER LEVEL

acoustic power radiating from a sound source. Expressed in watts or in decibels.

SWSI Single-Width Single-Inlet Centrifugal Fans. SYNCHRONOUS SPEED

rated motor speed expressed in RPM. Synchronous s peed = 120 x frequency divided by number of poles.

SOUND-P RESSURE LEVEL

the acoustic pressure at a point in space where the microphone or listeners ear is situated. Expressed in units of pressure or in decibels.

SP

SYSTEM

static pressure; pressure as measured in all directions within an air-handling system, not including the force or pressure of air movement.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY

the ratio of the weight or mass of a given volume of any substance to that of an equal volume of some other substance taken as a standard. The ratio of the density of any gas to the density of dry air at the same temperature and pressure is the specific gravity of the gas.

a series of ducts, conduits, elbows, filters, diffusers, etc., designed to guide the flow of air, gas, or vapor to and from one or more locations. A fan provides the energy necessary to overcome the systems resistance to flow and causes air or gas to flow through the system.

SYSTEM CURVE graphic presentation of the pressure versus

volume flow rate characteristics of a particular system.

SYSTEM EFFECT

SPECIFIC HEAT the ratio of the quantity of heat required to

raise a certain volume one degree to that required to raise an equal volume of water one degree.

the effect on the performance of a fan resulting from the difference between the fan inlet and outlet connections to the actual system, and the standardized connections used in laboratory tests to obtain fan-performance ratings.

SPI Society of the Plastics Industry. SPLIT-PHASE MOTOR

the most common type of singlephase induction motor. Moderate starting torque, high starting current, high breakdown torque. Used on easy-starting equipment, such as belt-drive fans.

TACHOMETER

an instrument which measures the speed of rotation; usually in RPM.

TENSILE STRENGTH

the maximum stress a material can withstand before it breaks; expressed in pounds per square inch.

SQUIRREL-CAGE WINDING

a permanently short-circuited winding, usually uninsulated and chiefly used in induction motors, having its conductors uniformly distributed around the periphery of the machine and joined by continuous end rings.

TEST BLOCK

an operating point above and beyond the maximum specified continuous rating demonstrating the fan margin to the customer.

SRC

Spark-Resistant Construction; AMCA standard of guidelines for general methods of fan construction when handling potentially explosive or flammable particles, fumes, or vapors.

THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUES

TLV; the values for airborne toxic materials which are to be used as guides in the control of health hazards and represent time weighted concentrations to which nearly all workers may be exposed 8 hours per day over extended periods of time without adverse effects (OSHA).

SSPC Steel Structures Painting Council. STANDARD AIR DENSITY STARTING TORQUE
0.0750 lbs./ft. , corresponds approximately to dry air at 70F. and 29.92 in. Hg. the torque produced by a motor as it begins to turn from a standstill and accelerate. Sometimes called locked rotor torque.
3

TIP SPEED fan wheel velocity at a point corresponding to the

outside diameter of the wheel blades; normally expressed in feet per minute (circumference times RPM).

TORQUE a force which produces, or tends to produce, rotation;

commonly measured in ft.-lbs. or in.-lbs. A force of one pound applied to the handle of a crank, the center of which is displaced one foot from the center of the shaft, produces a torque of one ft.-lb. on the shaft if the force is provided perpendicular to, not along, the crank. Torque can be calculated by: Torque (ft. lbs.) = HP x 5250 RPM

STATIC BALANCE the mechanical balance of a rotating part or

assembly by adding weights to counter-balance gravitational rotating of the part without power driving it.

STATIC PRESSURE the static pressure for which a fan is to be

selected based on system calculations;
fan SP = SP outlet - SP inlet - VP inlet

TP

total pressure; the sum of velocity pressure plus static pressure.

TUBEAXIAL F AN axial fan without guide vanes.

Page 7

TUBULAR CENTRIFUGAL F AN

fan with a centrifugal impeller within a cylindrical housing discharging the gas in an axial direction.

VINYL ESTER

TURBULENT FLOW UNBALANCE

airflow in which true velocities at a given point vary erratically in speed and direction. the condition of a rotor in which its rotation results in centrifugal force being applied to the rotors supporting bearings.

a significant variation of polyester providing increased corrosion-resistance, strength, and flexibility, hence its suitability to the fabrication of FRP fan wheels. VISCOSITY the characteristic of all fluids to resist flow.

VOLT

a unit of electrical potential or pressure. 110 or 220 volts are normally found in the U.S. VP velocity pressure; the pressure or force of air in motion. The common equation based on standard air is: VP =

UNIFORM FLOW UNIT HEATER UTILITY SET

ready to run.

airflow in which velocities between any two given points remain fairly constant. factory-assembled unit designed to heat and circulate air. Types include steam, hot water, or gas fired. centrifugal fan designed as a packaged unit,

Velocity 4005

VP/SP W ATT

velocity pressure divided by static pressure; a single number reference used to define a fans point of operation. Each system curve has a unique VP/SP value. a unit of power. In electrical terms, the product of voltage and amperage. 746 watts are equal to one horsepower.

VANEAXIAL F AN

axial fan with either inlet or discharge guide vanes or both. Includes fixed-pitch, adjustable-pitch, and variable-pitch impellers. sharp-edged orifice.

W ET-BULB DEPRESSION

the difference between the drybulb and wet-bulb temperatures at the same location. temperature at which air is brought to saturation by evaporating a liquid into the air at the same temperature.

VENA CONTRACTA the smallest flow area for flow through a W ET-BULB TEMPERATURE VENTILATION VIBRATION
supplying and removing air by natural or mechanical means to and from any space. alternating mechanical motion of an elastic system, components of which are amplitude, frequency, and phase.

WG water gauge; see Inch of Water. WR2 the unit designation of fan wheel rotational inertia in lb.ft.2 , also known as WK2 .

YIELD STRENGTH

maximum stress to which a ductile material can be subjected before it physically distorts.

Fo r m 5 0 7 D J K